Third Edition

NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

HANDBOOK

Volume 4

Radiographic
Testing
Technical Editors
Richard H. Bossi
Frank A. Iddings
George C. Wheeler

Editor
Patrick O. Moore
American Society for Nondestructive Testing
 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Third Edition

HANDBOOK

Volume 4

Radiographic
Testing
Technical Editors
Richard H. Bossi
Frank A. Iddings
George C. Wheeler

Editor
Patrick O. Moore

FOUN
DED
1941
American Society for Nondestructive Testing
Copyright © 2002
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING, INC.
All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means —
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise — without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Nothing contained in this book is to be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale or use in connection with
any method, process, apparatus, product or composition, whether or not covered by letters patent or registered
trademark, nor as a defense against liability for the infringement of letters patent or registered trademark.
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, its employees, and the contributors to this volume assume no
responsibility for the safety of persons using the information in this book.
Copyright © 2002 by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Incorporated. All rights reserved. ASNT is not
responsible for the authenticity or accuracy of information herein, and published opinions and statements do not
necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the
endorsement or recommendation of ASNT.
ACCPSM, IRRSPSM, Level III Study GuideSM, Materials EvaluationSM, NDT HandbookSM, Nondestructive Testing HandbookSM,
The NDT TechnicianSM and www.asnt.orgSM are service marks of the American Society for Nondestructive Testing.
ASNT®, Research in Nondestructive Evaluation® and RNDE® are registered trademarks of the American Society for
Nondestructive Testing.
ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing.

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PO Box 28518
Columbus, OH 43228-0518
(614) 274-6003; fax (614) 274-6899
www.asnt.org

Errata
Errata if available for this printing may be obtained from ASNT’s Web site, www.asnt.org, or as hard copy by mail from ASNT,
free on request addressed to the NDT Handbook Editor at the address above.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Radiographic Testing / technical editors, Richard H. Bossi, Frank A. Iddings,
George C. Wheeler; . -- 3rd ed.
p. cm. — (Nondestructive testing handbook ; v. 4)
Includes bibliographic references and index.
ISBN 978-1-57117-045-3
1. Radiography, industrial. I. Bossi, R. H. II. Iddings, F.A. III. Wheeler, G.C.
IV. Moore, Patrick O. V. American Society for Nondestructive Testing.
IV. Series: Nondestructive testing handbook (3rd ed.) ; v. 4.
TA417.25 .R32 2002 2002012672
620.1’1272--dc21

First printing 11/02.

Second printing 06/08, with new impositions for pages ii, xi, 16,
132, 250, 313.

Published by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

President’s Foreword

The twenty-first century has now arrived ASNT career briefly in 1974. His start in
and we are aware that technology will the NDT profession came as a
continue to accelerate at blinding speed. radiographer in the Boston ship yards. His
As these changes occur, adaptation and name was Philip Johnson. He was the
implementation by the end user must architect and founder of this society. He
keep pace with proven innovations. As was the visionary who saw the need to
managers and engineers we have been draw upon our collective differences and
quick to defend the status quo and have unite for a common cause.
been slow to change when change is Johnson served as the organization’s
needed. Currently we are seeing a Secretary from 1941 to 1965. He also
significant lag in the usage of such assumed the dual role of editor for many
innovations as digital radiography. The of those years. In addition Johnson served
new challenge for practitioners and as our Executive Director from 1965
regulatory bodies will be the acceptance through 1974. Phil provided the
and integration of this already proven continuity and focus that must sustain
technology. any organization in those formative years.
The vitality and future of the American As you read through this book remember
Society for Nondestructive Testing depend that it was Johnson that made possible
on the creation, improvement and the process of cooperative collaboration.
sharing of information so that safety and
reliability stay at the forefront of product Stephen P. Black
development. ASNT President, 2001-2002
This volume represents the efforts of
many dedicated professionals who have
embraced change and given freely of their
time with the mission of making a
difference in their chosen profession.
ASNT commends each and every
contributor for their efforts in bridging
today’s technology with tomorrow’s
possibilities.
There were more than 100 individual
contributors and reviewers, representing
both volunteers and staff in an essential
ongoing partnership. Each has given a
piece of themselves that can never be
repaid.
A special thanks is due to technical
editors Richard Bossi, Frank Iddings and
George Wheeler for their commitment to
this project. This job requires an in-depth
understanding of the component parts of
the technology. The job is long and
tedious and must be driven from the heart
and the mind.
I must also thank the ASNT staff and
NDT Handbook Editor Patrick Moore for
their guidance and continued pursuit of
excellence. Year in and year out they have
made the necessary sacrifices to ensure
quality and value.
Finally, reflective tribute must go to an
individual who crossed paths with my

