137 lS

hydrates
corbO
d ates are defined as polyhydroxy aldehyd es or ketones o b
hY r r su stances
corb0 hydrolysis yield polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.
' •ch on
"'h'
·on of carbohydrates based on the compo SI•t·ton
•ficOt I

Carbohydrates

raccharides
l
Oligosaccharides
1
Polysaccharides
r-1onoS
Ex. Starch
E><• Glucose

Disaccharides Trisaccharides Tetrasaccharides

Ex. Sucrose Ex. Raffinose Ex.stachyose

which cannot be further hydrolyzed.

, Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates,
•
£x(lmple Glucode, Fructose etc

olysis gives 2 to 10 monosaccharide

, Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates·, which on hydr
etc :r
units. Example Sucrose , Maltose , Lactose , Raffinose

s more than monosaccharide

Polysaccharides are carbohydrates, which on hydrolysi
units. Example Insulin , Starch, Cellulose etc g

Classification of Carbohydrates based on the taste

o),

Carbohydrates
I l
Non-sugars
Ex. Polysacchari~e~ L

ucing Sugars.
, Maltose,
138

• Sugars are the

olig o h . carbohydrates which are sweet in taste
sacc and es a . All monosaccharides and
re sugars. They are crystalline solids soluble
in water.
• Non -Sug ars a th
and . re e carbohydrates which are not sweet in
taste. They are amorphous
tnso luble in water.
• Reducing Suga . h redu
rs are sugars whic ce Tollen's reagent Fehl•ing,s Solution.
• Thes
~ugars cont ains -OH grou p on the anomeric e
carbon atom. Hence they can be present
in a and 13 form s.

• Non -Red ucin g Sugars are sugars which does

not reduce Tollen's reagent Fehling's
Solu tion . These sugars do not free aldehyde
or ketonic group. Hence they cannot be
pres ent in a and 13 forms.

• Why sucrose does not reduce Tollen's Reagent

?
• Because it does not contain free aldehyd.ic
group.

- .

• Glucose 1s a simple monosaccharide found in

plants. It is known as D-glucose ,
dextrose or grape sugar. The molecular form ula is
C.HuO,

Met hod s of Preparation of Glucose

1. From Sucrose ( Cone Sugar) C,.,_V.~~

11
+ HaO f\tL , C, 1-11t06 :I- C, H,t0$
(s- ~ {sutrou)

2. From Starch
 rove that Car~on at~ms in glucose are in a strai
.• t.101/J to ~-,hen reacts with HI in presense of ght line '
. . ri se v• h red phosphorous . •
,, c;Luco which proves t at C-atoms are in a straight gives 139 15
, .. neptane l'
(e..d ? .P ine.
" \,u..cose. + \41 - - - 1\- '1ex<lll\e.

rove that Glucose has aldehydic groups ?

, i-1ow to ~ oxidised in presence of bromine
conic ac1·ct this
.
• se 15 water to give glu .
c;Luc0 that it has aldehyd1.c groups.
roves B1l.
P ~!Mcose. + (o1 - - ~ ,~C!nic, ~c!cl

., wtO P•·"ove tha t Glucose has primary alcohol ?

·.,· 1-10 ose is oxidised in presence of conc '
entrated HN03 to give saccharic acid
, Gl~' roves tha t it has prim ary alcohol.
thlS p . '
Lone fl~O •
WCOSt + [ 0l
3
£Clcchakic Ad r1

. • ,_ to prove that Glucose has carbonyl group?

• HOW •h h d
Glucose reacts wit y roxy l amin
• t • ·
e o give glucox1me, this proves that it
tains carb ony l group.
con 1tu ~ ,.. 1-\~N-OI-\ - - 1luro:drme.
lH,,l1oxal G.mi!IJ.)
·f· HoW to prove th?t Gluc~se has 5 _OH gro~
ps ?
• Glucose reacts with acetic anhydride to
give glucopenta acetate this proves that
it contains 5 OH groups.

lucsst + (ltU:ic O.Yl½WJ,. ---: , ~Luu,~\o. o.ohdi

' How to prove tha t Glucose does not contain
free aldehydic group ?
• Glucose did not reac t with skiffs reagent and
NaH S03
Glucopentacetate did not react with NH3-QH :r
,d

o),
140
Haworth Structures

Note
• In haworth structure the groups present on right hand side are written
below the plane and the groups present on left hand side are written
above the plane.

