F0LC 35

SHIP STABILITY: THEORY

AND PRACTICAL
APPLICATION

Outcome 3
Analyse and use stability/stress
diagrams and stress calculating
equipment

MARTIN RHODES
(January 2017)
 CONTENTS
Page

SECTION 1 – Classification of Stresses 2

SECTION 2 – Shear Forces and Bending Moments 4

SECTION 3 – Torsional Stresses 28

1
 SECTION 1

Classification of Stresses
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Classification of stresses

2
1.1 Introduction
The task of a naval architect is to design a ship that is economical to build and with
as little light weight displacement as possible but one that can withstand the various
forces and stresses that it will experience in service. If scantlings are insufficient
and/or strength compensation is insufficient in highly stressed regions of the hull
structural failure will result. The current trend is to build bigger and longer ships
which have to be able to withstand the associated increased forces and resulting
stresses; this creates ever increasing challenges for the modern ship designer.

1.2 Classification of stresses

Stresses fall into two broad groups:

 General stresses – those which affect the ship as whole, either for the most
of its length or around the transverse section, and;
 Local stresses – those which affect only relatively small areas of the structure.

The various stresses within these two categories are summarised below.

STRESSES

GENERAL LOCAL

LONGITUDINAL TRANSVERSE PANTING POUNDING LOCAL LOADS VIBRATION

BENDING SHEARING RACKING CENTRE WING WATER PRESSURE

(HOGGING LOADING LOADING
AND OR
SAGGING) DRY DOCKING

Fig. 1.1 Classification of stresses

This outcome is primarily concerned with longitudinal stresses and torsional

(twisting) stresses. The use of modern loading programme software is also discussed.

3
 SECTION 2

Shear Forces and Bending Moments

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Shear forces and bending moments in still water
2.3 Simple shear force and bending moment diagrams for box- shaped vessels
2.3.1 Producing the curve of loads
2.3.2 Producing the curve of shear forces
2.3.3 Producing the curve of bending moments
2.3.4 A harder example illustrating key points of interest
2.4 Sea wave bending
2.5 Stress loading programme representations
2.5.1 Calculation conventions
2.5.2 Stress calculating programs – system requirements and data
representation

4
2.1 Introduction
When a ship is floating in still water the hull will experience longitudinal deflections
created by the uneven distribution of weight forces and buoyancy forces along its
length. These stresses will always exist to some degree and no matter how the ship
is loaded can never be totally eliminated. At sea, longitudinal stresses will be
increased and decreased in a cyclical manner as waves pass along the ship’s length.

It is the responsibility of those loading the ship to ensure that the longitudinal
stresses likely to be experienced are maintained within acceptable limits. Although
it is not a requirement that manual shear force and bending moment calculations be
conducted on board, it is essential that those responsible for loading the ship have
an understanding of the causes of such stresses and that they can correctly interpret
the graphical data presented on a modern loading calculating program after the
correct inputs by the user.

2.2 Shear forces and bending moments in still water

In still water a ship will experience shearing forces and bending moments as a
consequence of uneven distribution of weight forces and buoyancy forces acting
along its length.

Consider a box-shaped vessel of uniform construction having three holds of equal

length. The light displacement of the vessel is 9000 tonnes and it is floating on an
even keel.

Fig. 2.1 Box-shaped barge in light condition

The vessel will displace a mass of water equal to the displacement of the vessel in
the light condition. The total weight force (Wf) acting downwards equals the total
buoyancy force (Bf) acting upwards.

Since each of the holds are the same length, the weight force attributable to each
hold will be the same, being 3000 tonnes for each. The volume (and hence mass) of
water displaced by each hold will also be the same, 3000 tonnes. It can be seen that
the distribution of weight force and buoyancy force exactly matches throughout the
length of the vessel and in this condition the vessel’s structure will experience no
stress.

5
6000 tonnes of bulk cargo is now loaded into No. 2 hold and is trimmed level (figure
2.2).

Fig. 2.2 6000 tonnes is loaded into no. 2 hold

The buoyancy force is still evenly distributed along the length of the vessel, since
5000 tonnes of water is displaced by each hold, however, the distribution of the
weight force is not the same as can be seen.

In numbers 1 and 3 holds there is an excess of buoyancy force of 2000 tonnes,

whereas in number 2 hold there is an excess of weight force of 4000 tonnes. These
excesses of weight forces and buoyancy forces create the shearing forces. The
shearing forces are the vertical forces that tend to cause the ship to be ‘sliced’ into
different parts. Consider what would happen to the vessel in figure 2.2 if each hold
could float independently of the others.

