INTRODUCTION

The term.laser stands for right amplification by stimulated emission

of radiation. It is a device
that produces light beam with th; waves- all exactly in phase with one another,
i.e., ligtrris
An interference pattem can be obtained ty using beams rro- t*o ,upu.ut"
:"h*."."!
laser light is very nearly monochromatic and laser'beam"diverges
iurt a
hardry at all. A hot obiect ".
would have- to be at a temperature of 1030 K to achieve u. urr"".gy d;lilr-;f
order to understand how a raser operates, we must be familiar wiiii so-"
il;;;;;:;
involved in an atomic system.
.i ,r." i.rL pr.""rr*
shall ptesent a qualitative description ,""h ;;;;;;;
.We
before the principle of laser is discussed. "f
STTMULATED ABSORPTION/ SPONTANEOUS EMISSION AND
STIMULATED EMISSION
when light is incident on the atom, only trrose photons whose energy ftv matches
the energy
separation aE between two levels can be absorbed. This is known
is stimulated absorptiin
process. As a result of this absorption process atoms are raised
excited_states. A schematic diagram representing this stimurated
to higher l";;i ;il;;
absofotion"""rgy
p.i'i""" i"-rio.".,
in Fig. 5.1.

state

Fig.5.1. Schematic diagram af stimulated absarption of a phaton by an

atom.

159
 Fig.5.2. Schematic diagram exptaining the prccess of spontaneaus emissian of a photon by an
atom. The atom is initia y in the excitecl state E2-
'
In typicat cases an atom rbmain in an excited state only for about 10J s. If the atom is
initially in the excited state Eo it can drop to E, by emitting a photon of energy hv, as described
in Fig. 5.2. This process is known as spontaneous emission'

Fig.5,3, Schematlc diagram represents the prccess of stimulated emission.

the case of stimulated emission, an incoming photon of energy hv = Ez- E, is incident
Ir:r
on an atom which is in excited state E2 as in Fig. 5.3. The incoming photon increases the
porbability to revert the atom to its ground state thereby emit a second photon of energy hv.
The emitted photon will be exactly in phase with the incident photon. This process of speeding
up atomic transitions to lower levels is called stimulated emission.
Condition Necessary to Achieve Laser Action
1. There must be population inversion, i.e., an assembly of atom in which the majority are
in excited state. This, in fact is the fundamental principle involved in the operation of
laser,
2. The excited states must be metastable state. The states whose lifetime may be 10-3 s or
more instead of the usual 10{ s are called metastable.
3. The use of reflecting mirrors at the ends of the system so that emitted Photons must be
confined within the system long enough to allow them to stimulate further emission
from other excited atoms. In this case one end is made totally reflecting and the other
is slightly bansparent to allow the laser beam to escape'

OPTICAL PUMPING FOR POPULATION INVERSION

Optical pumping is one of the ways to produce population inversion. It is illustrated in Fig. 5.4.
An extemal light source is used some of whose photons have the right frequency to raise the
atoms to excited states and there is spontaneous decay into the desired metastable states. This
method is used in the ruby laser.

Fig- 5.4. The principle of laser.

The various processes involved to explain the principle of laser are as follows:
1. Atoms in ground state E1 are pumped to state E, by photons of hv' = Ez- Er.
2. Spontaneous emission of photons ol hv" = E, - Eu result transition to metastable
state E3.
3. In many atoms, the metastable states are occupied.
4. The incident photons hv = Eu- E, induce emission. The secondary photons induce
further transitions to produce an avalanche of coherent photons.

RELATION BETWEEN EINSTEIN'S A AND B COEFFICIENTS

Consider an assembly of atoms in thermal equilibrium at temperature T. Let \t rePresents the
energy density of radiation for frequency v and \, N, be the number of atoms per unit volume
per unit time in energy state 1 and 2 respectively at any instant. Assuming that the rate of
absorption of radiation o{ frequency v from state 1 to state 2 is proportional to the radiation
energy density ty.
The number of absorptions per unit volume per unit time = NrB12 V.
I4/here B, is the constant of proportionality which depends on the properties of states 1
and 2 and is called Ehsteirls coefficient for absorption of radiation.
The number of spontaneous emissions per unit volume per unit time is given by
NA'
where A, is called Einstein's coefficients of spontaneous emission of radiation.
The number of stimulated emission. per unit volume Per unit time is given by
NzBzrv.
Because it depends upon N; and y. When thermal equilibrium is reached
\BrzV= N2421 + N2B21V
NzAu
v = N,B"-N*" =lFE;
A^

