Professional Documents
Culture Documents
As Biology PDF Free
As Biology PDF Free
A Cell Structure
Features of prokaryotes:
B Biological Molecules
1. withstands pressure ;
2. prevents, overstretching / AW ;
3. prevents, bursting / rupture / AW ;
C Enzymes
Glycoproteins
receptors / receptor molecules;
for hormones / neurotransmitters / named hormone /
neurotransmitter (e.g. insulin, acetyl choline, noradrenaline);
idea of (cell surface) antigens / (cell surface) markers / cell
recognition / cell adhesion;
help to stabilise membrane structure / forms H bonds with water
molecules;
carrier proteins
allow named substance (e.g. glucose / amino acids) / polar substance
/ ion(s) / hydrophilic / water soluble substance (to pass through
membrane);
(ref) against concentration gradient / active transport;
energy / ATP (req for transport);
(and) facilitated diffusion / faster than simple diffusion (for ions
/ polar molecules);
Cholesterol
maintains / regulates fluidity of membrane / prevents membrane
being too rigid or fluid / mechanical stability (qualified) /
prevent ions / polar / water soluble / named molecule, passing /
leaking through membrane;
Phospholipids
iron
1. forms part of, haem/haemoglobin/myoglobin; A transport of oxygen
in haemoglobin
A forms prosthetic group of haemoglobin
2. reference cytochrome(s)/electron carrier(s);
3. important in chlorophyll synthesis;
4. prosthetic group of some/named, enzymes/catalase;
potassium
1. activates enzymes;
2. cofactor in, photosynthesis/glycolysis;
3. reference to nerve/muscle, function e.g. conduction of nerve
impulse, muscle contraction;
4. maintains osmotic balance/water potential of cells;
5. stomatal, opening/closure/turgidity of guard cells;
6. reference to Na+/K+ pump mechanism - qualified;
Importance of mitosis:
replacement of cells ;
repair of tissue ; R repair of cells
growth / increase in cell numbers ;
asexual reproduction / vegetative propagation ; R cloning
maintains / same, number of chromosomes ; A two sets of chromosomes /
diploid / 2n
genetically identical to parents ;
A produces daughter cells that are genetically identical A ref. clone(s)
ref to rejection / self vs non-self ;
F Genetic Control
During interphase:
cells metabolically active / AW ;
protein synthesis ;
transcription ;
translation ;
gene expression ;
DNA / semi-conservative, replication ;
respiration ;
synthesising, organelles / named organelle(s) ; e.g. A centrioles replicate
synthesising, macromolecules / named macromolecule ;
Explain how the structure of red blood cells is suited to their function of
transporting oxygen to body tissues.
1. small size / 6-8 μm (diameter), to squeeze through capillaries (7 μm) ;
2. small size / 6-8 μm (diameter), so, haemoglobin (molecules) near to surface
(of plasma membrane) / reduces distance for diffusion (in / out of rbc) ;
3. no nucleus / lack of organelles, so more room for haemoglobin (so more
oxygen transported) ; R more room for oxygen
4. biconcave shape / diagram drawn, increases surface area for, diffusion /
uptake / release (of oxygen) ;
5. flexible / AW ( membrane), to squeeze through capillaries ;
Explain how the structure of haemoglobin aids the uptake of oxygen in the
lungs.
Explain how CO2 stimulates the release of oxygen from the blood.
1. carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid;
2. catalysed by carbonic anhydrase;
3. dissociates to hydrogen carbonate and hydrogen ions;
4. hydrogen ions combine with haemoglobin; R hydrogen ions replace oxygen in
haemoglobin
5. forms haemoglobinic acid/HHb;
6. so releasing oxygen;
ignore ref to Bohr shift (question says ‘explain’)
A from equations.
Transport of CO2
Describe and explain how carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen ions (H+)
play a role in the unloading of oxygen from haemoglobin.