Fig. 2.3 If each hold could float independently they would find their own level - shearing

6
It would be hoped that the vessel would not shear at the bulkheads as illustrated;
the ship would experience bending moments that in this instant would cause the
vessel to be sagged (figure 2.4). The opposite situation would arise when a vessel is
loaded at the ends and less in the amidships section, causing the vessel to be hogged.

Fig. 2.4 In the condition described the vessel experiences ‘sagging’

2.3 Simple shear force and bending moment diagrams for box-
shaped vessels
The values of shear force and bending moment can be easily calculated for any
position within a box-shaped vessel’s length. However, it should be evident that the
maximum values of shear force will occur at the bulkhead positions. Follow example
1 which details a method of calculating the values of loads, shear forces and bending
moments.

Example 1
In the light condition a box-shaped vessel is 45 m in length, 8 m in breadth and floats
at a draught of 3.0 m in fresh water. The vessel has three holds each 15 m in length.

90 tonnes of bulk cargo is loaded into number 2 hold and is trimmed level. For the
loaded condition construct the following:
(a) the load curve;

(b) the curve of shear forces, and

(c) the curve of bending moments.

(d) Identify the positions where the maximum shearing forces and bending
moments occur.

Values of shear forces and bending moments are to be calculated at 5 metre intervals
starting from the after perpendicular (AP) and at amidships (22.5 m foap).

7
2.3.1 Producing the curve of loads

Solution (a)
1. Calculate the distribution of the lightweight displacement of the vessel.

Light displacement = (L  B  d)  density

Light displacement = (45  8  3.0)  1.000 = 1080 tonnes

Being a box-shaped vessel of uniform construction the lightweight

displacement evenly distributed = 1080 t = 24 t/m
45 m

2. Calculate the distribution of all deadweight items (cargo).

Cargo evenly distributed in No. 2 hold = 90 t = 6 t/m

15 m

3. Calculate the load displacement and distribution of the buoyancy force.

Load displacement = Light displacement + Deadweight

Load displacement = 1080 + 90 = 1170 tonnes

Being a box-shaped vessel of uniform construction the buoyancy force evenly

distributed = 1170 t = 26 t/m
45 m

4. Calculate the loads in each hold and plot the ‘load curve’.

Lightweight Deadweight Total Wf Bf LOAD

Hold No.
(t/m) (t/m) (t/m) (t/m) (t/m)
3 24 0 24 26 2 up
2 24 6 30 26 4 down
1 24 0 24 26 2 up

The load in tonnes per metre represents the excess of buoyancy force or weight
force in each hold.

The load curve is shown in figure 2.5.

8
 Fig. 2.5 Load curve

Note
Because total weight force equals total buoyancy force, it follows that the excesses
of buoyancy force (represented by the area above the base line) and the excesses
of weight force (represented by the area below the base line) must also be equal.
This is always the case. Note also that the unit of load is tonnes/metre.

2.3.2 Producing the curve of shear forces

Solution (b)
The shear force at any position is defined as being the algebraic sum of the loads
acting to the left (or right) of the position in question and is measured in tonnes.

Integrating the load curve will produce the curve of shear forces but don’t panic;
there is an easy way to do this!

The maximum shear force values will arise at the positions where the loads change
direction, being at the bulkhead positions.

Consider the aforementioned definition of shear force. For our purposes this
definition of shear force can be modified to read as being the area under the load
curve to the left of the point in question.

Therefore:

SF at AP = 0 tonnes (since there is no area to the left of the AP under the curve!)

Placing a sheet of paper over the curve and moving it to the right at 5 metre
intervals, calculate the net area to the left of the edge of the sheet for each point
in question (figure 2.6).

9
 Fig. 2.6

SF at 5 m foap = 2 t/m  5 m = 10 tonnes.

Now calculate the SF value at 10 m foap (by moving the paper further to the right
and revealing more of the curve to the left.

SF at 10 m foap = 2 t/m  10 m = 20 tonnes.

SF at 15 m foap (Bulkhead 3/2) = 2 t/m  15 m = 30 tonnes.

At 20 m foap there is area revealed above and below the baseline and this is treated
as positive and negative as per the load scale.

10
 Fig. 2.7

SF at 20 m foap = (2 t/m  15 m) + (-4 t/m  5 m) = 10 tonnes.