Radiographic Testing iii

Foreword

industry. This handbook provides a

Aims of a Handbook collection of perspectives on its subject to
broaden its value and convenience to the
The volume you are holding in your hand nondestructive testing community.
is the fourth in the third edition of the The present volume is a worthy
Nondestructive Testing Handbook. Now is a addition to the third edition. The editors,
good time to reflect on the purposes and technical editors and many contributors
nature of a handbook. and reviewers worked together to bring
Handbooks exist in many disciplines of the project to completion. For their
science and technology, and certain scholarship and dedication I thank
features set them apart from other them all.
reference works. A handbook should
ideally give the basic knowledge necessary Gary L. Workman
for an understanding of the technology, Handbook Development Director
including both scientific principles and
means of application.
The typical reader may be assumed to
have completed three years of college
toward a degree in mechanical
engineering or materials science and
hence has the background of an
elementary physics or mechanics course.
Additionally this volume provides a
positive reinforcement for the use of
computer based media that enhances its
educational value and enlightens all levels
of education and training.
Note that any handbook offers a view
of its subject at a certain period in time.
Even before it is published, it can begin to
get obsolete. The authors and editors do
their best to be current but the
technology will continue to change even
as the book goes to press.
Standards, specifications,
recommended practices and inspection
procedures may be discussed in a
handbook for instructional purposes, but
at a level of generalization that is
illustrative rather than comprehensive.
Standards writing bodies take great pains
to ensure that their documents are
definitive in wording and technical
accuracy. People writing contracts or
procedures should consult the actual
standards when appropriate.
Those who design qualifying
examinations or study for them draw on
handbooks as a quick and convenient way
of approximating the body of knowledge.
Committees and individuals who write or
anticipate questions are selective in what
they draw from any source. The parts of a
handbook that give scientific background,
for instance, may have little bearing on a
practical examination except to provide
the physical foundation to assist handling
of more challenging tasks. Other parts of
a handbook are specific to a certain

