1.

1 Operating System : An Operating system (OS) is a software which acts as an interface

between the end user and computer hardware. Every computer must have at least one OS to run
other programs. An application like Chrome, MS Word, Games, etc needs some environment in
which it will run and perform its task. The OS helps you to communicate with the computer without
knowing how to speak the computer's language. It is not possible for the user to use any computer
or mobile device without having an operating system.
An operating system is software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices
such as disk drives and printers. Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System,
Windows Operating System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.

Figure 1.1: Operating System

Figure 1.2: Conceptual view of a computer system

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Program: Set of instruction is called program. A computer program is a collection of instructions
that performs a specific task when executed by a computer. Most computer devices require
programs to function properly. A computer program is usually written by a computer programmer
in a programming language.
Commands: A command is a set of data or a data item which meaning is predefined. A command
is a directive to a computer program acting as an interpreter of some kind to perform a specific task.
Instructions: Instruction is a set of command. Computer instructions are a set of machine language
instructions that a particular processor understands and executes. A computer performs tasks on the
basis of the instruction provided.
Software: Software is a set of programs. Software is a collection of programs that enable the user to
interact with a computer, its hardware, or perform tasks. Without software, most computers would
be useless. Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute
specific tasks.
Process: A process is a program during execution. A process is a program that is running on your
computer. This can be anything from a small background task, such as a spell-checker or system
events handler to a full-blown application like Internet Explorer or Microsoft Word. All processes
are composed of one or more threads.
Information: Information is data that has been processed in such a way as to be meaningful to the
person who receives it. It is anything that is communicated.
Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful values for the receiver.
Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following characteristics-
Timely − Information should be available when required.
Accuracy − Information should be accurate.
Completeness − Information should be complete.
Message: A message is a bit of data, which is sent by a sender, to a recipient. This is usually done
by copying the data around.

1.2 Program: Set of instruction is called program There are mainly two categories of programs i.e.
application programs and system programs.
Application program: An application program can be self-contained or a group of programs. The
program is a set of operations that runs the application for the user. Examples of applications
include word processors, database programs, web browsers, development tools, image editors and
communication platforms.
The requests for service and application communication systems used in an application by a
programmer is known as an application program interface (API).
System programs: The system programs are used to program the operating system software. While
application programs provide software that is used directly by the user, system programs provide
software that are used by other systems such as SaaS applications, computational science
applications etc.
The attributes of system programming are:
 Using system programming, a programmer can make assumptions about the hardware of the
system that the program runs on.

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  A low level programming language is used in system programming normally. This is so that
the programs can operate in low resource environments easily.
 Most system programs are created to have a low runtime overhead. These programs may
have small runtime library.
 Some parts of the system programs may be directly written in assembly language by the
programmers.
Application software is a program or group of programs designed for end users. Examples of an
application include a word processor, a spreadsheet, an accounting application, a web browser, an
email client, a media player, a file viewer, simulators, a console game or a photo editor.

The system programs are used to program the operating system software. While application
programs provide software that is used directly by the user, system programs provide software that
are used by other systems such as Software As A Service (SaaS) applications, computational
science applications etc.
System software is software designed to provide a platform for other software. Examples of system
software include operating systems like macOS, GNU/Linux , Android and Microsoft Windows,
computational science software, game engines, industrial automation, and software as a service
applications.

1.3 Database and Database Management System (DBMS)-

Database: Database is a systematic collection of data. Databases support storage and manipulation
of data. Databases make data management easy. Let's discuss few examples.
 An online telephone directory would definitely use database to store data pertaining to
people, phone numbers, other contact details, etc.
 Your electricity service provider is obviously using a database to manage billing , client
related issues, to handle fault data, etc.
Database Management System (DBMS): Database Management System (DBMS) is a collection
of programs which enables its users to access database, manipulate data, reporting / representation
of data . It also helps to control access to the database.
Database Management Systems are not a new concept and as such had been first implemented in
1960s. Charles Bachmen's Integrated Data Store (IDS) is said to be the first DBMS in history.