Continuing with this method gives:

SF at amidships (22.5 m foap) = (2 t/m  15 m) + (-4 t/m  7.5 m) = 0 tonnes

SF at 25 m foap = (2 t/m  15 m) + (-4 t/m  10 m) = -10 tonnes.

SF at 30 m foap (bulkhead 2/1) = (2 t/m  15 m) + (-4 t/m  15 m) = -30 tonnes

SF at 35 m foap = (2 t/m  15 m) + (-4 t/m  15 m) + (2 t/m  5 m) = -20 tonnes

SF at 40 m foap = (2 t/m  15 m) + (-4 t/m  15 m) + (2 t/m  10 m) = -10 tonnes

SF at 45 m foap = (2 t/m  15 m) + (-4 t/m  15 m) + (2 t/m  15 m) = 0 tonnes

(Obviously the SF at the FP is 0 tonnes.)

In summary, the values of shear force are as follows:

SF at AP = 0 tonnes
SF 5 m foap = 10 tonnes
SF 10 m foap = 20 tonnes
SF 15 m foap (bulkhead 2/1) = 30 tonnes
SF 20 m foap = 10 tonnes
SF 22.5 foap (amidships) = 0 tonnes
SF 25 m foap (bulkhead 2/1) = -10 tonnes
SF 30 m foap = -30 tonnes
SF 35 m foap = -20 tonnes

11
SF 40 m foap = -10 tonnes
SF at 45 m foap (FP) = 0 tonnes

Careful study of this method will lead to a more simplified approach with practice.

The curve of shear forces can now be plotted as shown in figure 2.8.

Fig. 2.8

2.3.3 Producing the curve of bending moments

The bending moment values are calculated in exactly the same way as the shear
force values, by considering the areas under the shear force curve to the left of the
position in question.

The area of a triangle is given by:

Area = ½ Base  Perpendicular height

The area of a trapezium as shown is given by:

Area = (a + b)  base
2
a b

12
Solution (c)
The bending moment values (t×m) are calculated as follows:

BM at AP = 0 t×m (since there is no area to the left of the AP under the SF curve!)

Placing a sheet of paper over the curve and moving to the right as far as the first
bulkhead position (Bulkhead 3/2), calculate the areas as before (figure 2.9).

Fig. 2.9

BM 5 m foap = ½  5 m  10 t = 25 t×m

BM 10 m foap = ½  10 m  20 t = 100 t×m

BM 15 m foap (bulkhead 3/2) = ½  15 m  30 t = 225 t×m

Once past bulkhead 3/2 it is necessary to consider the area of a trapezium formed
by the area under the shear force curve to the right of the bulkhead as seen in figure
2.10.

13
 Fig. 2.10

BM 20 m foap = (½  15 m  30 t) + (30 t + 10 t)  5 m) = 325 t×m

2
BM at amidships (22.5 m foap) = ½  22.5  30 = 337.5 t×m

BM at 25 m foap = 337.5 t×m + (½  2.5 m  -10 t) = 325 t×m

(Since we know the area from 0 to 22.5 m foap, being 337.5 t×m!)

BM at 30 m foap (bulkhead 2/1) = 337.5 + (½  7.5 m  -30 t) = 225 t×m

BM at 35 m foap = 225 + (-30 t + -20 t)  5 m) = 100 t×m

2
(Since we know the area from 0 to 30m foap, being 225 t×m!)

BM at 40 m foap = 225 + (-30 t + -10 t  10 m) = 25 t×m

2
BM at FP = 0 t×m

14
In summary, the values of bending moment are as follows:

BM at AP = 0 t×m
BM at 5 m foap = 25 t×m
BM at 10 m foap = 100 t×m
BM 15 m foap (bulkhead 2/1) = 225 t×m
BM at 20 m foap = 325 t×m
BM at 22.5 foap (amidships) = 337.5 t×m
BM at 25 m foap (bulkhead 2/1) = 325 t×m
BM at 30 m foap = 225 t×m
BM at 35 m foap = 100 t×m
BM at 40 m foap = 25 t×m
BM at 45 m foap (FP) = 0 t×m

Figure 2.11 shows the plotted bending moment curve.

Fig. 2.11 Bending moment curve

Solution (d)
Summary
The maximum shear force values occur at the positions where the direction of the
loads change direction; at the bulkheads being:

30 tonnes at 15 m foap (in line with bulkhead 3/2), and;

-30 tonnes at 30 m foap (in line with bulkhead 2/1)

The maximum bending moment value of (337.5 t×m) occurs at amidships (22.5 m
foap), where the shear force value is zero.

