*

*
\\

\
i+'
r+"
-
:tr
fr el
d,
}
i-,
- COMPTON EFFEcT

compton effect: when a beatn of ntonochromatic radiation such as

-t
pr
(r,
re

f.l'
- X.rays,y_rayselc.,ofhigtlfrequettcyisallowedtofallonafinescalte,rlr,the
viz'
+t
',-'-
beam is scattered. into two cornponents

+\ (i)
One component ltaving the same frequency
the urcidettt radiation, so called unmodified
(or) wavei'length as that of
radiation' and

{ (ii) The orher componeni having lower frequen"l @r) higher wavelength
*-;;i conryared to irrcident radiation' so called
modified radiatian'

++i ffict of scattering is called Compton effect'

Tlris

t-;j 'hv'

**t
:. -.i
o7 ,
Compton shift: When a photon of energy ,coll,idl.: Y"\::.::::.::
the photon gives ir-s en?rg! t.o the
Jrir"'lri"ot-rrrt,
scattered photon will have lesser energy bil
the
erectron. Therefore
lower frequency (or) higher
gains
of"icident photon' Since the electron
t+'1
F"!
wavelengtlt compared to the wavelength
energy, it recoils with the velocity
'v',"This-
1{eit
is called Compton effect and
n, iniSt in wavelength is callecl Compton shift'
h" we get (i) Unmodified radiations
Thus as a result of compton scattering,
I\.I (ii) Modified radiations and (iii) a recoil electron'
t{-.,
F...5 ., THEORY OF COMPTON EFFECT
+.r and an electron rs
In Cam-nton scaltering lhe collision between a photon
-+ of
,i;;;r;."';";n'uy" opptvrig ilrc taws of 'ont'*!tio' 'n"8t
tlrc expression for clmpton wavelength
is
*d *o*'

-:
{-b
 Assumptions
l. The collision occurs between the photon and an electron in the scattering
material.
2. The electron is free and is at rest before collision with the incident photon.
With these assunlptions let us consider a photon of energy 'ftv' colliding
Y
with an electron at rest.
During the collision process, a part
of energy is given to the electron, which
'intum increases the kinetic energy of the
electron and hence it recoils at an angle E -hr, ,p -h v/c

of Q as shown in Fig' i' ' The scattered lncitlcnt

0^
photon moves witir arr energy hv' -L-r--
lrrrutuil

(lesser than ltv), at an angle 0 with Elcctron ot

-*5 respect to the original direction. -

rtsl

+"r
q*, Let us find the energy and
.o-qct

J
momentum components before and
;o_ U after collision process.
*:=
Energy betore collision
=. ta (i) Energy of the incident photon = lzv.
si\
f -, J
(ii) EnergY of the electron at rest - ffioc
)

-]+.- where rro is the rest mass energy of the electron.

lr:
#.
F--, J
.'. Total Energy before Collisiort =hv*tttoc2 ... (1)

q# Energy ofter collision

*- (i) Energy of the scatterrid photcn = hv '
Ft J

?h,
C-^
(ii) of the recoil electron = nrc"
Energy
2

where rr is the mass of the electron moving with velocity 'v'

3t iJ .'. Total energ! after collkion =hv'+mi .,. (2)
,=tdI
We know according to the law of conservation of energy
:

Total energy before collision = Total energy after collision

.'. Equation (1) = Equation (2)

... (3)
 F
ft
;-.

-
-ir
Before Collision :
X-Component of Momentum
(i) X-component momentum
of the incident photon:C=li.V
-
at rest = 0 -h

(ii) X-component momentum of the electron

hv
monrenturrt before Collision
;. Total X-contportent of c ... (4)

X- component of Momentum After Collision

of
(i) X-comPonent momcntum
the scattered photon can be calculated Scrttcred :
from, Fig. 4.5.
Mr
E
photm
-t{
- ,

In AOAB cos0= lr"i, M,V .1

I E -hv P -hv/c
L

o ,{
l.')' A
the scattered Photon =; cos u iL,
fl
-My
of
(ii) X-component momentum D
-{
the recoil electron can be calculated .h
*-
r{

from Fig. 4.5.

-i;
M.\
In AOBC cosQ=-: Fis. 4.5 -.it
X-comPonent momentum
of

the recoil electron = ntv coS 0

J}
r{
after collision =+cos0+'"to'.1(5)
Total x-component of nromentunr
i'

;, i.

