3RT03_Layout(055_072) 10/2/02 1:51 PM Page 55

C
3
H A P T E R

Electronic Radiation
Sources

George C. Wheeler, Materials and Processes

Consultants, Schenectady, New York
3RT03_Layout(055_072) 10/2/02 1:51 PM Page 56
PART 1. Physical Principles
Radiation of an unknown type and origin
was discovered in the year 1895 by
Wilhelm Roentgen. Dubbed X-rays by
their discoverer, they were soon found to
be a form of electromagnetic radiation
with extremely short wavelengths. The
X-radiation is called ionizing because X-ray
absorption kicks out an electron from an
atom of absorption material, creating an
ion. The production of ionizing radiation
is well covered in the literature.1-5
Technological advances in image
processing, flash radiography, real time
radiography, microfocus and metal
ceramic tubes have sustained interest in
the electronic production of ionizing
radiation. The versatility of an electronic
source is difficult for an isotopic source to
match, even for specific applications. The
advent of solid state components has
overcome many of the objections related
to size, weight and durability of electronic
sources.
This chapter discusses the basic
physics, construction and application of
electronic sources. The emphasis will be
on industrial X-ray machines widely used
in radiography and radiology. Where
special details are significant to particular
applications, these are discussed in the
appropriate chapters of this volume.
Conservation of Energy
Electromagnetic theory had long
predicted that a charged particle
undergoing deceleration would emit
radiation. This theory can be used to
qualitatively explain the continuous
portion of a typical X-ray spectrum (see
Fig. 1). Although a complete study of the
continuous spectrum requires modern
physics, an understanding of its basic
principles may be gained by considering
just one of the fundamental laws of
physics, the conservation of energy. This
law states that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed, although it is
possible to change it from one form to
another.
In the case of X-rays, fast moving
charged particles, usually electrons, strike
a target material and are slowed or
stopped. In some specialized applications,
high energy electrons are accelerated
radially by a strong magnetic field,
producing X-rays without the use of a
56 Radiographic Testing
target. Much of the energy of the
electrons’ motion, called kinetic energy, is
transformed into heat energy as the
stream strikes the target. In fact, except
for the case of very high energy
generators, almost all of the electrons’
kinetic energy (more than 97 percent) is
converted into heat; disposal of this
thermal energy is an important design
consideration.
Bremsstrahlung
A small portion of the energy will also be
given off as packets of electromagnetic
energy, called photons. The X-ray photons
can have energies ranging from a few
thousand volts to a maximum determined
by the original kinetic energy of the
electron and how rapidly the electron is
decelerated by interaction with a target
atom nucleus. This process produces the
continuous portion of the X-ray spectrum
and is known by the German term
Bremsstrahlung for braking radiation.
Energies of the electrons (and the
X-rays) are frequently given in terms of
kiloelectronvolt (keV) or megaelectronvolt
(MeV). The meaning of this unit becomes
clear if the charged electron is considered.
Under the influence of a voltage
difference (technically called a potential
difference), charged particles will
experience a force that causes them to
accelerate. A negatively charged particle,
such as an electron, will move from a
place of low voltage (–) to a place of
higher voltage (+) and increase its kinetic
FIGURE 1. Typical X-ray spectrum.
Characteristic peaks
Relative intensity
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Wavelength (µm)
3RT03_Layout(055_072) 10/2/02 1:51 PM Page 57
energy as it does so. Thus the unit
kiloelectronvolt (keV) corresponds to the
amount of kinetic energy that an electron
would gain while moving between two
points that differ in voltage by 1 kV.
Similarly, an electron would gain 1 MeV
of kinetic energy while moving between
two points that differ by 1 MV. The points
of differing voltage are called the cathode
(–) and the anode (+) and will be discussed
later in this section.
Characteristic X-Rays
In addition to the bremsstrahlung there
are several characteristic peaks in a typical
X-ray spectrum. These intensity spikes are
caused by interaction between the
impinging stream of high speed electrons
and the electrons that are bound tightly
to the atomic nuclei of the target
material. If an atom is visualized as a
planetary system, with the nucleus of
protons and neutrons at the center of the
system and with the electrons moving in
orbits around the nucleus (see Fig. 2), the
law of energy conservation can again be
applied to describe the origin of
characteristic radiation.
Modern physics predicts that these
orbital electrons near the nucleus will
have very well defined energies, with
electrons in different orbits having
FIGURE 2. Planetary model of atomic
structure.
E
N
P
N P
N The second concept is X-ray absorption,
P
E
E
Legend
E = electron
N = neutron
P = proton
different energy levels. If a vacancy in a
particular level were created by knocking
an electron from its orbit, an electron
from a higher energy level would, after a
time, drop down to fill the void. To do
this, it would have to lose (emit) energy.
Because the energy levels of an atom are
well specified, the exact amount of energy
lost by an electron making such a
transition would also be discrete.
According to the law of conservation of
energy, the energy is not really lost but
given off as electromagnetic radiation in
the form of an X-ray photon. Because
each atomic element has its own distinct
set of energy levels, the line spectrum
produced in such a manner is
characteristic of the particular target
material. Interest in these characteristic
X-rays lies in their application to X-ray
diffraction and other analytical
applications. By a combination of
filtration and signal processing,
characteristic X-rays can be used to
produce a nearly monoenergetic beam of
X-rays.
Thermionic Emission
Two final concepts are of interest in this
brief treatment of the basic physics of
X-ray production. The first process,
thermionic emission, provides the
electrons that are to be accelerated to
high speeds by the voltage difference
between the cathode and anode of an
X-ray source.
When metal (in this case the X-ray
tube filament) is heated to incandesence,
a small portion of the free electrons are
actually able to escape the surface of the
material. Without an accelerating voltage,
the electrons would form a cloudy space
charge around the filament. Under the
influence of a potential difference,
however, the electrons are quickly
accelerated toward the anode of the tube.
Absorption
discussed in greater detail in the chapter
on radiation and particle physics. As
X-rays pass into or through a material,
they are absorbed, or attenuated, in a
manner that depends on the energy of the
X-radiation and on the density of the
material. In equation form, the intensity I
as a function of thickness has a standard
exponential form:
(1) I = Io e – µ x
where I is the intensity after passing
through the material; x is the thickness of
Electronic Radiation Sources 57
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the absorbing material; Io is the initial