15
It should be noted that a point of inflexion of the bending moment curve will occur
in any position where there is a shear force maximum (being at the bulkhead
positions in this example).

In this first example the vessel was sagged. Consider example 2 where the ship is in
a hogged condition.

2.3.4 A harder example illustrating key points of interest

Example 2
A box shaped vessel has length 80 m and breadth 10 m and is floating in the light
condition at a draught of 3.0 m in water RD 1.010. It is divided into four holds of
equal length. Cargo is loaded as follows:
No. 1 120 tonnes,
No. 2 120 tonnes,
No. 3 empty,
No.4 160 tonnes.
Construct the curves of shear force and bending moment, calculating the maximum
values and stating the positions where they occur.

Solution

Producing the load curve

1. Calculate the distribution of the lightweight displacement of the vessel.
Light displacement = (L  B  d)  density
Light displacement = (80  10  3.0)  1.010 = 2424 tonnes

Being a box-shaped vessel of uniform construction the lightweight

displacement evenly distributed = 2424 t = 30.3 t/m
80 m

2. Calculate the distribution of all deadweight items (cargo).

Cargo evenly distributed in No. 1 hold = 120 t = 6 t/m
20 m

Cargo evenly distributed in No.2 hold is also 6 t/m

Cargo evenly distributed in No. 4 hold = 160 t = 8 t/m

20 m

3. Calculate the load displacement and distribution of the buoyancy force.

Load displacement = Light displacement + Deadweight

Load displacement = 2424 + 120 + 120 + 160 = 2824 tonnes

Being a box-shaped vessel of uniform construction the buoyancy force evenly

distributed = 2824 t = 35.3 t/m

80 m

16
4. Calculate the loads in each hold and plot the load curve.

Lightweight Deadweight Total Wf Bf LOAD

Hold No.
(t/m) (t/m) (t/m) (t/m) (t/m)
4 30.3 8 38.3 35.3 3 down
3 30.3 0 30.3 35.3 5 up
2 30.3 6 36.3 35.3 1 down
1 30.3 6 36.3 35.3 1 down

The load curve is shown in figure 2.12.

Fig. 2.12

Producing the shear force curve

Calculate values at 10 metre intervals using the procedure previously described.

SF at AP = 0 tonnes

SF at 10 m foap = (-3 t/m  10 m) = -30 tonnes

SF at 20 m foap (bulkhead 4/3) = (-3 t/m  20 m) = -60 tonnes

SF at 30 m foap = -60 t + (5 t/m  10 m) = -10 tonnes

SF at 40 m foap (bulkhead 3/2 and amidships) = -60 t + (5 t/m  20 m) = 40 tonnes

SF at 50 m foap = 40 t + (-1t/m  10 m) = 30 tonnes

SF at 60 m foap (bulkhead 2/1) = 40 t + (-1 t/m  20 m) = 20 tonnes

SF at 70 m foap = 20 t + (-1 t/m  10 m) = 10 tonnes

SF at 80 m foap (FP) = 20 t + (-1 t/m  20 m) = 0 tonnes

Figure 2.13 shows the shear force curve.

17
 Fig. 2.13

It can be seen that the position of zero shear force lies in hold no. 3 and the value
of the bending moment must be calculated for this position as it will be a maximum
value. The position of this maximum value could be estimated from the shear force
curve (about 32 m foap) but it is more accurate to calculate it by using the similar
triangles created by the shear force values for the bulkhead positions 4/3 and 3/2
as shown in figure 2.14.

18
 Fig. 2.14

Let the position be ‘x’ metres from bulkhead 4/3 where the total hold length is 20
metres.

In the similar triangles:

x = (20 – x) Therefore: 40x = 60(20 – x)

60 40

 40x = 1200 – 60x  40x + 60x = 1200

 100x = 1200  x = 12 metres

The position of zero shear force is at 32 m foap.

It is essential for examination purposes that this method be used to calculate this
position.

Producing the bending moment curve

Calculate values at 10 metre intervals including that for 32 m foap using the
procedure previously described.