Weknowaccorrlingtothelawofconservationofmomentum
Totalmomentumbeforecollision=Totalmomentumaftercollision
(5)
.'. Equation (4; = Equation
...(6)

Y-component of Momentum
Before Collision
(i) Y- component momentum of the incident photon = 00
(ii) Y- component momentum of the electron at rest'=
' ;. Total Y'Component'of n:tomentwn before
collisiort =0 ... (7)
 Y-Component of momentum After collision

(i) From Fig. 4.5, In AOAE- sin 0

_v_
hv'/c

nt momentum of the scattered photon ,C:=

4 sin 0
-
.:r__;ii:r ';F-
_.

_M

s
(ii) From fig 4'5, ln L OCD. sin Q =;i
*
... Y-Component rnomentum of the recoil electron = nv sin 0

Total Y-Component of momerilum after collisiort =L!' 0 - nrv sinQ (8)

'in
ti According to the law of conservation of momeirium,
Equation (7) = Equation (B)

:..(9)

*}'r
-
il

From equation (6), we can write

\
=5r ltv'
hv ---- cos 0 = mv cosO
\

CC
(or) nzcv cos Q - /r (v - v 'cos 0) .,. (i0)

From equation (9) we can write

rrcv sin 0= /z v ' sin 0 ... (11)

Squaring and adding Equation (10) and (11) we get

*2 r2r'1.or'q + sin2q; =lt2 lv2 -2v v'cos 0 + (v') 01 + tt2 1v ')2 sin2 o
"o'2
Since .or2 q + sin2q =,1 and h'(u')' 1cos20 + sin201 = 42 (v')2 we get

-2v v'coso+(v)21
:
... (t2)
(or) n2 12 u2 =t 1v2
'
From equation (3), we can ivrite
,nr'=rnol'+h(v-v')
Squaring on both sidcs we $et

*'14 =nriro +2ltntscz (v -v') + h2lvT -2v v '+ (v')'I .'. (13)

Subtracting eqr-ration (12) from equation (13), we get

'i
l
!
J
,l
I

J)
 r.
fr
F
c_
c-r
formula for the variation of
From the theory of relativitY, the relativistic :
is given by
-^^^ ..,irh
llldJJ wlLll
thp
!!rv rrplncitv of the electron

ttlg
e+

2 .2^2

Sqtrrring, wc get,,,'=ffi (or)

"'=ffi
I t-z
c) i
I

(o0 o,' 1rz - 12) = ,rf;r2 ...(1s)

equation (14) multiplY it
In order to make this equation, similar to LHS of
by ,' o, both sides'
,,, (16)
.'. We get

can write
Equating equations (16) and (14), we
-L
*f;ra =o,?sro +2hmn/ (u -v')-2lr2v v'(1 -cos
I
0)
t.,,,,
-r
(or) Ztt*0 c|(v - v ') =2 hzv v ' (1 - cos 0)
bR
Yi!.!.,n
-r
&tri
E\Y!4
g{#,
(n') d'=+(l-cos0) :rir
vv' moc-
:*-
W
t"rr; *
1
("')
t=ft,,t':::'
-cos0) -r
i-i=;J(1 ir

Multiplying both sides by 'c', we get ,--

-L =+(t - cos 0 )
, ... (17) :I
,
V. V ltgC-
;-:.-.

Since X=9andl,i
V
=fV, *. can write equation (17) as
r:--
I
'.:..
1.,- )" =+(l
froc
- cos 0)
='l
I
t

....(18)
€;-.
t @r) Change in wwelength
€:
€i\r
* g-\r
. _:'

+,
\_

*r
-+,
Equation (18) represents the shift in wavelength, i.e., Compton Shifi which is
independent of the incident radiation as well as the nature of the icatte.lng ,rbrt.n.e.
-t I

:' Thus the slift in wavelength (or) Compton Shift purely depends on the angle

+
-h of scattering.