intensity; and µ is the linear absorption
coefficient (characteristic of the material
for a particular X-ray energy range). The
importance of absorption in selection of
materials for tube construction, beam
filtration and shielding are discussed
below.

58 Radiographic Testing
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PART 2. Basic Generator Construction

A conventional X-ray generator consists of
three main components: (1) X-ray tube,
(2) high voltage source and (3) control
equipment. Although each of the major
components are examined in some detail,
it should be remembered that all
conventional units will have similar
construction.
X-Ray Tubes
Early X-ray tubes used gas filled tubes and
a cold cathode from which electrons were
freed by positive ion bombardment.
Modern tubes used in radiography are of
the high vacuum variety, allowing for
reduction in size, extended tube life and
more stable operation.
Electrons are supplied by thermionic
emission from the filament. The
accelerating potential and the tube
current can then be varied independently,
with the exception that, at low
accelerating voltages, tube current is
affected by the space charge that
accumulates around the cathode.
envelope and have been replaced in most
industrial applications with the more
durable metal ceramic tubes.
The vacuum envelope of the metal
ceramic tubes consists of a metal cylinder
capped on both ends with ceramic disks,
usually composed of aluminum oxide.
These ceramic insulators are designed to
allow for more effective use of the
insulation characteristics of both the
ceramic and the high tension grease used
in sealing connections between the high
FIGURE 3. Glass X-ray tube.
Glass envelope
Target mounting
Focusing cup structure
Target
Filament

Envelope
Envelopes for X-ray tubes are usually glass
or a combination of metal and ceramic
(Figs. 3 and 4). Glass envelope tubes,
although still in common use, are far
more susceptible to thermal and
mechanical shock than the metal ceramic

FIGURE 4. Metal ceramic X-ray tube.