1.4 Computer hardware and software-

Computer hardware - Are physical parts/ intangible parts of a computer. eg Input devices, output
devices, central processing unit and storage devices
Computer software - also known as programs or applications. They are classified into two classes
namely - sytem software and application software
Liveware - is the computer user. Also kwon as orgware or the humanware. The user commands the
computer system to execute on instructions.
Utility program: A utility is a small program that provides an addition to the capabilities provided
by the operating system. Utility programs, commonly referred to as just "utilities," are software
programs that add functionality to your computer or help your computer perform better. These
include antivirus, backup, disk repair, file management, security, and networking programs. Utility
program is program designed to help to analyze, configure, optimize or maintain a computer. It is
used to support the computer infrastructure.

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 Firmware: firmware is a computer program that is "embedded" in a hardware device and is an
essential part of the hardware. It is sometimes called embedded software. An example is a
microcontroller, a part of the microprocessor that tells the microprocessor what actions to take.
Firmware is a software program or set of instructions programmed on a hardware device. It
provides the necessary instructions for how the device communicates with the other computer
hardware. Firmware is typically stored in the flash ROM of a hardware device.
Web browser, a browser is a software application used to locate, retrieve and display content on
the World Wide Web, including webpages, images, video and other files. As a client/server model,
the browser is the client run on a computer or mobile device that contacts the Web server and
requests information.
A web server is software and hardware that uses HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and other
protocols to respond to client requests made over the World Wide Web. The main job of a web
server is to display website content through storing, processing and delivering webpages to users.
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet
protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices.

1.5 Translator: A translator is a programming language processor that converts a computer

program from one language to another.
Compiler:
Compiler is a translator which is used to convert programs in high-level language to low-level
language. It translates the entire program and also reports the errors in source program encountered
during the translation.

Figure 1.3: Compiler

Interpreter:
Interpreter is a translator which is used to convert programs in high-level language to low-level
language. Interpreter translates line by line and reports the error once it encountered during the
translation process. It directly executes the operations specified in the source program when the
input is given by the user. It gives better error diagnostics than a compiler.

Figure 1.4: Interpreter

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Differences between compiler and interpreter

SI. Compiler Interpreter

No

1 Performs the translation of a program as a Performs statement by statement translation.

whole.

2 Execution is faster. Execution is slower.

3 Requires more memory as linking is Memory usage is efficient as no

needed for the generated intermediate intermediate object code is generated.
object code.

4 Debugging is hard as the error messages It stops translation when the first error is
are generated after scanning the entire met. Hence, debugging is easy.
program only.

5 Programming languages like C, C++ uses Programming languages like Python,

compilers. BASIC, and Ruby uses interpreters.

Assembler:
Assembler is a translator which is used to translate the assembly language code into machine
language code.

Figure 1.5: Assembler

1.6 Text editor: A text editor is a type of computer program that edits plain text (created and edited
by text editors). A text editor is used to edit plain text files. Notepad and WordPad - Microsoft
Windows included text editors. TextEdit - Apple computer text editor. Emacs - Text editor for all
platforms that is a very powerful text editor once you've learned all its commands and options. Rich
text (such as that created by word processors or desktop publishing software).

1.7 History of Operating system –

 Operating systems were first developed in the late 1950s to manage tape storage
 The General Motors Research Lab implemented the first OS in the early 1950s for their
IBM 701
 In the mid-1960s, operating systems started to use disks
 In the late 1960s, the first version of the Unix OS was developed
 The first OS built by Microsoft was DOS. It was built in 1981 by purchasing the 86-DOS
software from a Seattle company

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  The present-day popular OS Windows first came to existence in 1985 when a GUI was
created and paired with MS-DOS.
Operating system has been evolving through the years. Following Table shows the history of OS.