SPECIAL CA5E5
(i) lVhen 0 = 0;
1 Pro b9o^^s)

#
* Case cos 0 = 1

Equation (18) becomes

T}\ This implies that at 0 = 0 the scattering is absent and the
.outcoming radiatiott
Tth has tlri sajme'wiat,e[ength (or)'frequency os thnt of the incident radiation. Thus we
Ti-t) .:'"^l^ ^^^1, tD^l-* jt6.
otl !!ta t.rlrrt! ^^ u^ rLiLEaC f;- +,i
,'l'7 jI

#\
6(t LILc vuLPuL u,) Pi.UN, ii\eJei

Case (ii) When 0= 90o; cos 0 = 0

F\ h
.', Equation (18) becomes A)" =moc
t*\
E{...
Substituting the values of h, mo and c we gir

t'd 6.625x lo-34

t*5
F\. ,d
A)"=
(9.11x 10-3r) 1: x to8;
(or)

*., This wavelength is called COMPTON WAVBLENGTH, which has a good

T't agreement with the experimental results. [Refer \g. a.1]

*t Case (iii) When 0 =180o,c0s0=-1

* Equation (18) becomes al. = *l- (- 1)l

tno (
T.b
ht 2h
(or) An'=-
moc
hr\
Substituting the values of h, mo and c we get

+
-
H
F\L
Thusfor0=180o the shift in wavelength is found to be maxitnum.fRefer
fi1. 4.7)

i1. . .'. When the angle of scattering (0) varies from 0 to 180", the wavelength
shifts from )" to ).+s
^-5
H
ffioc

).i-I.
 F
s

-r

\i

:-
The shift in wavelength (or) difference in wavelength (A)") of the two scattered
beams is found to increase with respect to the increase in scattering angle.

lr Rt 0=90o, rhe A)" is found to be 0.0236 =0.02424, which has good

i!
tiagreement with the theoretical results. Hence this wavelength ,s called
ilComptdn wavelength and the shift in wavelength is called compton shift.

l' i.
:.P DUAL NATURS OF RADIATION (LI6HT) AND
,, MAfiER (PARTTCLES) - MATTER WAVE5
,,de-Broglie concePt ol Duol Noture
i:
The universe is made of Radiation (light) and matter (particles). The light
,,exhibits the dual nature (i.e.,) it can behaves both as a wave (Interference, diffraction
l,phenomenon) and as a
particle (Compton effect, photo-electric effect etc).
the nature loves symmetr), in 1924 Louis de-Broglie suggested that
' Since (or) any other maierial particle must exhibit wave like properties in
an electron
:,addition to particle nature. 'CnDV;h I

The waves associated with annruteiial particle are called as Matter waYes
,
'de-Broglie Wovelength
Frorh the theory of light, considering a photon as a paflicle the total energy of
the photon is given bY E = ntcz. ... ( 1)
.-
where m -) Mass of the Pariicle
3$
c + VelocitY of light
:.d-,-
Considering the photon as a wave, the total energy is given by E=hv... (2)

where lr + Planck's constant -.

:\r\
v -+ FrequencY of radiation
...(3)
.t\<\
From equations.(i) and (2) we can write E=mcL=ltv
We know momentum = mass x velocity 'f\\
P=tnc +
e\i\ -{

+
#-L
rc-
, __l
h\
!*1"
)_{r
H
I_aI
q
Hr
+\
h
fl-...
S*
#It
l\rr
e\
+i
ffi
ffi
trr
ffi
"}b
t'b
":t
.
 --

J
-[

=r
_.1
J I

J-f
JJ
J
SCHRODINGER WAVtr EQUATION *t
basic pnnntion
"p lrqcin
Schrodinger equation is'one of the equations in quantu- 1:,chani-cs like =J
Newton's law of motion. Newton's law of motion is applied -or.tl1
to
:r,.l
*^;-r"api. particles, whereas Schrodinger_ equation is used -for
both
3l
macroscoii. unO microscopic particles. Schrodinger derived a mathematical
equation to describe the dual nature of matter waves. There are two ,+
foims of
+*
Schrodirr..ger wave equation: i r'''
(i) Time clependent wave equation, and
(ii) irfime independent w'ave equation' ': L
He derived rh;';;*flons by incu.poruti,n^s th3 following two assumotions:
(i) de Broglie wavelength can be applied for the matte, ior.. forluny fleld of
forie, BaseJon this, the total energy of a particle can be written ais' ri -!