[N'J "
According to Boltzman's distdbution law the number of atoms \ and N2 in energy states
Erand in thermal equilibrium at temperature T are given by
-E,
' N1 = N oe-E1lkr and N, = Noe E'lkr '
 \,Vhere No is the total number of atoms present and k is Boltzman's constant
N'
N1
= .-lr',-r',l,kr -.-tNrk'I
(Ez- Et= /rv, energy of photon emitted or absorbed)
\ = ,*1n
N,

rhus tf--l----l
(e,,
* = [frjl,","-H) ...(1)

According to Planck s law of radiation

9rhrt3
t' = -V-Fit-1
1,
...(2)

comparing equations (f) and (Z)

B\
h, = 1or Bu= B'
An 8td7v3
JBtt-c'
/ 8rih3
tu = (Brr)1r ...(3)

A- = (B-)&riIN3
c
z ...(4)

Equations (3) and (a) are Einsteinjs equations. Ar' Br, and B, are called Einstein's
coefficients since Br, = B, so, the probability of stimulated emission is same as that of induced
absorption.
Ruby Laser

Fig.5.5
 It has three energy level o{ population inversion and consists of three Parts:
1. A rod of ruby crystal (AlrO) as working substance'
2. The optical pumping system corsisting of a helical xenon discharge tube.
3. The resonant cavity.
In the rod of ruby crystal (AlrO.) some of the Al3* ions are replaced by chromium ions
(Cf) Vfhich are responsible for tlie r"ed colour. The lifetime of metastable state of Cr3* ion is
aboui 0.003s. The xenon flash lamp is used to excite Cr3+ ions to a level of higher energy from
which they fall to the metastable level by loosing energy to other ions in the crystal. Some of
the Cf* ions decay spontaneously and emitted photons are reflected back alrd forth between
the mirrored ends of the ruby rod, stimulating other excited Cr3* ions to radiate. A{ter few
microseconds we get a large pulse of moirochromatic coherent red light from the partly
transparent end of the rod. The length of the rod is an integral number of half wavelengths long
so that radiation trapped in it forms an optical standing wave- The induced emissions are
stimulated by these optical standing wave so that the waves are all in step with it.

Fi9.5.6. The Helium-neon laser.

Helium-neon Laser
Helium-neon laser consists of a narrow discharge tube filled with a mixture of about 7 parts
of helium and 1 part of neon at a low pressure (-1 mm of mercury). The discharge tube has
parallel mirrors at both ends, one of them partly transparent. The spacing of the mirrors is
equal to an integral number of half wavelengths of the laser light. l y'hen the electrodes are
connected to a source of high frequency alternating current an electric discharge is produced
in the gas. He and Ne atoms are excited to metastable states respectively 20.6'L and 20.66 eY
above iheir ground states due to collisions with electrons from the discharge. some of the
excited He aioms transfet their energy to ground state Ne atoms in collisions. An additional
0.05 eV energy is proVided by the kinetic energy of the atoms Thus with the help of He atoms
population inversion is achieved in the Ne atoms.
 The laser transition in Ne takes place from the metastable state at 20.65 ev to a'r excited
state at 18.70 eV. In this transition a photon o{ wavelength 632.8 nm is emittedz Another transition
due to spontaneous emission from excited state at 18.70 ev yields incoherent light. The remaining
excitation energy is lost in collision with the tube walls.
He-Ne laser can be operated continuously. While in the case of ruby laser, there is pulsed
excitation from the Xenon flash lamp. He-Ne laser is more directional and more monochromatic.
Semiconductor Laser
To get laser from semiconductor, semiconductor
diodes are used as a laser device.
The schematic diagram of semiconductor diode Conduclion Band
is shown in Fig. 5.7. At room temperature some of its
valence electlons have sufficient energy of thermal
motion to cross the energy gap and enter the
conduction band. Let the photon of energy greater
than the energy gap interact with the electrons, one of
the following two processes may occlu:
1. The electrons from valence band may be
++++.t+
excited to the conduction band.
2. An electron already in conduction band may _ -Ihe Val€nce€and _ _
be stimulated and the electron would drop to n-region Junciion p-region
the valence band emitting a fresh photon in
coherence with the stimulating photon. Fig.5.7
To get large number of photons in second process, the situation of populafion inversion
should be achieved. In semiconductor laser the pumping is done by an electrical battery across
the junction which goes on feeding electrons to the conduction band. The population inversion
is achieved by forward biasing the junction. After achieving population inveisiorL the photons
go on multiplying by repeated stimulated emission and a strong, intense monochromitic and
highly coherent beam of light is emitted from the semiconductor.