GENERATION YEAR ELECTRONIC DEVICE USED TYPES OF OS DEVICE

First 1945-55 Vaccum Tubes Plug Boards
Second 1955-65 Transistors Batch Systems
Third 1965-80 Integrated Circuits(IC) Multiprogramming
Fourth Since 1980 Large Scale Integration PC

1.8 Kernel and Shell:

Kernel: The kernel is the central component of a computer operating systems. The only job
performed by the kernel is to the manage the communication between the software and the
hardware. A Kernel is at the nucleus of a computer. It makes the communication between the
hardware and software possible. While the Kernel is the innermost part of an operating system, a
shell is the outermost one.

Figure 1.6: Kennel

Features of Kennel
 Low-level scheduling of processes
 Inter-process communication
 Process synchronization
 Context switching
Types of Kernels: There are many types of kernels that exists, but among them, the two most
popular kernels are:
1. Monolithic: A monolithic kernel is a single code or block of the program. It provides all the
required services offered by the operating system. It is a simplistic design which creates a
distinct communication layer between the hardware and software.
2. Microkernels: Microkernel manages all system resources. In this type of kernel, services are
implemented in different address space. The user services are stored in user address space,
and kernel services are stored under kernel address space. So, it helps to reduce the size of
both the kernel and operating system.
3. Hybrid Kernel: This Kernel is what we see most. Windows, Apple’s macOS. They are a mix
of Monolithic Kernel and Microkernel. It moves out drivers but keeps system services inside
the Kernel – similar to how drivers are loaded when Windows Starts the bootup process.

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 4. Nano Kernel: If you need to have a kernel, but its majority of function is set up outside, then
this comes into the picture.
5. Exo Kernel: This kernel only offers process protection and resource handling. However it is
mostly used when you are testing out an inhouse project, and you upgrade to a better Kernel
type.

Figure 1.7: Kernel Mode

Difference between User Mode and Kernel Mode:
A computer operates in two modes which are user mode and kernel mode. When the computer is
running application software, it is in user mode. After the application software request for hardware,
the computer enters kernel mode. The kernel is the core of the computer system.

User Mode vs Kernel Mode

User Mode is a restricted mode, which the Kernel Mode is the privileged mode, which the
application programs are executing and computer enters when accessing hardware
starts out. resources.
Modes
User Mode is considered as the slave mode Kernel mode is the system mode, master mode
or the restricted mode. or the privileged mode.
Address Space
In User mode, a process gets their own In Kernel Mode, processes get single address
address space. space.

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 Interruptions
In User Mode, if an interrupt occurs, only In Kernel Mode, if an interrupt occurs, the
one process fails. whole operating system might fail.
Restrictions
In user mode, there are restrictions to access
In kernel mode, both user programs and kernel
kernel programs. Cannot access them
programs can be accessed.
directly.

Shell: Shell is a user interface for access to an operating system's services. In general, operating
system shells use either a command-line interface (CLI) or graphical user interface (GUI),
depending on a computer's role and particular operation. The main difference between kernel and
shell is that the kernel is the core of the operating system that controls all the tasks of the system
while the shell is the interface that allows the users to communicate with the kernel. Unix is an
operating system. It is the interface between the user and the hardware.

Figure 1.8: Difference between Kernel and Shell

Shell Prompt:
The prompt, $, which is called command prompt, is issued by the shell. While the prompt is
displayed, you can type a command.
$date
Thu Aug 25 10:30:39 MST 2020
Shell Types: In UNIX there are two major types of shells:
 The Bourne shell. If you are using a Bourne-type shell, the default prompt is the $
character.

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  The C shell. If you are using a C-type shell, the default prompt is the % character.
There are again various subcategories for Bourne Shell which are listed as follows:
 Bourne shell ( sh)
 Korn shell ( ksh)
 Bourne Again shell ( bash)
 POSIX shell ( sh)
The different C-type shells follow:
 C shell ( csh)
 TENEX/TOPS C shell ( tcsh)