TE=P.E.+K,E. i fi

or E=V +(1/2) m,2 ! I

or tr-V+ Y
' t)e o2
(10'24)
zm -
s,incep=ntv.
rn=l?.m(E_Vlll/2
\- '/r (10.25)
wavelength,
de Broglie wavelength, t
fnutt from
^hri
/v-
I_
-p rt

i,: hrr
n=:;m:iw
i-
tz*@:iffz i
qo'26)

(D The wave function associated with the material particles, with function
rtifie'I can be written as, Ii
-

YO'r-i*
,,r^ (10.27)
'1
- ZtT v, where
Lro is the amplitude of the wave at the point (x, y, z) and @

il;'ir*r.n.y or radiation' l

indcnp.ndent wave equafion

wave-eqqgqiqlqd'"vith a moving palticle-
e.,.ai[o-ntg.x,J.,and z coordi.nate axes at any
$ equation.of a progressive wave with wave velocitY tl

#
The diiferential wave
canbewgitten.intermsofCartesiancoordinatesas,
'l (10.28)

. dx" dy'
+5
e-J I
The solqlion fpr Eq. (10'28) is Eq' (10'2'l)
Differentiating Eq. (10'27) w'r't' / twice' we
get'

$
JL'
/t,
'.)
Y =-
d-v _
iaryoe-irt =

*'ry
- i(D\y

(10.2e)

#
.i+-.*-: : '
&2
Substituting the value of d2 tyld? in Eq'
(10'28)' we get'
d'rlt,d'rlr,d'V---a?%v
++.*n{4=- 2
(10.30)

*+'
*1.5
dn dz u
(2nvY
"ut 2T

s
q'\
where
.-\

a = Znv.

,
tY-*tY*t+--on':'
d*T ' dy, dzz
, u"
u

H-( Substittiting the wave velocity u ( = vl')' we

get'

ktr\ a'y*ty-*ty __olluul o (10.31)

dx2 dy' dz' ,vv'
Eq. (10.26) in Eq' (10'31)' we get'
Substitluting the value of wavelength from

F"-r*5 i d'ry ty
-dF - 7'v' *' dz2= -4t
ty- x zm(E - n\y (10.32)

ffi
Ett
| lr'

Y : a2 * 0'. * i:-
772-
But av-iy' oz'
ffi-r 2
where V it the Laplacian operator'
ffi'a Equation (10.32) can be written as'

ffi
k\ts
^ 8It2
V'rlr=*:f m@- nV ( 10.33)

2m
ffite
ffi
h2
h
where h----)r

ffi
ffif -The . : nr /1O 14)
Equation (10.33) or (10'34) is known
2m

schrodinger time equation.

as Schrodinl
( 10.34)

H-F :

ffiF
m. I.
r
ffi'
t*' ,
;.
ti eI.
er
t
i
.:

r.
i
(ii) Schrddinger time dependent wave equation F
For a free particle, the potential energy V = A. J
F.
Therefore, Eq, (10.34) becomes ;
.,.}

";.
t'r
(ru.35) ft
(-

Fro m the
we get,
s chro crin ger,.. o nl':r:^{r:.:r,;:,ti ari ng Eq. ( 1 0. 27 ) w.r.t. /, c-
g_!1
iav-_ iLrvy
;
fl
dt
=_ ).
.l
t\
l

L.{
i
Substituting E = hv, we get,
9v = "-t24 V__,iV
.E
,--i
,.J
drh
fl *J
J
drY
Ev= il
idt i,:

EW = ih-=f
dr4r
(10.36) .J
From Schrodinger time independent F.q. (10.34)
2m- _ 2m-
J
,,

-) _0, + ,, Fvv _ 0 -.1

v-ty
Substituting the value of Ery, we get,
t
t
.,'
'J
'

Y',y* *,or+-+vv=o
'h'drh2 (10:37)
$
Multiplying Eq. (10.37) by t'lZ*, we ger,
lt y:v+ihdv -ttv=O
2m ' d[ '
iri
:
- i'l
i.
'l
.L
:I
..{
or
+')