iv Radiographic Testing
Preface
Radiographic testing has been a
preeminent method of nondestructive
testing since the discovery of X-rays in
1895. Film radiography in particular has
been the backbone of industrial
applications of penetrating radiation. It is
fundamentally a very elegant analog
process that provides an internal
evaluation of solid objects. Although film
radiography remains the most widely
used method of radiographic testing,
many other penetrating radiation
techniques for nondestructive testing
have been developed. In recent years the
advancements in speed and capability of
digital data processing have increased the
application of digital methods for
penetrating radiation inspections. The
transition from analog to digital
technology will continue into the future.
This volume of the Nondestructive
Testing Handbook, third edition, combines
essential information on the traditional
penetrating radiation testing techniques
and incoming techniques using digital
technology. Building on material in the
first edition (1959) and the second edition
(1985), the many contributors of this
volume have assembled the basic body of
knowledge for radiographic testing. Much
of the information in the second edition
radiography volume has been maintained
and enhanced, while some dated or rarely
used material has been dropped. The first
and second editions thus remain useful
references — not only for historical
purposes but for material that could not
longer be included in the present edition.
Considerable new information has
been added, particularly in the area of
digital imaging, data processing and
digital image reconstruction. Other
material has been updated with recent
information in such areas as radiation
sources, standards, interpretation and
applications. Techniques such as
backscatter imaging and computed
tomography were not covered in earlier
editions but have their own chapter in
this edition.
The team of contributors has tried to
prepare as useful a text as possible. In
many cases, items are discussed in
multiple chapters to keep the continuity
of the discussion in that particular
chapter. This also provides multiple
contexts for understanding concepts and
techniques. In other cases the handbook
may rely on other chapters for details on
a particular concept. The reader is
encouraged to refer to the index to find
information on items of interest in
multiple chapters. Because of the current
rate of change in technology, it is not
possible to have a handbook that is
completely up to date. This handbook
contains the fundamental, as well as the
most recent material available at the time
of its writing. Where possible, tables and
figures are used to serve as a quick and
ready means of finding essential technical
information. The references for each
chapter should be helpful for the reader
seeking additional material. Readers are
also encouraged to use the internet and
ASNT’s Web site to find supplemental
material on equipment and topics that are
subject to change with technological
advancement.
It has been the pleasure of the
technical editors to work with the authors
and ASNT’s Nondestructive Testing
Handbook staff to provide this third
edition of the radiography handbook. We
wish to thank all the contributors,
including those named in the current
volume, those who provided material to
the contributors and may not have been
named, and those whose contributions to
earlier editions have been carried over to
this edition. We hope this edition proves
useful as both a quick reference for
technical details and a source of
fundamental information for
comprehensive understanding.
Richard H. Bossi
Frank A. Iddings
George C. Wheeler
Radiographic Testing v
Editor’s Preface
Radiographic testing was the dominant
method of nondestructive testing during
the first two decades of the American
Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT),
founded in 1941. When this handbook
was first envisioned in the 1940s, it was
projected to be a single volume devoted
entirely to radiography.
In 1959, when the first edition of the
Nondestructive Testing Handbook finally
appeared, a fourth of it was devoted to
radiographic testing. In the twenty-first
century, the first edition still sells scores
of copies every year.
A quarter century was to pass before
that presentation of radiographic testing
was replaced. The second edition gave a
complete volume to the method when, in
1985, ASNT published Radiography and
Radiation Testing. Much of the volume in
the present third edition is based directly
on that second edition.
The process of outlining this third
edition volume and recruiting volunteers
for it began in 1996. Richard Bossi and
George Wheeler deserve the gratitude of
ASNT for the planning that launched the
project. In 2001 Frank Iddings, who had
already edited several chapters, was
appointed as the third technical editor.
Seven ASNT past Presidents
participated in the writing and review of
this volume, demonstrating ASNT’s
strength as a truly technical society.
This series is not a collection of articles
but a work of collective authorship by
ASNT, so authors are called contributors.
Volunteers whose contributions to the
second edition have been updated for this
edition are listed if they were able to