Metal envelope
Ceramic disk insulator

Filament Target
mounting mounting
structure structure

Filament Target

Electronic Radiation Sources 59

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voltage source and the tube. This design
allows for reduction in the size of the tube
housing, especially important for higher
energy units.
Cathode
The cathode includes the tungsten
filament that provides the thermal
electrons for acceleration. The filament is
usually powered by alternating current
(50 to 60 Hz) from a separately controlled
transformer, although in some units the
filament current is fixed or automatically
controlled to maintain a constant tube
current. Normally, filament currents range
from 1 to 10 A. The tube current, passing
between the cathode and anode by means
of the high speed electrons, ranges from
less than 300 µA for microfocus units to
over 20 mA for conventional industrial
radiographic units.
Beam Focusing
At times the filament is located in a recess
in the cathode called a focusing cup. This
surrounds the emerging beam of electrons
with an electric field that repels the beam
away from the cup wall and into a more
localized form. The importance of a well
defined beam of electrons arises from the
fact that the sharpness or unsharpness of
an image depends on the focal spot size
(Fig. 5 and the chapter on radiographic
FIGURE 5. Illustration of geometric unsharpness.
F the lower energy electrons produced
D
Object
Discontinuity
t
Image
Ug Ug
Legend
D = distance from focal spot to target
F = focal spot size
t = thickness of test object
Ug = geometric unsharpness
60 Radiographic Testing
principles). The relationship for geometric
unsharpness Ug is:
F F⋅t
(2) Ug = =
D D
t
where geometric unsharpness Ug is a
measure of the penumbra of the focal
spot, F is the focal spot size, D is the
distance from the target (focal spot to the
source surface of the object) and t is the
thickness of the object plus its distance to
the image plane.
In accordance with Eq. 2, geometric
unsharpness Ug increases directly as the
focal spot size increases. Because the
electron beam originates at the filament,
reduction of the filament size might seem
to solve geometrical unsharpness by
reducing the beam size but this approach
is limited by the durability of the
filament.
One alternative, called line focusing, is
to project the virtually rectangular beam
produced by the filament onto a target
angled with respect to the beam (about
21 degrees). By masking all of the X-ray
beam except that emitted toward one
side, the useful X-ray beam appears to
issue from a focal spot with about equal
lateral dimensions (Fig. 6). In practice,
this technique allows production of units
with effective focal sizes in the range of
1.0 to 3.0 mm (0.04 to 0.12 in.).
By use of a deep focusing cup,
advantage can also be taken of the screen
effect (Fig. 7). This refers to the removal of
during that portion of the alternating
current cycle where the potential
difference between cathode and anode is
significantly less than maximum. In
practice this improvement is not without
FIGURE 6. Diagram of line focusing setup.
Electron
beam
size
Effective Actual focal size
focal size
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cost to the output of the unit. A loss of Anode

about 25 percent is experienced in units
As mentioned previously, heat is the
with high screen effect. This can be
major form of energy produced as the
compensated for, in part, with higher
electrons strike the target. Uncontrolled,
filament current although this current
this heat would quickly cause the surface
adversely affects the lifetime of the
of the target to erode, which in turn
filament. An alternate technique of
reduces the definition of the focal spot. In
removing low energy components of the
addition, the vaporized target material
electron beam is found in the discussion
reduces the high vacuum of the tube and
on constant potential units.
leads to premature failure due to
If still further focus of the beam is
conduction within the tube. To avoid
desired, as in microfocus radiography and
overheating of the target, the anode to
some analytical applications, additional
which it is attached is composed of a
techniques may be used: (1) conversion of
material with high thermal conductivity,
the conventional diode arrangement of
such as copper. If the cooling demands are
cathode and anode into a triode
relatively low, as for a low energy unit or
arrangement, including a focusing
intermittent use, cooling is often
electrode or grid, and (2) electrostatic or
accomplished by means of a conductor
magnetic deflection systems.
that passes through the tube end for
For the triode arrangement used widely
connection to the high voltage source;
in the microfocus industry, a negative bias
this allows for radiation of heat into an
of up to –150 V is applied to the third
oil or gas reservoir surrounding the tube.
element of the tube to further focus the
Although such a design is not the most
beam and remove lower energy
efficient, the weight of such a tube is
components. This configuration allows a
minimal because pumps and heat
reduction of beam size, producing focal
exchangers are absent.
spots at least as small as 10 µm (4 ×
For higher energy units in continuous
10–4 in.) and a consequent drop in tube
use, it is usually necessary to cool the
current.
anode by injecting coolant directly into it.
In the case of electrostatic deflection,
This is accomplished by hollow
even more elements are included within
construction of the anode conductor.
the envelope whereas a magnetic
Another way of alleviating the problem
deflection system is external to the tube.
of localized heating of the target is with a
These types of deflection systems have an
rotating anode in which the target, a
additional advantage in that the beam
tungsten disk, is driven as shown in
may also be deflected to various areas of
Fig. 8. This allows the tube current to be
the target for added service life. Units that
increased by as much as ten times the
incorporate their own vacuum systems
value for a stationary target. The focal
usually allow for replacement of both
spot on such units can be reduced to less
filament and target components. These
types, though formerly limited to
analytical and research units, are available
off the shelf as standard microfocus and FIGURE 8. Rotating anode.
analytical units.