~aworth structures of a-Glucose and ~-Glucose

H ,,,f'.,.'" -o~~ 0
0~

." f -1 ..,
~

H 011
OH H
\.\

11 01,\
o{-D(-+) ,k~e.
~- D(j-) ,~se. .

Haworth structure s of a- Fructofuranose and -Fructofuranose

01+

Oij
H·
~-D(:) Frucbi1A1Wnose.

Haworth structure s of a-maltose Haworth structures of a-lactose

o"
0
\%

"
H /1:--o Ii K
o)."

.~ f": -.)Lt;~-- Ill

It Olt
II 0 0\\

It OH
l H

~~Ol'aidie Ii"~,. Cc.,~)

0~ 1-1 OH

ck l..ool-ose.
1-\ 01-\

o{- 'tnllll-ose. .
rI
r
wort
h strU
ctures of Sucrose ( Cane Sugar )
141 is
~o N~

• Sucrose is the disaccharide which consists of

a-glucopyranose and ~-fructofuranose unit.

• The glycosidic linkage is between the -OH

group of Cl glucose and C2 group of
fructose.

• The resulting molecule does not contain free

aldehyde or ketone group. Hence, it is non
0
reducing sugar and does not reduce Tollen's
reagent and Fehlings solution.

• Sucrose is dexto rotatory compound. But on

CH OH
,l hydrolysis it gives dextrorotatory glucose and
laevorotatory fructose.
OH 1-i
• The change in sign of rotation from
Suc•O~ dextrorotatory to laevorotatory is called as
inversion of cane sugar.

rth structures of Starch

--
Haw~o ~~~~--
- stareh •,s 0 polysaccharide obtained bythe repeatedjoin
. ig of a-glucose
• 1ng units• They are 1. Amylose 2. Amylopectrn
• Join

,d
• It is water soluble component of starch
which constitutes of 15-20% starch.

0 OH Ofi
n
• It is a straight chain polymer consisting
of repeated joining of about 200-1000
a-glucose units by Cl to C4 glycosidic
linkage.

• It is water insoluble component of starch

11
0
I
which constitutes of 80-85% starch.
• It is a branched polymer consisting of
repeated joining of a-glucose units by Cl
to C4 glycosidic linkage to form long

'~J Olt N
chain polymer.
142
Protiens

• Proteins a re complex nitrogenous compounds which are essent,a• l &,or th e growth

and maint
• . enance of all living systems.
Prot1ens are th e polymers of a-amino acids. Hence on hydrolysis
• t·
pro ,ens give
•
large number of a-amino acids
•
• Amino ac,·ds are compounds containing both amino and carboxyl'ic aci·d group •in
lhe same molecule.
R
I
• The general formula of an a-amino acids is H2N-C-COOH
I
H
Slructures of some a-amino acids
l\;oml' Formulo Abbreviations
Formulo Abbreviations Name
0 0
Glyc,ne Cys C
H2C)l_OH Gly G Cyste1ne Hs-{oH

'
NH2

0
NH2

0
Alanine H3C~OH Ala A Mettuomne r{oH Met M
NH2 H3C.,S NH2

CH3 0 0

Ji'
\t!)'ll"~ Val Lys K
H3CYOH V Lysine OH

NH2 H2N N 2

0 0
Le~on,:i H3CdOH Leu L #g R
Arginine HN fioH
CH3 NH2 H2N.Jl~ NH2

0
J5i:,le"ane lie Histidine His H
H~OH ~OH
NHz \,.NH NH2

---Cft:- -w
0

Phe F Trp w

0
Proine Pro p Asp.ticAdd Asp D
O«OH
c!OH
Mi2

Senna Ser s GUanlc:Add Glu e

NHz
0
Thr T Asparagine odoH Asn N
Threonine
H~OH
• NH2 NH2
NHz
0

iX
0
OH Gin Q
Tyr '( Glutamine
r,,_,.JY{OH
H2N 2
HO A NH2

f;iwN~
 . n of aimno acids
•ficat10
7
cLC15s1 ature of amino acids they are classified into 3 typ 143 ,5
d on n ·ct • The t . es.
9ose l amino oc1 s. se con am equal number of .
t.Jeutra 5 example: Glycine, alanine. ammo and carboxylic
1· , grouP • .
0cid ino acids : These contain more number f b . .
O
z. ·die am l car oxyl1c acid group
p..c1 n amino groups. Examp e: ~spartic acid, glumatic acid s
thO ino acid : These contain more number of a .
sic am mino groups than th
3. B0 .rulic acid groups. Example: Lysine. e
,arbo,..,