participate and to approve the product.
In the list below, people listed as
contributors were also reviewers but are
listed only once, as contributors.
It has been an honor to work with
ASNT’s volunteers, whose technical
expertise is matched by their generosity in
sharing it.
I would like to thank staff members
Hollis Humphries and Joy Grimm for
their contributions to the art, layout and
text of the book and also thank
Publications Manager Paul McIntire for
years of encouragement.
Patrick O. Moore
NDT Handbook Editor
vi Radiographic Testing
Acknowledgments
Handbook Development
Committee
Gary L. Workman, University of Alabama,
Huntsville
Michael W. Allgaier, GPU Nuclear
Albert S. Birks, AKZO Nobel Chemicals
Richard H. Bossi, The Boeing Company
Lisa Brasche, Iowa State University
William C. Chedister, Circle Systems
James L. Doyle, Northwest Research
Associates, Inc.
Nat Y. Faransso, Halliburton Company
François Gagnon, Vibra-K Consultants
Robert E. Green, Jr., Johns Hopkins
University
Matthew J. Golis, Advanced Quality
Concepts
Gerard K. Hacker, Teledyne Brown
Engineering
Harb S. Hayre, Ceie Specs
Frank A. Iddings
Charles N. Jackson, Jr.
John K. Keve, DynCorp Tri-Cities Services
Lloyd P. Lemle, Jr., BP Oil Company
Xavier P.V. Maldague, University Laval
Paul M. McIntire, ASNT
Mani Mina, Iowa State University
Ron K. Miller, Physical Acoustics
Corporation
Scott D. Miller, Saudi Aramco
Patrick O. Moore, ASNT
Stanley Ness
Louis G. Pagliaro, Technical Associates of
Charlotte
Emmanuel P. Papadakis, Quality Systems
Concepts
Stanislav I. Rokhlin, Ohio State University
Frank J. Sattler
Fred Seppi, Williams International
Amos G. Sherwin, Sherwin Incorporated
Kermit S. Skeie
Roderic K. Stanley, Quality Tubing
Holger H. Streckert, General Atomics
Stuart A. Tison, Millipore Corporation
Noel A. Tracy, Universal Technology
Corporation
Satish S. Udpa, Michigan State University
Sotirios J. Vahaviolos, Physical Acoustics
Corporation
Mark F.A. Warchol, Aluminum Company
of America
Glenn A. Washer, Federal Highway
Administration
George C. Wheeler
Contributors Reviewers
Richard D. Albert, Digiray Corporation Arthur E. Allum, Blacksburg, South
Richard C. Barry, Lockheed Martin Carolina
Missiles and Space Vijay Alreja, VJ Technologies
Garry L. Balestracci, Balestracci Unlimited John K. Aman
John P. Barton Ringo C. Beaumont
George L. Becker Boyd D. Howard, Westinghouse Savannah
Harold Berger, Industrial Quality, River Company
Incorporated Mark Branecki, NRay Services
Bruce E. Bolliger, Agilent Technologies Jack S. Brenizer, Pennsylvania State
Richard H. Bossi, The Boeing Company, University
Seattle Joseph F. Bush, Jr., NDT Training
Lisa Brasche, Iowa State University Richard E. Cameron, General Electric
Roy L. Buckrop Nuclear Energy
Clifford Bueno, General Electric Company W. Dennis Cabe, Duke Energy Company
William D. Burnett Eugene J. Chemma, Bethlehem Steel
Paul Burstein, Skiametics Incorporated Corporation
Herbert Chapman Thomas N. Claytor, Los Alamos National
Francis M. Charbonnier Laboratory
Kenneth W. Dolan, Lawrence Livermore Robert L. Crane, Air Force Research
National Laboratory Laboratory
C. Robert Emigh Claude D. Davis, Unified Testing Services
Toshiyasu Fukui John Deboo, The Boeing Company
Donald J. Hagemaier Donny Dicharry, Source Production and
Jerry J. Haskins, Lawrence Livermore Equipment
National Laboratory Paul Dick
Charles J. Hellier III, Hellier and Louis J. Elliott, Lockheed Martin Tactical
Associates Defense Systems
Eiichi Hirosawa Hugh W. Evans, Amersham Corporation
Frank A. Iddings Jonathan C. Fortkamp, ABB Automation
Timothy E. Kinsella, Carpenter Incorporated
Technology Corporation William D. Friedman, Lockheed Martin
Gary G. Korkala, Security Defense Systems Steven G. Galbraith, INEEL, Idaho Falls
Andreas F. Kotowski, Rapiscan Security Bryan C. Goode, Faxitron X-Ray
Products Corporation
Lawrence R. Lawson Thorsten Graeve, Rad-Icon Imaging
Harry E. Martz, Lawrence Livermore Corporation
National Laboratory Joseph N. Gray, Iowa State University
William E.J. McKinney Nand Gupta, Omega International
Masahisa Naoe Technologies
James M. Nelson, The Boeing Company, David P. Harvey, Oremet-Wah Chang
Seattle Manfred P. Hentschel, Federal Institute for
Stig Oresjo, Agilent Technologies Materials Research and Testing, Berlin,
William B. Rivkin Germany
Stanislav I. Rokhlin, Ohio State University Michael R. Holloway, Eastman Kodak
Edward H. Ruescher Company
Frank J. Sattler James W. Houf, American Society for
Daniel J. Schneberk, Lawrence Livermore Nondestructive Testing
National Laboratory Bruce G. Isaacson, ISA
Samuel G. Snow Chester W. Jackson, Westinghouse
George R. Strabel, Howmet Research James H. Johnson, Varian Industrial
Corporation Products
Holger H. Streckert, General Atomics Thomas S. Jones, Howmet Research
Marvin W. Trimm, Westinghouse Corporation
Savannah River Company Jim F. Kelly, Rivest Testing USA/IUOE
George C. Wheeler Bradley S. Kienlen, Entergy Operations
Gerald C. Wicks Richard Kochakian, Agfa Corporation
William P. Winfree, National Aeronautics Jeffrey Kollgaard, The Boeing Company
and Space Administration James R. Korenkiewicz, Samsung
Aerospace, Pratt and Whitney
Joseph L. Mackin, International Pipe
Inspectors Association
K. Dieter Markert
Nick Martinsen, Varian Industrial
Products
Robert W. McClung