X-ray beam
FIGURE 7. Graph of screen effect.

Kilovolt peak
Tube current (relative scale)

Electron beam
High screen effect

Low screen effect

0 0.5 1.0

Time (half cycles)

Electronic Radiation Sources 61

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than 1 mm (0.04 in.) for short exposure
times, which is of value in medical as well
as some specialized industrial
applications, such as high speed imaging.
Target
In radiographic applications, the target is
usually tungsten and is bonded to the
copper anode; however, analytical units
use several other target materials to take
advantage of the characteristic X-rays
produced. Some of these materials include
copper, iron and cobalt.
The orientation of the target with
respect to the electron beam strongly
influences the size and shape of the focal
spot. Orientations from 0 degrees to
30 degrees are used for various
applications. For example, zero is the
angle used for panoramic units. An angle
of 20 degrees is commonly selected for
directional units because, in this case, the
distribution of X-rays is predominantly in
a direction perpendicular to the tube axis.
This is shown graphically in Fig. 9. The
actual maximum of intensity occurs at
+12 degrees. For radiography of objects
whose lateral dimensions are less than
half the focus-to-film distance (objects
that subtend an angle of less than
30 degrees) the variation seldom matters.
Another cause for intensity variation is
the electron beam itself. A cross section of
the electron beam from the filament
would resemble Fig. 10a, with relative
FIGURE 9. X-ray distribution graph.
20 degrees
Angle –20 –13 –10 0 10 13
(degrees)
Intensity 31 70 80 100 104 105
(percent)
62 Radiographic Testing
beam intensity also shown. Figure 10b
shows a similar representation for a
microfocus beam. The beam distribution
in Fig. 10b is said to be gaussian (bell
shaped) because of the shape of the
intensity curve. Such a beam profile is
required when it is necessary to define
very closely spaced objects, such as
microcircuitry components.
Hood
Addition of a hood to the anode provides
the two fold function of (1) eliminating a
portion of the X-ray beam outside the
central cone of radiation and
(2) electrically shielding the insulating
portions of the envelope (glass or ceramic)
from charge buildup due to electrons
scattered from the tungsten target or
released by the photoelectric effect (see
Fig. 11).
Removing the unused radiation directly
at the anode reduces the amount of
radiation shielding that must be provided
externally or incorporated into the tube
housing. The hood, normally constructed
of copper, may have materials with high
atomic numbers, such as tungsten,
incorporated to increase absorption. The
electrical shielding function of the hood
FIGURE 10. Electron beam distributions: (a) conventional
beam; (b) microfocus beam.
(a)
Electron beam intensity
(relative scale)
0 0.5 1.0
Distance across target
(b)
Electron beam intensity
(relative scale)
20
0 0.5 1.0
95
Distance across target
3RT03_Layout(055_072) 10/2/02 1:51 PM Page 63

may be improved by the addition of a Tank Head

beryllium window over the X-ray port. A
For a tank head, the housing itself
window 3 or 4 mm (0.1 or 0.2 in.) in
structurally protects the tube, contains the
thickness will stop electrons with
coolant and forms the structural support
negligible effect on the overall X-ray
for the tube insert, electrical connections,
beam.
fittings, pumps, thermal and high voltage
overload sensors and radiation shielding
Rod Anode contained in the head. For a tank unit,
The rod anode (sometimes referred to as the tube head also houses the high
an oxtail) is another adaptation of the voltage and filament transformers. If the
anode. This type of tube arrangement unit has separate components, the tube
requires special circuit considerations that head will also provide for connection to
allow the anode to be grounded. This the high voltage source.
tube, developed for use through small
openings, has been partially replaced by
the metal ceramic tube, which can have a
diameter of less than 50 mm (2 in.) and
High Voltage Sources
tube head diameter as small as 75 mm From line voltages in the range of 100 to
(3 in.). The target of such an end grounded 460 V, the high tension circuitry supplies
tube can be cooled by circulating water in potential differences to the tube from
direct contact with the anode. Beam 5 kV to as much as 420 kV for the larger
focusing is often required for longer tubes. industrial radiographic units. Several
standard circuit designs are used for
various applications. A portable tank unit
Coolant typically uses one of the designs shown in
With the exception of the end grounded Fig. 12.
configurations and units designed for low These circuits are all self-rectified; the
energy output (less than 50 kV), the tube X-ray tube itself limits the flow of
insert is surrounded by an insulating electrons to one direction in the circuit.
coolant and encased in a housing called When the anode is at negative potential
the tube head.
The coolant may be highly dielectric
gas or oil. If oil is used, simple convection
may be sufficient for lower output units. FIGURE 12. Standard high voltage circuit designs for portable
For larger units, an oil circulating pump tank-type units: (a) cathode grounded; (b) center grounded;
may be combined with a heat exchanger (c) anode grounded.
either internal or external to the tube
head. (a)
For units using a fixed amount of oil in
the tube and a circulating pump to
circulate it within the tube head, an oil
resistant bellows is incorporated to allow mA
for expansion and contraction of the oil.
Because of the compressibility of
insulating gases, this is not required for
gas filled heads but a pressure gage is
normally included to monitor possible
(b)
loss of coolant insulation.