- :-Y'ry
/"tn
+ vv = rn
4v
dt
(10:,38)
lj
ii J
-li. V2 + v- H (10)39)
'.:I
i:l
2m
where f/ is an operator known as Hamiltonian operator. Therefore,

where EV - in x
HV
- Ertr
dY is an energy operaror.
dr
(10.40)
il
Equations (10.38) or (10.40) is called as Schrodinger tinte dependent wave
{
ecluatiott. i.
Physicat significance of y
(i) lt relates the particles and wave nature of matter statistically.
(ii) It is a eomplex quantity and hence we cannot measure it.
i$
(iii) Its square is a measure of the probability of finding the particle at a
partiCular position. rt cannor prEdlct-the eract locatlon of the p4fi.9@
 .iv) The wave function is a complex quantity, whereas the probability is a
{ Ieal and posirive quantity. Therefore, a term callcd position probability
density P(r, r) is introduced. It is defined as the product of the wave
;, functjon ty and its comp.lex conju gate as,
.\:
) P (r, /) = | ry (r, t)12
:
t'(v) [he probability of finding the particle within a volume dr is
l-, i

j
P = ! tyt2dr
where dT - dx dy dz.
,(vi) ff a particle is definitely present, then its probability value is one,
ii' +6
' i.e. F = ltyfar= 1

(vii) In optics, the amount of light in terms of its intensity

is- expressed
rather than its amplitude, since intensity is a measurable physical
nrrqntif,-r
quclfftfLJ. Qiteiler.!rr tho
LrrIlrrrqlrJt vYUYV frrrrnfinn
Lalv urarre lulivlivil rrr hec nn
Y iico iiv nhvqicel
iriiJuivqi
meaning-
whereas the probability density has physical meaning.

APPLICATION OF SCHRODINGtrR EQUATION

TO A PARTICLE IN A BOX
placed inside a one dimensional box of
ln rlg.

;(

oLx
Fig. Particle in a box
Assume that the particle is freely moving inside the box. The motion of the
particle is restricted by the wails of the box. The particle is bouncing back and
forth between the walls of the box at x = 0 and x = L.For a particle moving
freely at the bottom of the potential well. the potential energy is very lo',v. Since
the potential energy is very low, it is assumed to be zero between .x = 0 and
,-_ f
-L - t),
The potential energy of the particle at the walls is infinite. Due to the infinite
la- Ie escape-fiom-r
box, i.e. -cannor
V= 0, for 0<x<L
:'.

,l
 r
=t
+
J
.:j
_J
V=*, for 0>x2L
o+
i

since the particle cannot be present outside the box, its wave functiori i S ZEIO, ,l
i.e.
hylz = O, for 0> x> L
i
I
,
,.

)J
- .,{
i.e. V=0 at x=0and,x-L
Inside the potential well, since the electron is present, the wave function is
hylz* 0, for 0<xcL I:J
i
The Schrodinger one-dimensional time-independent equation is , .t'1
d2ttt 'it
2nt -
*a +;;(E - .
v)ty - 0 i (i0.4j1)
:
l:,. *f^l
For a freely moving particle, v = 0. Therefore, Eq, (10.41) can be written as,
".''q'
$[
{Y- +!rv = s (t0.4)
. (Lr- h- :
Taking - .-d
!s- f
:_.

tf (10.4,3)
n,,
i,.3
Equation (JA.42) can be
'l;.

i
d
{Y * Fw= o
w1i:ttoo,OS.,.

.:
:-il tt*
(r0.44) I
dYt '
-il

Equation (10.44) is similar to the equation of harmonic motion and the "'i,. d
solution of the above equation is written as,
V=Asin kx+Bcos lcx (10.4s)
''
,'d
',,.,.Il,,l
where A is the amplitude of the electron's wave function. ,1. . . t::'.-1,

Substituting the boundary conditions, we get ,i r. <?

when .tr:0, V=0, i.e. B=0 -,i,.i',
;i
--, !
Equation (10.45) can be wrirten as,
' .,ir
J
V=Asinks l:.
,.-
when x = L, V,e 0, i.e" 0= A sin kL l.-

^r
Since the electron is present inside the, box, A * A. -
;.'-:.: -.