Radiographic Testing vii

 Thomas E. McConomy, Special Metals Additional Acknowledgments
Corporation
For Chapter 8, “Radiographic
Claude H. McDaniel
Interpretation,” the contributors and
Robert M. McGee, Ford Motor Company
editors gratefully acknowledge the
Richard D. McGuire, National Board of
contributions by Newport News
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors
Shipbuilding and Drydock Company (R.R.
William D. Meade, The Boeing Company
Hardison, L.S. Morris, D.L. Isenhour and
John Munro III
R.D. Wallace) and by the National
Antonio G. Pascua, The Boeing Company,
Institute of Standards and Technology
Canoga Park
(G. Yonemura). Appreciation is also
J.A. Patsey, US Steel Tubular Products
expressed to Eastman Kodak Company,
Patrick Pauwels, Agfa-Gevaert, Mortsel
Electric Power Research Institute, ASTM
Thea Philliou, Thermo Eberline
International and the Southwest Research
David H. Phillips, Hytec, Incorporated
Institute for permission to use
Robert F. Plumstead, Lucius Pitkin
illustrations.
Incorporated
The applications presented in
William C. Plumstead, Sr., PQT Services
Chapter 13, “Image Data Analysis,” are
Rita Pontefract, Yxlon International,
the result of many collaborative efforts.
Akron
Thanks to Ford Nondestructive Evaluation
Joergen Rheinlaender, InnospeXion ApS,
Laboratory (R. McGee and staff); to
Hvalsø, Denmark
VJ Technologies (V. Alreja,
Wade J. Richards, McClellan Air Force
S. Nagabhushana and V. Butani); to
Base
Chrysler Kokomo Casting (R. Nicholson,
Scott D. Ritzheimer, Allegheny Ludlum
D. Guthrie and W. Kendricks); to
Steel Company
Caterpillar, Incorporated (C. Andersen and
Morteza Safai, FMC FoodTech
G. Happoldt); to the Boeing Company
Robert L. Schulte, Digtome Corporation
(W. Meade and M. Negley); and to
Russell G. Schonberg, Schonberg Research
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Corporation
(D. Chinn and others).
Noel D. Smith, NDS Products
Sources of illustrations are
Joel Henebry, Test and Measurement
acknowledged in a section at the end of
Organization
this book.
Jana Knezovich, Agilent Technologies
Habeeb H. Saleh, WJE Associates
Fred J. Schlieper, Teradyne
Peter Soltani, Direct Radiography
Corporation
Dennis S. Smith, McDonnell Douglas
Aerospace
Richard C. Stark
Brian Sterling, Timco
Richard Z. Struk, Shellcast Foundries,
Montreal, Canada
Barry N. Taylor, National Institute of
Standards and Technology
Jay D. Thompson, Lockheed Martin
Missiles and Space
Michael L. Turnbow, Tennessee Valley
Authority
Ray Tsukimura, Aerotest Operations
Jerry A. Tucker, Industrial Nuclear
Thomas B. Turner, BWX Technologies
John J. Veno
Mark F.A. Warchol, Alcoa, Incorporated
Randall D. Wasberg, Amcast Automotive
Glenn A. Washer, Federal Highway
Administration
Amy Waters, Varian Industrial Products
Gene A. Westenbarger, Ohio University
Dwight S. Wilson, The Boeing Company,
Long Beach
Charles B. Winfield, Tru-Tec Services,
Incorporated
Sik-Lam Wong, Maxwell Physics
International
Daniel A. Wysnewski, Agfa Corporation

viii Radiographic Testing

 C O N T E N T S

Chapter 1. Introduction to Chapter 6. Radiation Safety . . . . . . . 113

Radiographic Testing . . . . . . . . . . 1 Part 1. Management of Radiation
Part 1. Nondestructive Testing . . . . 2 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Part 2. Management of Part 2. Dose Definitions and
Radiographic Testing . . . . 12 Exposure Levels . . . . . . . 119
Part 3. History of Radiographic Part 3. Radiation Protection
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Measurements . . . . . . . . 121
Part 4. Units of Measure for Part 4. Basic Exposure Control . . 127
Radiographic Testing . . . . 29 Part 5. Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Part 6. Neutron Radiographic
Chapter 2. Radiation and Particle Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Part 1. Elementary Particles . . . . . 38 Chapter 7. Principles of Film
Part 2. Properties of Radioactive Radiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Part 1. Film Exposure . . . . . . . . . 140
Part 3. Electromagnetic Part 2. Absorption and
Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Part 3. Radiographic Screen . . . . 159
Chapter 3. Electronic Radiation Part 4. Industrial X-Ray Films . . . 163
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Part 5. Radiographic Image
Part 1. Physical Principles . . . . . . . 56 Quality and Detail
Part 2. Basic Generator Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Construction . . . . . . . . . . 59 Part 6. Film Handling and
Part 3. Megavolt Radiography . . . 67 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Part 7. Film Digitization . . . . . . . 180
Chapter 4. Isotope Radiation Sources
for Gamma Radiography . . . . . . 73 Chapter 8. Radiographic
Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Part 1. Selection of
Radiographic Sources . . . . 74 Part 1. Fundamentals of
Part 2. Source Handling Radiographic
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Interpretation . . . . . . . . . 186
Part 2. Viewing in Radiographic
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Chapter 5. Radiation Measurement . . 89
Part 3. Densitometers . . . . . . . . . 194
Part 1. Principles of Radiation Part 4. Radiographic
Measurement . . . . . . . . . . 90 Interpretation
Part 2. Ionization Chambers and Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Proportional Counters . . . 91 Part 5. Radiographic Artifacts . . . 202
Part 3. Geiger-Müller Counters . . . 96 Part 6. Discontinuity
Part 4. Scintillation Detectors . . . 100 Indications . . . . . . . . . . 207
Part 5. Luminescent
Dosimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Chapter 9. Radiographic Film
Part 6. Neutron Detection . . . . . 104 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Part 7. Semiconductors . . . . . . . . 106
Part 1. Radiographic Latent
Part 8. Film Badges . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Part 2. Chemistry of Film
Radiography . . . . . . . . . . 230
Part 3. Darkroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Part 4. Processing Technique . . . 241
Part 5. Silver Recovery . . . . . . . . 247