BM at AP = 0 t×m

BM 10 m foap = ½  10 m  -30 t = -150 t×m

BM 20 m foap (Bulkhead 4/3) = ½  20 m  -60 t = -600 t×m

19
BM at 30 m foap = -600 t×m + Area trapezium 20 m to 30 m foap

= -600 t×m + (-60 t + -10 t)  10 m = -950 t×m

2

BM at 32 m foap (zero SF) = -600 t×m + (½  12 m  -60 t) = -960 t×m

BM at 40 m foap (Bulkhead 3/2) = -960 + (½  8 m  40 t) = -800 t×m

(Amidships)

BM at 50 m foap = -800 t×m + Area trapezium 40 m to 50 m foap

= -800 t×m + (40 t + 30 t)  10 m = -450 t×m

2

BM at 60 m foap (Bulkhead 2/1) = -800 t×m + Area trapezium 40 m to 60 m foap

= -800 t×m + (40 t + 20 t)  20 m = -200 t×m

2

BM at 70 m foap = -200 t×m + Area trapezium 60 m to 70 m foap

= -200 t×m + (20 t + 10 t)  10 m = -50 t×m

2

BM at 80 m foap (FP) = -200 t×m + (½  20 m  20 t) = 0 t×m

Calculating these values is tedious and a large-scale graph of the shear force curve
will make life a lot easier. Remember that it is just a matter of calculating the area
to the left of the position in question each time.

The bending moment curve is shown in figure 2.15.

20
 Fig. 2.15

Summary
The maximum shear force values are as follows:

-60 tonnes at 20 m foap (in line with bulkhead 4/3), and;

40 tonnes at 40 m foap (in line with bulkhead 3/2)

The maximum bending moment value of –960 t×m occurs at 32 m foap, where the
shear force value is zero.

21
2.4 Sea wave bending
So far only the causes of longitudinal bending in still water (or the harbour
condition) have been discussed. A well-loaded ship subjected to minimal stress in
still water will encounter cyclical longitudinal bending when encountering waves at
sea. The extreme case scenario occurs at sea when the ship encounters waves where
the wavelength is equal to the ship’s length and either of the following occurs:

 the ship is caused to sag when the trough is amidships and the wave crests
are at the ends, or;

 the ship is caused to hog when the wave crest is amidships and the troughs
are at the ends.

Fig. 2.16 Sagging and hogging waves

Loading programme software designers will make assumptions about the wave
profile to be encountered by the ship that will create the worst possible longitudinal
bending moments. Typical assumptions might be:

(1) the wave is trochoidal in form.

(2) the wave length is equal to the ship’s length between perpendiculars.

(3) the wave height is equivalent to that given by:

0.617L (metres)

where L is the ship’s LBP.

22
 Fig. 2.17

A trochoidal wave profile is one generated by the rotation of a circle which can be easily calculated on a computer;
the wave height is reduced to give the equivalent sea wave profile assumed

Unlike bending in still water, the bending due to waves alone will alternate in
direction as the wave passes along the length of the ship. The absolute worst case
scenarios assumed by loading programme manufacturers by necessity must be one
of the following depending on how the ship is loaded at the time the loading
programme is being used for stress calculations:

 an initially sagged ship in still water encountering a ‘sagging wave’ at sea, or;

 an initially hogged ship in still water encountering a ‘hogging wave’ at sea.

Fig. 2.18 Assumed worst case scenarios

23
2.5 Stress loading programme representations

2.5.1 Calculation conventions

When calculating the values of shear force and bending moments in the previous
examples the convention followed was:

(1) The ship profile considered is always for the starboard side (this is the
accepted convention for all ship’s plans);

(2) Shear force and bending moment values where calculated starting from the
after perpendicular (AP) working forward.

For the simple sagged and hogged conditions considered this gave shear force and
bending moment curves as depicted in figure 2.19.

Fig. 2.19

The convention used allows the condition of the ship, whether it be sagged or
hogged, to be easily recognised. Quite often loading programme manufacturers
might adopt this convention, however it is not crucial. Had the shear force and
bending moment values been calculated from the forward perpendicular working
aft, then the same values would have been obtained, but the signs would be reversed
to give a ‘mirror’ image of the curves using the convention that we have adopted.

2.5.2 Stress calculating programs – system requirements and data representation

Generally, ships over 150 metres in length and other ships that are likely to be
subjected to excessive longitudinal stresses must be provided with a loading
calculator to allow the values of shearing forces and bending moments to be
calculated for any condition of loading. This will usually be in the form of a computer
programme that has been approved by the classification society whereby a
Certificate of Approval will be issued. There are strict guidelines on the use and
testing of such programmes and compliance with the appropriate classification
society regulations regarding such programmes will be subject to verification during
periodical classification society surveys.

24
The loading program should be capable of calculating the following hull girder shear
forces and bending moments according to the appropriate classification society
regulations:

(1) Still water shear forces.