Therefore, we can write, sin kL 0 b, --;::'r1:r

= t

But, sin kL - O, oniy when kL - nn h:

._
ol' , lTlT
( 10.1.6) ^>
L 6il
Squaring Eq. (10.46) and crrmpnlipg with the value of l?, we get, -: L
il
2m^ n'n' ' .,__.:-,r
:L,
_k
+l
l1
-
t a. s 1

L* =.
,r'ft' v--'r12
"tt t - "2m ='llj{
.:.r: .t t::.:j;:'.\
 n' jT' h2 n'h' 10.47)
or ttn-
D Y--=*"-'__-- (
.,
t "Brr'rn 8mt
The wlve equation
nfix (10'48)
V, =A stn
L
present inside the box, then
Letuspnd4.valueofA.Ifanelectronisdefinitely
i:
,i:
.J' -

Lr\
(10'4e)
i.e. ri
I
iIo\u/ i,+',in'(9dir=I
\-rl, {l
L
i
J - \ 'q-1*
L) =
*,i,-,2( a
A'
:r.
0
L
- cos( 2nnx I 1
i
J
d,r - A'
a

OI ;t

( 1 0.s0)
Thereiore,

Substituting the value of A in Eq. (10'48), we get'

The *ave function of the electron,
, E SrIr nTcx
{ V,-- lZ
;. -
Equdtion (t0.47) rePresents an
energy level for each value of
n. The wave function of this
energy ievel is given in Eq'
tt
ft
(10.51). Therefore, the Particle
in the box can have discrete
values of energy. These
t*.t . energies are quantised. Note
that the Particle cannot have
zaro lenergy. The normalised
*tr wave functions Vr Vz Md Vt
given by Eq. (i0.51) is Plotted
* 10.7. The
in Fig. values
*b e-
?b
*--1,
is called as eigen value and the
corresponding wave function
,is known as eigen function'
Fig. 10.7 A Plot of normalized wave
of electron
functions

i(Eh5
 E L" tt o"' \'ttc _s *rq

*l-BH
----
C'Orponrnts of Transmission Etectron microscope (TEM)
The essential components of a Transmission Electron microscope are
(i) Electron Gun
(ii) $pecimen holder
t
(iii) Electron !enses
(condenser lens, objective lens, intermediate lens, projector lens)
(iv) Vacuum pumps and
(v) Viewing screen or photographic plate

(i)Electron Gun
,Hair pin' filarnent. which when heated emit5 elections due.rtCI
Electron Gun consists of a Tungsten 'Hair Pin' filarnent, : c. ::i;j

with respectlto the.rest of thei

thermionic emission. This filament is given a negative potential of -100kv ',::'i

microscope. These electrons are then accelerated via a controlling

electrooe,tnrou$n a
Wehnelt electrode'mrouEn t n"':]i
nole 'lI}

the anode. Thus lre electron gun produces a practically collimated

stream of'electr{ns or,lenersy roo

KeV, the electron beam of size 50 to 100pm, which diverges

over a smail solid angle oh tn" e"5it from the
,::
i li
gun.

The electrons coming out of the electron gun are focussed by

a set of condenser 'lenses to pr

the desired illumination of the specimen.

,specimen holder
The specimen is held in a special holder'

The specimen is introduced through an air lock,

---a
because the interior of the microscope must be
highty evacuatecl. The holder is fltted to a stage -S
which can be moved or tilted so that the
specimen can be studied at different orientations'
Magnetic elect on lens
The specimen is usually surrounded by a cooled
Fi1.4.26
onticontamination shield.
 I'
, :l'

Cplics
.,: i

Electron lenrs I

' All the l&ses used in erectron microscope are of

magnetic type.
inese are eri€ergised by highry stabirized
by direct current sources.
The(Fig' 4.26) shows an erectron rens
of magnetic type cailed magnetic Condenser
':ns. A non-.lniforri Lens rI
magnetic fleld along the axis of a short solenoid w)
v'4
::haves tixe B tensl rn such a fierd, the erectron
beam undergoes
:
ni
oi. convergence depending on the potentiar gradient Ob.lect -----+
"'ergence n(' at
: i.ferent poinf! of ttie magnetic
fierd. An erectron passing through '
Obiective
coir>v%
;:ts non uniform magnetic field gets focussecl.
The focal length of the