Rdiographic Testing ix
 Chapter 10. Radioscopy . . . . . . . . . . 253
Part 1. Fundamentals of
Radioscopic Imaging . . . 254
Part 2. Light Conversion . . . . . . . 256
Part 3. Image Quality . . . . . . . . . 261
Part 4. Imaging Systems . . . . . . . 265
Part 5. Cameras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Part 6. Viewing and Recording . . 275
Part 7. System Considerations . . 277
Chapter 11. Digital Radiographic
Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Chapter 16. Neutron
Part 1. Overview of Digital
Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Part 2. Principles of Digital
X-Ray Detectors . . . . . . . 286
Part 3. Image Contrast and
Signal Statistics . . . . . . . . 289
Part 4. X-Ray Detector
Technology . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Chapter 15. Special Radiographic
Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Part 1. Microfocus Radiographic
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Part 2. Flash Radiography . . . . . . 409
Part 3. Reversed Geometry
Radiography with
Scanning Source . . . . . . . 414
Part 4. Stereo Radiography . . . . . 419
Part 5. X-Ray Diffraction and
X-Ray Fluorescence . . . . 427
Radiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Part 1. Applications of Neutron
Radiography . . . . . . . . . . 438
Part 2. Static Radiography with
Thermal Neutrons . . . . . 440
Part 3. Special Techniques of
Neutron Radiography . . . 446

Chapter 17. Radiographic Testing of

Chapter 12. Computed
Tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Part 1. Introduction to Computed
Tomography . . . . . . . . . . 304
Part 2. Laminography . . . . . . . . . 306
Part 3. Principles of Computed
Tomography . . . . . . . . . . 310
Part 4. Resolution and
Contrast . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Part 5. Computed Tomographic
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Part 6. Applications of Computed
Tomography . . . . . . . . . . 323
Part 7. Reference Standards
for Computed
Tomography . . . . . . . . . . 328
Chapter 13. Image Data Analysis . . .
Part 1. Fundamental Properties
of Digital Images and
Processing Schemes . . . .
Part 2. Image Analysis
Techniques and
Radiographic Tests . . . . .
Part 3. Automated Testing
Techniques . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 14. Backscatter Imaging . . . 379
Part 1. Physical Principles . . . . . . 380
Part 2. Backscatter Imaging
Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Part 3. Reconstruction and Image
Processing Techniques . . 392
Part 4. Applications of
Backscatter Imaging . . . . 394
Metal Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Part 1. Introduction to
Radiographic Testing
of Metal Castings . . . . . . 454
Part 2. General Radiographic
Techniques for Metal
Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Part 3. Radiographic Indications
for Metal Castings . . . . . 461
Part 4. Radiographic Testing and
Process Scheduling . . . . . 465
Part 5. Problems in Radiographic
Testing of Metal
Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Chapter 18. Radiographic Testing
of Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
345
Part 1. Introduction to
Radiographic Testing
of Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
346 Part 2. Weld Design . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Part 3. Discontinuities in
Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
353
Part 4. Technique
Development . . . . . . . . . 482
354
Part 5. Standards and Specifications
for Radiographic Testing
of Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Part 6. Radiography of Weld
Discontinuities . . . . . . . . 491
Part 7. In-Process Radioscopy of
Arc Welding . . . . . . . . . . 502
Part 8. False Indications in
Radiographs of
Aluminum Alloy
Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

x Radiographic Testing
Chapter 19. Radiographic Testing in
Utility, Petroleum and Chemical
Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Part 1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Part 2. Pipe and Tubing
Applications . . . . . . . . . . 515
Part 3. Vessel and Component
Applications . . . . . . . . . . 526
Part 4. Nuclear Fuel
Applications . . . . . . . . . . 530
Part 5. Other Uses for
Radiographic Testing . . . 537