SOLVED EXAMPLES
1. A laserbeam h= 6000 A on earth is focussed by a lens (or minor) of diametut 2m on tn a
crater on the moon. The distance of the moon is 4 x 108 m. How big is the spot on the moon?
Neglect the e[fect of earth's atmosph e.
Sol. Angular spread
), 6x1O-7
dg= i = =3x10-,radian.
Z
Areal spread, i.e., arca of the spot on the moon
A= (D x dq2
= (4x108x3x10-7)2
= = 'J,.M x 70a m2.
1,4400 m2
2. A laser beam has a umtelength of 8 x 10-7 m and aperture s x 70-3 m. The laser beam is sent
to moon. The distance of the moon is 4 x 105 km from the eafih. Calculate:
@ the angular spread of the beam and
(ii) the areal spread when it reaches the moon:
 t 8 x10-7
sol. (i) dA=; = 1.6 x 16ra radian
(ir) Areal spread = (D d0)2
D = 4xfdkm=4x1dm
= (4 x 108 x 1.5 x 10{)2
= 4.096 x 10e m2.
3, The cohermce length. for sodium light is 2.945 x 7U2 m. The utaoelength of soilium light is
5890 A. Calcalate:
Q) The number of oscillations anresponding to tht cohermce length anil
(ii) Cohnmce time
lmgth L = 2.945 x 7tr2 rn.
C.ohermce
So1. (i) Number of oscillations in length L

n= L = z.gEsxto_1 =5x1d.
), 5890 x 10-"
L
(ii) Coherence time
C

_ 2.9rt5 x 1_0-2
= 9.82 x 10_rr s.
3x10d
4. A laser beam hrc a puter of 50 mw. It has tn aperturc of 5 x 704 m and it emits light of
waoelength 7200 A. nii beam is fucusseit with a lens of fucal lcngth 0.L m. Calculate the area
and the intensity of the image.

Sol. o, = I= iH# = 1.rr4 x loaradian.

Areal spread = @on,

= (f.4+ x 104 x 0.1)2 = 2.074 x 70-Io nC

- Power 50 x 1.0-3
' Areal spread 2.074x70-10
= 2.4L'L x 108 watts/m2.
Laser is Used for Scanning of Bar Code
The laser bar code scanner has a laser soutce and a detectol. The bar code is held in front of
the laser beam. The laser light is absorbed by the black lines of the bar code and is reflected
by the white lines, The reflected light reaches the detector which transforms it into an electrical
sigr,al which is translated into digital signal and get fed into the computer enabling viewing of
the information on the comput€r screeri.
Applications in Industry
Laser can be used to wel4 cut and drill metals perfectly
for industrial use. Laser welding is being performed
with efficient high power CO, laser beam. Advantages
are, low noise, dust fume and vibration levels, the ease
of starting, a cut in the middle of the work piece. Laser
leads to higher yields with superior product quality.
Diagram for beam focussing head design for laser
welding is shown in Fig. 5.8.
Laser in Environmental Study
Lidar is an acronym of laser IR Detection arld Ranging.
It is mainly used for weather forecasting and pollution
study. Pulses of laser are sent and radiation that is
scattered by various particles present in the atmosphere
Fig. 5.8. Schematic diagram for laser
are picked up by receiver (Fig. 5.9). welding.

Fig,5.9. Block diagram of a LIDAR system.

Laser in Military Activities

The extremely concentrated power of laser can be used {or destructive purposes. Laser beam
can be focussed from earth at a satellite or missile that is to be deskoyed. Thus, the laser may
be used as a portable battiefield device.
Laser as a Sensor Devi€e
Laser light has a well-defined phase, variety of applications are possible based on wave
modulation. These applications include sensing and measuring of various kinds of physical
parameters like temperature, mechanical pressure/ frequenry ald electrical current intensity
etc.
Laser in Printing
Using laser, we get high quality printing. The laser printer is based on the pritrciple of Xero-
graphy. The laser printer is a page printer. A page or picture is composed at a time.
Laser in Medicine and Surgery
Laser has found application not only in diagnosis but also in surgery and other form of treatment
of diseases. Figure 5.10 shows the schematic diagram of laser beam delivery system used in
surgery with CO, lasers. Laser is being effectively used in the areas of gynaecology, tensile
removal, drilling and cutting bone tissuet stopping of gastric bleeding, removal of birth mark
etc. It is possible to treat coronary artery blockages using lasers. The optical fibres hansmitting
the laser beam can remove the plaque, a fatty material built up on the arterial wall, blocking
the blood flow. The laser beam induces changes in cells which is applicable in genetic engineering.
In root tanal therapy, the dentist can insert the laser fibre into the root canals, remove the
infected tissue by vaporising it and destroy totally and effectively the bacteda causing the
bfection. This can be completed with less pain and destruction to healt\ parts of the tooth of
the patient.

Fig. 5.11. Schematic diagram for CO, laser beam delivery system in surgery