ies of amino acids

proeert
cids are amphoteric in nature (amphiprotic) This i d
jnO a . • . • s ue to presence of
• Arfl nd carboxyl1c acid groups m same molecule
orflino a •

wer PH value the -NH2 group of amino acids react to form salt Th i
• At Lo acids are present as their cations. And hence they migrat t • dere hore
0 rnino e owar s t e
cothode.

• At high PH value the .,.(OOH gr_oup ~mino acids react to from salt. Therefore
orninO acids are present as their anions. And hence they migrate towards the
anode.

,Note
• lsoelectric point : lsoelectric point for an amino acid is the Ph of amino acid
solution at which the amino acid does not move either to the anode or to
cathode .

• zwitter ion : At the isoelectric point any amino acid exists as a dipolar ion
due to internal salt formation. This dipolar ion is called zwitter ion.
The covalent form of the amino acid and the zwitter ion are in equillibrium.
Hence they behave like salts rather than simple amines or carboxylic acids.

acidic
group H
I !- I
- c- cooH , +H 3N- C- coo-
I l
R R
zwitterion

, Peoptlde Bonds : When the carboxylic group of one amino acid molecule reacts
with the amlno"group of another amino acid molecule and a dipeptide is formed
with the eUmrnation of a molecule of water. The resulting -CONH- bond formed
Is called a peptide bond.
 1 ....... rnple,c r,r1.1 v:,,
• proteins are co . .f arnino a~•- . thertl selve s ",
condensation polyrn ers o
rnoreficatio
classi than n10,00° -
of protei n<- ct,_,,-e. ,-heY align bY disul phide
e Lon9 thread u~e strU eLd held toget her

fibrouselprotein
• parall to fortfl 1"heSeThese
s :fibres- bleare
chain<
hOV parollel·nsolJJ h
in water - prese nt in ,r1usc LeS

un~age of hyd,-ogen i,ond< · ,-he~ are_:, 1 wool' s~in- i-1yosine

· present in ha,r:
' na ~- ,tieY are sou
l ble in wate r.
E,<ornples: keratin
h ·cal in shape -

• Globu lar protein< : These are sp eri • ;nsJJLin etc•

E,camptes: Haem oglobi n, eg9 alb,_,m1n,

strJJc ture of J:>rotiens: l 0 f structJ Jre- l"heY are

of prote ins descr ibes the
protein molec ules are descri bed bY fOUr Leve
1. p,;mo, Y structu re of protein < : prlma .Y struct ure • a,Y struc ture involv es

sequence of amino acid< in the protei n- Hence the pnm Of ,-otein S descr ibes
peptid e t,ond<- 0 1
d·cate s the shap e
z. seconda,Y stnicw re of protei n<: secon dary ,;truct JJre ·tIS·pst 1b"Lized b Y
the Local folding patter n of potyp eptide backb one and
en bonds .,_.,. .n N-H and c=O group s- Hence • 1n alpha hell><
which a tong po~ de chain con e,dst- Most cornrn on shape s
hydrog
in

'Y ..,..aw e ofdprotei ns : TertfO,Y st,11ctW'! of prote ins descr fbeS hOW
3. Tertlal
and the t,eta pet.ate sheet- her to get the three dirne nsion al
regions of _,da tY st,uet ur8 fold to9et
arrang ement al o ~ b e chofn . Three dirnen sfono l stnJc tUre
of prote ins
2 and 3
gives rise to tw<> fJIC!lor moLecUI.Or shape s vfZ. fibrOUS ond gl.Obul.Clr.