Chapter 20. Aerospace Applications

of Radiographic Testing . . . . . 543
Part 1. Film Radiography of
Aviation Components . . 544
Part 2. Radiographic Testing
of Space Flight
Components . . . . . . . . . . 550
Part 3. Techniques for Advanced
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559

Chapter 21. Other Applications of

Radiographic Testing . . . . . . . . 569
Part 1. Radiation Gaging of
Density or Thickness . . . 570
Part 2. Radioscopy of
Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . 578
Part 3. Radiographic Testing of
Consumer Goods . . . . . . 584
Part 4. Radiographic Testing in
Security Systems . . . . . . . 588
Part 5. Infrastructure
Applications of
Radiographic Testing . . . 591
Part 6. Radiographic Testing in
Conservation of Historic
Buildings and Museum
Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594

Chapter 22. Attenuation

Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Part 1. Introduction to
Attenuation
Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . 610
Part 2. Attenuation Coefficient
Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612

Chapter 23. Radiographic Testing

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675

Figure Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691

Radiographic Testing xi
3RT_Index(675_692) 10/3/02 1:38 PM Page 691
Figure Sources
Chapter 1. Introduction to Radiographic Testing
Figure 11 — Warner-Lambert Company, Morris Plains, NJ.
Chapter 3. Electronic Radiation Sources
Figure 22 — Varian Associates, Palo Alo, CA.
Chapter 4. Isotopes for Gamma Radiography
Figures 7c, 9a, 11, 13b, 14, 16 — Source Production and Equipment
Company, Saint Rose, LA.
Figures 10, 12, 13a — AEA Technology PLC, Arlington Heights, IL.
Chapter 5. Radiation Measurement
Figure 4 — Victoreen, Solon, OH.
Chapter 6. Radiation Safety
Figures 1, 3, 5 — Thermo Eberline, Santa Fe, NM.
Figure 2 — Landauer, Incorporated, Glenwood, IL.
Figures 4a, 4e — Industrial Nuclear Company, San Leandro, CA.
Figures 4b, 4c, 4d — NDS Products, Pasadena, TX.
Figure 6b — InnospeXion APS, Hvalsoe, Denmark.
Chapter 7. Principles of Film Radiography
Figures 1-24 — Eastman Kodak, Rochester, NY.
Chapter 8. Radiographic Interpretation
Figure 3 — National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD.
Figure 6 — Edmund Scientific, Tonawanda, NY.
Figure 7 — Macbeth Division of Kollmorgen Company, Newburgh, NY.
Figure 8 — X-Rite, Incorporated, Grandville, MI.
Figure 14-23 — Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, NY.
Figure 24, 25, 28, 32, 36, 37 — Southwest Research Institute, San
Antonio, TX.
Figure 26, 27, 29-31, 33-35 — Electric Power Research Institute,
Charlotte, NC.
Chapter 10. Radioscopy
Figures 1, 16 — Agfa Pantak Seifert GmbH, Ahrensburg, Germany.
Figure 14 — From R. Halmshaw. Reprinted with permission.
Figure 15 — Yxlon International, Hamburg, Germany.
Chapter 11. Digital Radiographic Imaging
Figures 2 — Eastman Kodak, Rochestern NY.
Figure 14, 15 — V.J. Technologies, Bohemia, NY.
Chapter 12. Computed Tomography
Figure 5 — C.V. Mosby Company, Saint Louis, MO.
Figures 6, 7 — R. Schulte.
Chapter 14. Backscatter Imaging
Figure 10 — American Science and Engineering, Billerica, MA.
Chapter 16. Neutron Radiographic Testing
Figure 4 — Risø National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark.
Figure 5 — Aerotest Operations, San Ramon, CA.
Figure 6 — General Electric Company, Schenectady, NY.
Figure 9 — Kaman Sciences, Utica, NY.
Figure 11 — IRT Corporation, San Diego, CA.
Figure 12 — Rolls Royce Limited.
Chapter 17. Radiographic Testing of Metal Castings
Figure 2 — American Society for Testing and Materials, West
Conshohocken, PA.
Chapter 18. Welding Applications of Radiographic
Testing
Figures 29, 30b, 32 — Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA.
Chapter 19. Applications of Radiographic Testing in
Utility, Petroleum and Chemical Industries
Figures 2-3 — After the American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC.
Figures 4-7 — After the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New
York, NY.
Figure 16 — After Tru-Tec Services, La Porte, TX.
Chapter 20. Aerospace Applications of Radiographic
Testing
Figures 1-4, 6-8, 14-18, 20 — Boeing Company, Long Beach, CA.
Figure 5 — Martin Marietta, Denver, CO.
Figures 9-10, 13, 20-23, 25, 27-28, 39-40 — Rocketdyne, Canoga Park, CA.
Figures 11-12 — Boeing Company, Philadelphia, PA.
Figure 19 — Eastern Airlines, Miami, FL.
Figure 24 — Picker International, Cleveland, OH.
Figure 26 — Northrop Grumman, Los Angeles, CA.
Figure 29-31 — Boeing Company, Saint Louis, MO.
Figure 32 — FeinFocus USA, Stamford, CT.
Figure 33, 36 — General Electric, Cincinnati, OH.
Figures 34-35 — United States Air Force; Aerojet Strategic Propulsion,
Sacramento, CA.
Figure 37 — White Sands Testing Station, NM.
Figure 38 — University of California Davis, McClellan Nuclear Radiation
Center, CA.
Figure 39 — National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, DC.
Chapter 21. Other Applications of Radiographic
Testing
Figures 9a, 11b, 13 — Rad-Icon, Santa Clara, CA.
Figures 9b — V.J. Technologies, Bohemia, NY.
Figure 19 — Intermountain Testing Company (Carl E. Fox), Englewood, CO.
Figures 20 — Virginia Department of Transportation, Richmond, VA.
Figure 23a — Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress,
Washington, DC.
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MULTIMEDIA CONTENTS