f aonetic lenslcan be varied by changing the current in the coir. lntermediate

The thfee imnnrlant
1"!u'l-' :rr!iJUi iqiii dofonrc
uEiiiuiu sucn ^-L^-:^-, abgrration,
^,,^r. as spngricai tmaflc
romatic aberration and astigmatism considered Proiector
in lens design are
ated to thE shape of the magnetic fierd i.e.,
variation of magnetic
ld with the,position jn the rens pore piece.
By designing a proper
'e piece, sp|lericalabenation
and chromatic aberration are corrected.
srng a comp.ensating magnetic
field Astigmatism is correcled.
ii orking
The essdntial parts of TEM are shown in (Fig. Final lmage
) Z0O0O0X
An electr:sn beajm emitted from the electron gun
is made to pass Fig. _
Transmission electron
':ugh the c"entre .r:f the
doughnut magnet shaped eleclromagnet microscope
lens. rhe electrons ser ounu"t"o t"o ;;; ;
f)F =1-'":':"'er
lt Ghould be noted that the electrons will
;;;. beam which ;,;-" the object ro be
f*b=",1"0 be transmitted more through the transparent part of
throush comparativery denser porrions. rhe transmtted
f:.t' ;:l:"j::11':::::: l:]:" .n.,,0.'
thus have'1he likgness of the object transversed
by it. The second
beam
electromagnet called objective tens
-s:s lhe elbctron 'beam to diverge to produce enlarged image
; of the object. The third electromagnet
ed proiector lens focuses the electron
beam from part of the enlarged image on the fluorescent
screen
still greater magnification. The image obtained
on the fluorescent screen is made visible by

-*:::ing
g the intensity of the magnetic fields produced by

a::
r-J
IEE

fr>.r has been used in the investigation of atomic

r_- J structures and structure of crystals in detail
is us.ed in biology, medicine, physics, chemistry
Ir\t t has been used in the study of structure of textile
and metallurgy and so on.
flbres puriflcation of lubricating oils, composition
I--5 ot paper and paints surfaces of metals and piastics

f- ln biology it is used to study virus the disease causing

agent. The bacterial are shown in grea

+5
f4
 .-
J
ETL
D
SqxtN,N,l'NG ELEC RON MICtr{OSCOPE (SEM) t-
>
.KngU', inyentgd s-qannug eiectrro-O..nicr.osa,op.e,.in."t935. ,The '.diagr'ammat'ic
representation of a scanning electron m-icroscope is shown in Fig. 4'9- It isr >
-r
uB.ed to prgduce. a three dirnensional image of a spQeimen of any size and a
thic,kness. The olectrons produced by the, hot filaialent are accelerated b1i >
eieotrie, an(i:,magetrc fields. The emerging ele,ctrons witlt a spot size of nearlr' i
!
I0 nrn is made, to incident on a cond.ucting sample undet study. If 'the sEpple.:
is non cong.u.qting a thin layer of 5-50 thick g$d or 4qy other, metal rrf i
coatin-g is made and then the sampJe is,used, for,,study. A scanning coil deflegts'
the eleclron beam, so that the sample is scanned by point by point. The t-a
electroqs striking on the,g-appleproduces second4ry electrons. The number'orf' Q.
>
seeondalyrieieetrons, produ0ed:'d,gpe upon the.:geornetr.y and other'propertigsr
of the samples. The seconclary elecrron$ are collected by a positively chargecl !-r
elccti:qn del6.etor, which,'aceeleratcs thc elccfibn's to'very rhigh energyi in thc .J
or'(tref of, ?*,

1,0,keV, Then th€. eieefrons ar€,rnade,tol..1trike'4,',scintillat-or. The sc-htil-ater -a

!
I
produces a large number, of photons:: These photons are mader"to;fall on a a
I
photornr:ltinlie1 rube. The photomultiplier tube converts the elee*eiai-into a
-l
r>
r=l
higlilV arnplified electric sigrql. This amplified electric signal is passed'into a -r
_ -t
cathode ray fuo*e, t rough'tvhich 'the irnage of the scanned surface is seen. d
!
^'
a-l
1
_ra
i] ( Magnetic tens
v-\,
a
b a
Ii !-a
[, ,<
Sample C
il (10 nm spot) ra
.lectron t,
H etector
t,
-d
E -it
-l
m
Video
amplilier 3-<
'r
U
E Fig... ScanningelectroR microsrope <
tfi U
The resolution of the image.is about l0r0 nm:-The-magnification of the
F
H
,{ microscope can be continuously varied from l5 to i05 times, The magnification 5-i
E
depends upon the ratio of the variable current .I, in the scanning coil to the
E

G current f. in the deflection coil of the cathode ray tube. ,-i

(iL I i(-i ii\r}l \'\'rll rr
il !r!!l lillll I iil 1ll{- "rr
!

6
t -
, 1 +a
t !
,"\
i
:
<
( .rz
i
( v
i
-l
ffi -i
\,
l

ffi