(2) Still water bending moments.

(3) Still water torsion moments, where applicable (mostly a requirement for
container ships).

(4) Sea-going condition shear forces.

(5) Sea-going condition bending moments.

(6) Sea-going condition torsion moments where applicable.

Although the actual values of shear forces (in tonnes) and bending moments (in
tonnes × metres) for positions along the vessels length will be given these often have
little relevance to the operator. It is the visual representation of the shear force
and bending moment curves displayed along with the curves representing the
maximum permissible values for both the harbour (still water) and sea-going (sea)
conditions that will convey the true state of loading of the ship to the user.

A typical representation is illustrated in figure 2.20.

25
 Fig. 2.20

This is a common form of representation adopted by many loading program

manufacturers. It can be seen that the harbour (still water) limits are higher than
those for when the ship is at sea. This allows more leeway when planning a loading
schedule, whereby the program will be used to calculate the stress values at
intermediate stages during loading or discharging in port. Provided that the shear
force and bending moment curves do not extend into the red area then the ship will
not suffer excessive stress in harbour. Once loading is complete it should be verified
that the curves do not extend into the yellow area, representing the acceptable
stress limits for when the ship is at sea. The limit settings will be determined by the
classification society that will be such that they are at some acceptable percentage
of absolute maximum that the structure can withstand, perhaps 80% say. It should
be noted that as the ship ages and the effects of corrosion start to take effect to
weaken the structure, the maximum permissible shear forces and bending moments
can be expected to reduce and this will require the program data to be modified to
reflect this.

It will also be noted that a ship may experience both sagging and hogging at the
same time in different parts in the length. This is particularly true at intermediate
stages in a loading procedure and when alternate hold loading is required in the case

26
of dense bulk cargoes. A typical fully loaded general cargo ship will invariably be
sagged, whereby the aft and fore peak tanks will be empty (along with the excess
of buoyancy force that will occur in the vicinity of the engine room) and cargo is in
holds extending forward and aft of the amidships region.

Finally, most loading programs include the ability to calculate the ship’s stability
also. However, it must be emphasised that the program must be classification
society approved, and if provided, it must be periodically checked by manual
calculations. Testing procedures will be stipulated and must be followed. Obviously,
any program will only be effective if the person using it inputs the correct data!

Reference should be made to REC 46 BULK CARRIERS (IACS):

BULK CARRIERS
Guidance and Information on Bulk Cargo Loading and Discharging to
Reduce the Likelihood of Over-stressing the Hull Structure

This can be downloaded freely from the IACS website

http://www.iacs.org.uk/publications/publications.aspx?pageid=4&sectionid=5

(Correct at the time of writing)

27
 SECTION 3

Torsional Stresses
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Container ships

28
3.1 Introduction
When any object is subject to a twisting moment, which is commonly referred to as
torque, that body is said to be in ‘torsion’. A ship heading obliquely (45° say) to a
wave will be subjected to righting moments of opposite direction at its ends, twisting
the hull and putting it in ‘torsion’. In most ships these torsional moments and
stresses are negligible but in ships with extremely wide and long deck openings they
are significant.

3.2 Container ships

A container ship is required to have hatch openings that extend to the extreme
breadth of the holds to allow access for loading and discharging the containers
vertically; unlike a cargo ship where there is scope for the winging out of weights
using forklift trucks. The lack of deck structure makes such ships particularly
vulnerable to twisting (torsional) stresses in a similar way to a biscuit tin without its
lid on! At the topsides a heavy torsion box girder structure is included in the upper
deck to accommodate the torsional stresses.

Torsion box

Fig. 3.1 A view of the Maersk Gateshead – note the ‘partial’ bulkheads within the holds

29
 Torsion box

Fig. 3.2 Torsion box structure

Extreme torsional moments can arise in the following ways:

 The loading of weights in forward port holds and starboard aft holds or vice-
versa in still water, or;
 The oblique approach of waves at sea causing cyclical torsion stresses to port
and starboard as the waves pass the ship, or;
 The cumulative effects of both of the above.

30
 Fig. 3.3
Torsional stress caused by uneven port and starboard listing moments along the length of the ship

31
 Fig. 3.4
Torsional stress caused by oblique wave approach; the worst scenario for sea or swell wave approach is shown.

Container ships and others likely to be subjected to excessive torsion stresses will
have loading software that will be capable of calculating the stresses in the same
way that longitudinal stresses are calculated. Torsion stress values will be provided
for both harbour and sea conditions.

32