Chapter 4. Isotope Radiation Sources Chapter 13. Image Data Analysis . . . 345
for Gamma Radiography . . . . . . 73 Movie. Exfoliation corrosion,
Movie. Isotopic source . . . . . . . . . 74 thin to thick . . . . . . . . . 374
Movie. Collimators . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Movie. General corrosion,
thin to thick . . . . . . . . . 374
Chapter 6. Radiation Safety . . . . . . . 113 Movie. Cracks around fasteners . 374
Movie. Cracks around fasteners,
Movie. Radiation injury . . . . . . . 114
in layers from top . . . . . 374
Movie. Survey meters . . . . . . . . . 117
Movie. Check equipment . . . . . . 121
Chapter 14. Backscatter Imaging . . . 379
Movie. Personnel Monitoring
Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Movie. Backscatter scan of
undamaged area . . . . . . 397
Movie. Warning tape and signs . 128
Movie. Moving source and
sensor into place . . . . . . 397
Chapter 7. Principles of Film Movie. Pillowing and corrosion . 397
Radiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Movie. Conventional
Chapter 20. Aerospace Applications
radiography gives
shadow image . . . . . . . . 140 of Radiographic Testing . . . . . 543
Movie. Automated inspection
of rocket motor . . . . . . . 551
Chapter 10. Radioscopy . . . . . . . . . . 253
Movie. Automated wheel
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Chapter 21. Other Applications of
Radiographic Testing . . . . . . . . 569
Movie. Inspection of printed
Chapter 12. Computed
circuit boards . . . . . . . . . 583
Tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Movie. Radiographic
Movie. Second generation inspection of light bulb . 587
(rotate and translate) . . . 319
Movie. Cargo scanning . . . . . . . 589
Movie. Third generation
Movie. Image acquisition and
(rotate only) . . . . . . . . . 319
evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Movie. Electronic device
Movie. Images at 3 MV
on turntable . . . . . . . . . 327
and 6 MV . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Movie. Images of electronic
Movie. Contraband in water
device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Movie. Tomographic data
image of electronic
device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Movie. Image slices of device,
top to bottom . . . . . . . . 327
Movie. Slices show
delaminations in
composite fastener
hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Movie. Transverse image of
delaminations in
fastener hole . . . . . . . . . 327

Rdiographic Testing