FIGURE 11. Hooded anode tube.

mA

Anode hood
Cathode

(c)

mA

Beryllium
window

Electronic Radiation Sources 63

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with respect to the cathode, no tube unit time. This system is widely used in
current flows. medical applications but is used less than
One drawback of the self-rectified constant potential units in industrial
system is the possibility of tube backfire. applications.
If the target or anode overheats, reverse Greinacker Circuit. As can be seen from
conduction can occur during the negative the output waveform, the greinacker
half cycle. This type of unit is normally circuit is of the constant potential type.
used for tubes producing X-rays in the Basically a variation of the villard circuit,
range of 50 to 300 kV peak and tube
currents from 2 to 8 mA.
With the addition of capacitors and
FIGURE 14. Graetz grounded anode circuit:
diode rectifiers, the transformer is
(a) circuit; (b) waveform.
normally placed in a tank separate from
the head. The additional elements allow (a)
the current to be rectified by means of
valve tubes or solid state diodes and to be To filament
transformer
filtered and smoothed to provide a more
nearly constant accelerating voltage.
Several popular grounded circuits are
shown in Figs. 13 to 15.
Villard Circuit. An extension of the half
wave system, the villard circuit allows To high
production of accelerating potentials of voltage
control
twice the transformer peak voltage.
Capacitors are charged during one half of
the cycle and discharged when current
passes through the tube, augmenting the
voltage produced by the transformer.
(b)
Graetz Circuit. The full wave circuit, or
graetz circuit allows use of both halves of X-ray tube
the alternating current cycle with a
Voltage

substantial increase in tube output per

Rectified
FIGURE 13. Villard grounded anode circuit: alterations
(a) circuit; (b) waveform. Time