structstruct
degreerna,y un' ofse5
ure stabiU by electr
protei o• prote ins ore comp osed of rnore than
ns : sorne
· ouate
In such protei ns, quote rno,Y strUc ture refers to the
4 one polype ptide d>ofn.
n~be r ~nd .""":'grnent of the indhlf duol po(¥p eptide chain s. Each
respec
withred t to O
f prote i n. The
Is know spati
n as quate strucnt
rnarygeme
al arran of
tu~e
these subun
po )'Pept1 be its
is re.a to as eachit other
subm
• • •
~te

the biolog nl : Denat

i rip,op
uratio uratlon
ertles • a proces
,s
• protei
of s where
ns take thea~·
place by h ange •on the phys ical as well as
Denat
other dena:
1. Wh . ng ~gent s. Exam ples: ,on of heat, acids alka li o
• r any
en egg ,s booted the globu lar in) res • •
structural chang es and beco
Z. Coagulation of milk in the presen
protei n (egg album
of lemOn
in which
mes fibrou s proteJ·u· !' •
is
ent on ot unde rgoes
insol uble in wate r
l ce
oce. •
'-r,

Uh uv.¼'
 I•-
iiiC Y'-1
.,..-
J
t nt vito rT1 inS
a .,....ca..-- N•llh t ~ . , , , . _
irY"'IPor I ~ph~i~
som e ~uru ••av o,.. al
LJvd o,1. F.sh• Vt.sto n ..,.d grow th

.,jta rriin s
r VI...... .
carro •• ~t,IJ< .
sp1na .:b ..,.d (ru•ts
,r.kl.O

acri -&c ri
f as papa> "" and
·on o v ·tar riins : ,-11ese v~ "" co_ ...~ " " ,n the ( p,c:ri ph"'...... n.er"- .!
cLossificOt1 citcun oO rfl'll'~ o (orrJl of'Jb i4rn' ""' P).....,
. fot-soLLlbLe "' .... ore sol ubl e y_.a . ~tllJ<. C c ~ · phos phate (TPP ) if1 I
1- ore.v1to ci. min s A, D, c(::..
. fl1 ins wh'Vita GrC.: 0 ,-etic ._,bl~ • g1yco ly,ds
IJ, Chei k»iS
ts onc l fats - Vit,aJl llO ~ r . pork Co cnzyt tlC in the
c1c,S iarl" of corn .,r
in OI beL on9 to thiS groL lP· ('J1uan >lOC) forrn ot FM;- . c~i :n
,non o nudc otidc )aPd of mou th· J1ps as.d
oncl K gen era lly con sum ed s~·Grecn
FAD (~v- 10 01de ni- tong ue,)
~he yore fat- con to1•• n1n 9 b ,-.,gc table Yeast . Egg
Jjnud coud ;e) lo n:doJ <
a.Lon9 with ...,1uw:. MJ.k . u,..,.-
foOCIS, and bec aus e the Y con e \ 'it,alll ID B:

(IU}:,ofla•-ua> lcidn" 'Y

I ,ca.:u ons
..,,,..i In the bod y's fat, the Y do I Scuf' VY (bk,e dU18
Cocen zYDlC Ul gunu>
CI..-U SfrulL S Antio XJJa nt, buJJJ uig
not 1tov e to be con sum ed (Or.&1 18"• i..,,no n
ofcoU agcn
I
l
etc... ).Totn alO.
v1,am JnC A.rnla , t...eafy
eVerJdO.Y•
2. wat er-s olu ble vita min s : The se (Asco rl>ic aaJ) Vq,:e tables Rick cU (duJ dren ),
O~t.e omal. .._-ia
are the vita min s whi ch are Fish Liv.er od. Muk .
AbsoT PllOD :ind
(aJu lts)
,ua1n tcn2n cc of calci um
soLUble In wat er. A gro up of D
'-i1..lfl 1.in yolk. (c,r;p osure
Chotc ca.ldf en>l( D3). to sunu ght)
eight B vita min s and vita min C Ergon lcUc. -ol (D:!.) mu.s cular
belong to this gro up. The wa ter dyst roph y
(mu --..u r
soluble vita min s. can not be Cotto n """'J oJ. Sun
Antio :dd.u >l WC u:nes .s) anJ
fkn--. ,r oil. whea l
stored and mu st be con sum ed Vitam in E ga-m otl. Vege table
pc,urol0 jt1ca l
Jy s:tun ct1on
freq uen tly, pre fera bly eve ryd ay. (Toeo phero ls) oils
lnc r~d bloo d
clnlltf l1C tune
'VitaJnln K G noen leafy Bloo d c1o1u ng 1-La cmor rha~ c
(Phylloqu i.nonc &
Mcnaqu inonr s)
,-egctable , soybc ,;Ut
o,L lonl.U O
I
I dlsea srs