I

)
Photoelectric effect
:
Photoerectric effect: when right 'high'enough
of frequency falls on a clean
nretal surface, electrons are emitted
I interactions within the metar. This
from thJ surface by photon-electron
phenomenon is known ds the
effect and the emitted erectrons are - photoelectric
eailed photoelectrons;
I
to Einsteiu, the photoelect'on effect
in a given rnetal should obey the
i:::#.g
hy-KEMax+O
where hy is the photon energy, KEuo,
is the maxirnum photoerectron
and o is the minimum energy energy
needed for an erectron to leave
the metal.
Experimental observafion o/. the photoelectron
effect: An evacuated tube
contains tr.vo electrodes connected 'variable
to a source of voltage, with the
metal plate whose surface is irradiatecl as the
anode.

'lecfrons

Fig: Ex.peritnentsl ob.ren.atiott o,f rlte pltoroe ien.ic e{fect

some of the photoelectrons tirat emerge

from this surface have enough
to reach the cathode despite its negative energy
polarity ancl they constitute the
current' The slower photoelectrons measure
are repelled before they get to
when the voltage is increased to a the cathode.
certain value vs ofthe orcler of
no inore photoelectrons arrive, as ".rrr.rt seve,ial volts,
inclicated by th. cropping t, zero. Tlris
extinction voltage corresponcls to
the minimum photoeiectron kJnetic
After all, light waves carry energy and energ!.
some of the energy absorbed
rnetal may somehow concentrate by the
orr individuai eiectrons and repair
kinetic energy. as their
I tt I
'\,
I But three experimental'findings show
possible. These three observation
that that no such simple explanaricn
is
are_

1. There is no time interval between

the arrival of light at a metal surface
2. A bright light yierds more photoelectrons
than.adim one \^ the
vrrv of Lrrs isame
frequency but the erectron energies remain
a ,rr. ***''r
1 The higher frequency of the light,
the more energy the photoelectrons
have Blue light results in faster
electrons than red light.
The three experimental observations
listed above follow directly from
Einstein's hypothesis:

1" Electromagnetic waves energy

is concentrated in photons and
out, there shourd be deray in the not spread
emission of photoerectrons.
2' All photons of frequency y have the
same energy. So, changing
intensity of a monochromatic light the
beam *,ill change the nurnber
photoelectrons but not their energies. of
3' The higher the fi'equency y,thegreater
the photon energy hy andso
more energy the photoelectrons the
have.
ll'orkfunction:lIn the photoelectric effect,
there must be a minimum energlr o
for an electron tJ .r.up. from a particular
metai surface)r-,r. else electrons
pour out all the tirne' This energy would
is called the wo,k fu,ction of the
rnetal.
I

unstable nucteic is called radioactive

:::::::r_!::::':o,e.ur;ak;1b decay. rt

our
ffi;. ;;#1,".'.1; j' # ;"&r
)i:!'il,",*'] :l:'lo*
(= - or /o) that .radiou.,ir.
thev ,oon,un.ourrf w
J..ry at a rate {-}r ttu.L..r.
R is proportionar ro ,t. nu-u.;;r:;;;;;;'";1il.::::
that rneans-

d.N
dt
where' )" s the clisintegration constant
or deca' lonstant ar:tj the rninus
needed because 1y' clecrease with sign is
increasing r.
Fronr e.qrtation no (I)

dN
Nm -ldt.., ... ... ...(rD
t.

; And each side can noW be integrated-

t |rN
dN
I/
Jrun---1
[t
1dt
Jo

t =+lnN-ln No:-At

t +ln--1
N
/Vo
-)S

.'. IU - Noe-At (Rudioactive decay)

0
Activity: The activity. of a radioaetive sampleis the average 'number of nuclei
braking up per second. It is measured in becquerels (Bq).

nxamfte; Iodine: 128 decays ty shorting out beta particles. If 40 nuclei

break up every second, then 40 beta particles are shot out every secondl

Hatf ltfe: A sample of Iodine - 128 decays. As time goes on, Ihere are fewer
and fewer unstable nuclei left to decay, so the activity gets less and less. After
25 minutes, the activity is half of its original value. After angther 25 minutes,
the activity has halved again and so on. That means Iodine - 128 has a hplF life
of 25 minutes.
LnZ 0.693
Half-life,ltrrr
------ ----) - ^lz= --11 = - 1
t 1;

///f
,-/
rnd the decay constant of radionuclide whose half life is 5 hours.
0.693
Solution: 1 - T:-r
t2

- 0;693
*7: (5 x 3600)s

:.A= 3.BS x L0-ss-1 (A'ns.)

T

) Alpha decay: When a nucleus undergoes alpha decay, it transforms to a

I different nuclide by emitting an alpha pbrticle ( a helium nucleus

example : when uranium
'ltrn.
'32U undergoes
far
llte 1.
alpha deiay, it transforms to thorium

I ,,;r(J +"rgtrh + \ru,

I Beta decay: An excited nucleus can ornit a photon. The photons emitted by a

I nuclei is called Gamma decay.

$[sr. -+ |,ls, * r
I
Or,
flZs, * r -+ flZsr.
Here, * denotes a excited nuclear state and y denotes a gammaray photo o.
oz
"7

Sub*rna Srakar
Rupa
Lecturg'r
#rp*rtment CIf CS{
Sy[het lnternationai
Llniversiiy