(a)
To filament transformer

FIGURE 15. Greinacker grounded anode

circuit: (a) circuit; (b) waveform.
(a)
To filament transformer

To high
voltage
control

To high voltage control

(b) (b)
X-ray tube X-ray tube
Voltage

Voltage

Transformer
Transformer
Time
Time

64 Radiographic Testing
3RT03_Layout(055_072) 10/2/02 1:51 PM Page 65
in which capacitors are charged during
both halves of the cycle, the voltage is not
only doubled but remains near maximum
value throughout the cycle. This gives
enhanced high energy output and
eliminates the electrical stress placed on
the tube and insulation. Enhanced tube
life, as well as about 30 percent reduction
in radiographic exposure times, are the
results.
A common misconception is that
constant potential units provide a beam
of constant energy X-rays. Although the
electron beam is nearly monoenergetic,
the X-rays are produced during random
deceleration processes that give the
statistical energy distribution shown in
Fig. 1. The absence of low energy
electrons reduces the quantity of low
energy X-rays but does not eliminate
them.
Cathode Grounded Circuit
The main advantage of the cathode
grounded configuration is that it allows
the filament transformer to be external to
the tank, because the cathode is at ground
potential and does not require isolation.
The tube head can be reduced in size and
weight and is often gas filled to further
decrease weight.
Center Grounded Circuit
Both center grounded and anode
grounded units require isolated filament
transformers that must be insulated
adequately. For the center grounded unit,
this is justified by the reduction of the
high tension transformer insulation. The
transformer needs to supply only one half
of the potential difference to each
electrode, rather than having either the
cathode or anode held at ground potential
and supplying the entire accelerating
voltage to the other electrode.
In the range of 200 to 420 kV peak
with beam currents up to 15 mA, center
grounded systems can be made smaller
than comparable end grounded units.
Anode Grounded Circuit
For the anode or end grounded system,
the advantage lies in the specialized use of
the rod anode tube or metal ceramic tube
for access through small openings. As
mentioned earlier, cooling of the target is
also simplified. This type of unit is
normally used for tubes producing X-rays
in the range of 30 to 200 kV.
Alternative Circuit Designs
A technique for improving tube output
that can be used with any of the above
circuits including those in tank units, is
the use of a higher frequency waveform to
power the high tension transformer.
Although this requires additional
electronic circuitry or a motor generator,
the core of the high tension transformer
can be reduced in size because of
increased reactance at higher frequencies.
The smaller transformer can be an
advantage in portable or mobile units.
Also, if filtering is to be done, the
variation or ripple of the output voltage
can be reduced even further.
A variation of this technique is to use
three phase input power with the high
tension transformer. Commonly used in
medical X-ray generators, this technique
is used by several industrial manufacturers
as well.
Another approach is to use an output
waveform other than the standard sine
wave. Approximate square wave outputs,
in conjunction with both phase inversion
circuitry and a high frequency
transformer, can provide accelerating
potentials with extremely low ripple
characteristics. Such units are available for
industrial applications.
High Tension Connections
Also important for conventional high
voltage sources is the connection of the
high tension transformer to the tube. For
tank units this is not a major
consideration, because the transformer
can be connected directly to the tube
electrodes. However, for units with
separate components, insulation and
connection of leads (which may carry
voltages in excess of 200 kV) are
important considerations. The high
tension cables themselves are shielded to
provide protection against electrical
shock. Cables used at lower energies are
relatively flexible but as the amount of
insulation is increased, the flexibility
decreases and sharp bends during
installation should be avoided.
The cables are inserted into
terminations usually made of phenolic
(thermosetting plastic) or ceramics and
are sealed against air by use of insulating
epoxy materials called potting compound.
Figure 16 shows the phenolic termination,
used primarily with glass and lower
energy metal ceramic tubes.
These connectors are larger than the
ceramic terminations used primarily with
higher energy metal ceramic tubes. Both
styles use high dielectric grease to seal out
air at joining surfaces. Because of the
tendency for the long male-to-female
connections to trap air and substantially
reduce the insulation capabilities of the
grease, these joints are normally rated at
about one tenth their theoretical values,
or at about 10 kV per 10 mm (0.4 in.).
The linear dimensions of such a
termination must be correspondingly
Electronic Radiation Sources 65
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increased. At the transformer tank, this

size increase is not so important but at the
tube head the increase in size and weight
can make the unit very cumbersome and
bulky. For a 400 kV tube head, 200 kV is
applied to each electrode. This requires a
termination of 180 to 200 mm (7 or 8 in.)
in length at each end of the tube for
proper insulation.
A ceramic insulator can make full use
of the dielectric strength of the insulating
grease by providing rigid, flat mating
surfaces that exclude air from the joint.
This allows for a substantial decrease in
the length of the joint. This design has
been incorporated into tubes used by
several equipment manufacturers for units
up to 420 kV.
As stated above, a transformer is used
to provide the potential difference for
conventional X-ray units. As the
accelerating voltages are increased toward
1 MeV, standard transformer and
insulation technologies become
inadequate. Higher energy X-ray
generators are needed.

FIGURE 16. High voltage transformer terminations:

(a) phenolic connection; (b) ceramic connection.
(a)
Connector to tube
Air space

Connector to
high tension
generator

(b)
Air space

Connector to
high tension Connector to tube
generator

66 Radiographic Testing
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PART 3. Megavolt Radiography6
Resonant transformer X-ray machines
were developed in the late 1930s to
provide X-ray energies above 500 keV. The
technology of high voltage X-radiography
is well documented.5-21
Resonating the high voltage circuit to
the frequency of the alternating current
power supply obviates an iron transformer
core. In addition, insulating the high
voltage sections with
dichlorodifluoromethane (refrigerant-12)
or sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) obviates
transformer oil. These changes permit a
large reduction in the size and weight of
the machines, making them much more
practical.
The resonant transformer X-ray
machines, similar to Fig. 17, consist of an
operating console, 180 cycles per second
alternating current motor generator set,
motor controller, heat exchanger and a
large steel tank. An air core transformer is
secured to the base of the steel tank by
insulating glass rods. A multisection X-ray
tube is mounted coaxially with the
transformer stack. A heated filament
provides the free electrons in the tube and
each section of the multisectional tube is
connected to an appropriate tap on the
transformer. Acceleration of the electrons
through the tube is accomplished by
uniform voltage distribution throughout
the length of the tube. The electrons
strike a water cooled tungsten target at
the end of the tube, thereby generating
X-rays.
Most X-rays are available in the
forward direction but opening ports
around the lead collimator makes it
FIGURE 17. Resotron, 2 MeV.
possible to extract a 360 degree
circumferential beam from the machine.
The focal spot size is typically as large as
10 mm (0.4 in.) in diameter in the
transmitted direction. The apparent size
of the target will depend on the angle
that is measured from the flat plane of the
target. The radiation output from these
machines is about 25 mGy·s–1
(150 rad·min–1) when measured at 1.0 m
(39 in.) from the target.
These machines are very durable, many
having been in service for over 30 years
and one having been in daily use for over
60 years.
Electrostatic Generators
Van de graaff X-ray machines (Fig. 18)
operate on the principle illustrated in
Fig. 19. The van de graaff electrostatic
generator shown in Fig. 18 has undergone
some changes since its origin in the early
1930s. However, the basic principles of
operation presented in Fig. 19 remain the
same. The machine consists of a control
console and a metal tank that houses
power supplies, drive motors, an insulated
charging belt, a generator column, high
voltage terminals and electrical
connections. An accelerator tube, which is
highly evacuated, extends through the
generator column. This metal tank is
pressurized with nitrogen, carbon dioxide
and sulfur hexafluoride to about 2.6 MPa
(375 lbf·in.–2) to prevent high voltage
FIGURE 18. Van de graaff 2.5 MeV
electrostatic generator.
Electronic Radiation Sources 67
3RT03_Layout(055_072) 10/2/02 1:51 PM Page 68
arcing. Within the tank, electron sprayers
deposit electrons onto a moving belt that
carries them to a terminal shell. Some of
these electrons are emitted into the
accelerator tube as beam current through
a direct connection to the filament. The
filament, when properly heated, emits
electrons that are replaced from the
terminal shell. The electrons flow through
the accelerator tube at an energy
determined by the terminal shell voltage.
A target is located at the end of the
accelerator tube. This design results in a
direct current, constant potential X-ray
machine. Constant potential machines
made in the 1990s are in the 2.5 MeV
range, have a 2.5 mm (0.1 in.) target and
produce about 28.3 mGy·s–1 at 1 m
(170 rad·min–1 at 40 in.).
FIGURE 19. Operation of electrostatic generator.
D except that, instead of wire, the secondary
E electrons for many thousand revolutions.
C The doughnut tube is usually made of
B
F FIGURE 20. Betatron, 25 MeV.
A G
Legend
A. Electric charge is sprayed on belt.
B. Belt carries charge to terminal.
C. Charge transferred from belt to terminal establishes lower voltage.
D. Compressed nitrogen insulates terminal from accelerator shell.
E. Heated cathode provides electrically charged particles.
F. Charged particles escape via vacuum tube.
G. Potential difference between terminal and lower end accelerates particles.
H. Particle beam bombards targets to make X-rays.
68 Radiographic Testing
Betatrons
The first successful betatron was built in
1941. It produced 2.3 MeV X-rays and had
an X-ray output equivalent to 1 g of
radium. Later, machines producing X-ray
energies up to 300 MeV or more were
built, though the most common
radiographic machines operated at
24 MeV.
To accelerate electrons to high speed,
the betatron (Fig. 20) uses the magnetic
induction effect used in a transformer.
The primary winding in a transformer is
connected to an alternating current
voltage source that establishes a varying
flux in an iron core. The secondary
winding on this core has induced in it a
voltage equal to the product of (1) the
number of turns in the secondary
winding and (2) the flux time rate of
change. The resulting electric current is
made up of the free electrons present in
the wire. The betatron (as shown in
Fig. 21) is essentially such a transformer
is a hollow circular tube. This tube, called
a doughnut, is used to contain the
porcelain and is coated on the inside with
a conductive layer of palladium
connected to a ground. The doughnut is
placed between the poles of an
electromagnet that produces a pulsating
3RT03_Layout(055_072) 9/6/02 3:15 PM Page 69
field. Electrons injected into the tube as
the magnetic field increases will be
accelerated in a circular path. The force
acting on the particles is proportional to
the rate of change of flux and the
magnitude of the field. Because the
electrons circle the orbit many times
before striking the target, there is a large
amount of energy gain. For example, in a
24 MeV betatron, the electrons circle the
orbit about 350 000 times, traveling a
distance of 418 km (260 mi). The average
voltage gain per turn at the orbit is about
70 V, which gives about 24 MeV. As the
electrons reach maximum energy, they are
deflected by an electrical pulse and caused
to spiral outward until they strike the
target. Betatrons are equipped with
platinum wire targets with dimensions of
0.13 × 0.25 mm (0.005 × 0.010 in.) and
have a radiation output of 25 mGy·s–1
(150 rad·min–1) when measured at 1 m
(40 in.) from the target.
FIGURE 21. Diagram of betratron generator: (a) top view;
(b) cross section.
(a)
Earth ground
Equilibrium orbit
Expanded orbit
Target structure
Injector
Palladium
coated interior
X-ray beam
(b)
Upper Pole
Doughnut
Hr
Steel wafer
Steel wafer
Hr
H orbit
Lower Pole H
H
Electrons moving toward reader at this point
Electron Linear
Accelerators
Electron linear accelerators, similar to the
one shown in Fig. 22, are commonly
referred to as linacs. Linear accelerators
accelerate electrons down a guide by
means of radio frequency voltages. These
voltages are applied so that the electron
reaches an acceleration point in the field
at precisely the proper time. The
accelerator guide consists of a series of
cavities that causes gaps when the radio
frequency power is applied. The cavities
have holes in each end that allow
electrons to pass to the next cavity. When
an electron is injected at the proper time
it gains energy as it is accelerated across
these gaps and out the other end of the
cavity. When the radio frequency power is
phased properly, increased acceleration is
achieved. Figure 23 shows the general
arrangement of a linear accelerator’s
component parts.
For research purposes, heavier particles
have been accelerated by linear
accelerators. An example of this type
linear accelerator is the 3.2 km (2 mi)
long Stanford linear accelerator. There are
two general types of radiographic linear
accelerators: (1) one using the principle of
the traveling wave and (2) the other using
a standing wave technique of
acceleration.
Radiographic linear accelerators have
been produced that have X-ray energies of
1 to 16 MeV and with output as high as
4.17 Gy·s–1 (25 krad·min–1) measured at
1 m (40 in.). Although not as durable as
lower voltage machines, some have been
in service for over 30 years. Increased
operating frequencies, up to 9.3 GHz,
permit smaller, lighter X-ray heads.
Configurations exist that allow for the
operation of the accelerator and beam
FIGURE 22. Electron linear accelerator.
Electron
Electronic Radiation Sources 69
3RT03_Layout(055_072) 10/2/02 1:51 PM Page 70