1. diffusion of, carbon dioxide / CO2;
2. into red blood cell from correct
source ;
3. description of carbonic acid
formation followed by H+
production ;
4. ref. carbonic anhydrase ) fast
reaction; A ecf from (d)
5. haemoglobin has a higher affinity
for hydrogen ions than oxygen ; A
haemoglobin releases oxygen more
easily in acidic conditions accept
idea of H+ binding to haemoglobin
bringing out oxygen release
6. ref. to, allosteric effect / change in
tertiary structure / AW, in
(oxy)haemoglobin, causes, release /
AW, of oxygen ;
7. formation of haemoglobinic acid ;
must refer to, H+ binding /
decreased pH
8. ref. higher partial pressures / AW, CO2, linked to (oxy)haemoglobin releasing,
more oxygen / oxygen more readily ; Bohr shift
9. formation of carbamino-haemoglobin ; R carboxyhaemoglobin
10.chloride shift, qualified ;
e.g. as hydrogen carbonate ions move out of cell, chloride ions move in e.g.
to maintain, electroneutrality / a balance of charge / ions ;
Explain how the structure of sieve tube elements helps the translocation
of substances in the phloem.
Explain how the sucrose is transported in phloem along the stem from the
leaf to the fruit.
H Gas Exchange
Mucus is sticky and therefore helps to trap dust and bacteria thereby protecting the
alveoli against damage and pathogens. The cilia sweeps out the mucus away from
the lungs.
Disease
Non-infectious disease
Transmission of HIV:
1. Sexual intercourse;
2. Infected, blood/blood products;
3. Sharing/re-using, hypodermic needles;
4. Across placenta/from mother to foetus;
5. Breast milk;
6. AVP.
Discuss the reasons why vaccination has not eradicated cholera and sickle
cell anaemia.
cholera up to max 4
1 transmission cycle is difficult to break; A described with example(s)
2 ref. difficulty in administering e.g. refugee camp, displaced, disaster ;
3 poor diet, lowered immune response ;
4 more than one strain (needs more than one type of vaccine) ; A more than one
type (that causes cholera) R constantly mutating
5 vaccine, only gives short-term protection / requiring boosters ;
6 antigenic concealment ;
7 qualified ; e.g. organism in intestines, difficult for antibodies to reach
8 ref. (older or newer oral) vaccine, not successful for everyone / variable (60–65%
up
to 90% depending on population group) protection ;
9 no requirement by health authorities (for vaccine) / vaccine not used by health
authorities ; AW
sickle cell
1 no vaccine available ; A cannot vaccinate against sickle cell
2 not caused by pathogen / non-infectious / non-transmissible / non-communicable ;
3 genetic / inherited, disease / AW ; A caused by a mutation
4 affects all red blood cells so vaccine would lead to their destruction ;
J Immunity
Specificity of antibody:
1. variable region;
2. binding region to antigen;
3. shape is specific to, choleragen / antigen;
4. complementary;
5. ref to R groups on amino acids (in polypeptide / protein);
6. different, sequences of amino acids / primary structures;
7. ref to, folding of the molecule / secondary structure / tertiary structure;
Th cells (C)
10.secrete cytokines to stimulate B cells ;
11.cytokines stimulate macrophages ;
B cells (B)
14.B cells become plasma cells ;
15.(plasma cells) secrete antibodies ;
16.AVP ; e.g.
macrophages, non-specific / faster response
ref. specificity of, lymphocytes / B and T cells
antibody variable region is the antigen binding site ;
helper cells
1. secrete / release / produce, cytokines / lymphokines / hormones;
2. to stimulate B cells to, divide / develop into plasma cells;
3. (which) produce antibodies;
4. (and) stimulate macrophages to carry out phagocytosis / (idea of);
Memory cell:
1. Remains in, lymph node/blood/lymph/lymphatic system/body;
2. Recognises next infection by same, antigen/(measles) virus;
3. Secondary response;
4. (More) rapid (than primary);
5. Immunological memory;
6. AVP.
Outline how bacteria convert nitrogen in these proteins to a form that may
be taken up by living plants.
urea → ammonia;
ammonia → nitrite;
Nitrosomonas;
nitrite → to nitrate;
Nitrobacter;
nitrification;
oxidation / chemosynthesis;
The bacterial urease converts the urea to ammonia. The Nitrosomnas then oxidises
ammonia to nitrite ions. These nitrite ions are then oxidised to nitrate ions by
NitroBacter.
Explain why crop yields are often significantly reduced even after the
flood water has
drained away.