FIGURE 23. General arrangement of linear accelerator.

Radio
Radio frequency source Laser
frequency
system

Pulse transformer
Accelerator

Electron
gun Collimator

collimator at a distance from the radio

frequency source; the source supplies
power through a flexible wave guide. The
total weight of the X-ray head is greatly
reduced, permitting easy positioning for
field inspection of pipelines, valves and
other test objects of limited accessibility.
One such system is being used for
inservice inspection of nuclear power
plants.

70 Radiographic Testing
3RT03_Layout(055_072) 10/2/02 1:51 PM Page 71
References
1. Beiser, A. Concepts of Modern Physics,
fifth edition. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill Book Company (1963).
2. Halliday, D., R. Resnick and J. Walker.
Fundamentals of Physics, sixth edition,
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3. Industrial Radiography Manual.
Washington, DC: United States Office
of Education, Division of Vocational
and Technical Education; and United
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Division of Nuclear Education and
Training (1968).
4. Lapp, R.E. and H.L. Andrews. Nuclear
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Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall
(1972).
5. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, first
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6. Brunty, B.J. “High-Energy
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7. Wilshire, W.J., ed. A Further Handbook
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Society for Nondestructive Testing
(1959).
9. Hogarth C.A. and J. Blitz. Techniques of
Nondestructive Testing. London, United
Kingdom: Butterworth and Company
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9. McGonnagle, W.J. Nondestructive
Testing. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
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10. Halmshaw, R., ed. Physics of Industrial
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14. Pollitt, C.G. “Radiography with
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Research Association (1962).
15. O’Connor, D.T. and B.G.
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Flexible 10 MeV Betatron.”
Non-Destructive Testing. Vol. 7, No. 4.
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Nondestructive Testing (Spring 1949):
p 20-23.
16. Halmshaw, R. and C.C. Pollitt.
“Radiology with High-Energy X-Rays.”
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Paper B-41. Conference Proceedings:
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Electronic Radiation Sources 71