plants
Article
Edible Fruits from the Ecuadorian Amazon: Ethnobotany,
Physicochemical Characteristics, and Bioactive Components
Maritza Sánchez-Capa 1,2, *, Mireia Corell González 1,3
Citation: Sánchez-Capa, M.; Corell
González, M.; Mestanza-Ramón, C.
Edible Fruits from the Ecuadorian
Amazon: Ethnobotany,
Physicochemical Characteristics, and
Bioactive Components. Plants 2023,
12, 3635. https://doi.org/10.3390/
plants12203635
Academic Editors: Valdir Veiga,
André Luís Dias Araujo Mazzari and
Cecilia Cagliero
Received: 12 September 2023
Revised: 18 October 2023
Accepted: 19 October 2023
Published: 21 October 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Plants 2023, 12, 3635. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12203635
and Carlos Mestanza-Ramón 2, *
1 Departamento de Agronomía, Universidad de Sevilla, ETSIA Crta. de Utrera Km 1, 41013 Seville, Spain;
mcorell@us.es
2 Research Group YASUNI-SDC, Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo, Sede Orellana,
El Coca 220001, Ecuador
3 CSIC Associate Unit, “Uso Sostenible del Suelo & Agua en Agricultura”, Universidad de Sevilla IRNAS,
41013 Seville, Spain
* Correspondence: marsancap1@alum.us.es (M.S.-C.); carlos.mestanza@espoch.edu.ec (C.M.-R.)
Abstract: In the Ecuadorian Amazon region, there are various types of edible fruits that have distinct
qualities and benefits. Understanding the uses, properties, and functions of these fruits is important
for researching products that are only available in local markets. This review aims to gather and
summarize the existing scientific literature on the ethnobotany, physicochemical composition, and
bioactive compounds of these native fruits to highlight the potential of the region’s underutilized
biodiversity. A systematic review was carried out following the PRISMA methodology, utilizing
databases such as Web of Science, Scopus, Pubmed, Redalyc, and SciELO up to August 2023. The
research identified 55 edible fruits from the Ecuadorian Amazon and reported their ethnobotanical
information. The most common uses were fresh fruit consumption, preparation of typical food,
and medicine. Additionally, nine native edible fruits were described for their physicochemical
characteristics and bioactive components: Aphandra natalia (Balslev and Henderson) Barfod; Eugenia
stipitate McVaugh; Gustavia macarenensis Philipson; Mauritia flexuosa L.f; Myrciaria dubia (Kunth)
McVaugh; Oenocarpus bataua Mart; Plukenetia volubilis L.; Pouteria caimito (Ruiz and Pav.) Radlk.; and
Solanum quitoense Lam. The analyzed Amazonian fruits contained bioactive compounds such as total
polyphenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, and anthocyanins. This information highlights their potential
as functional foods and the need for further research on underutilized crops.
Keywords: Ecuador; biodiversity; tropical products; underutilized crops
1. Introduction
The Amazon is one of the most biodiverse ecosystems in the world; one-tenth of all
living species are found in this biome [1]. It covers 44% of the surface of South America
and provides invaluable ecosystem and social services such as climate regulation, human
culture of indigenous peoples, gene banks, and freshwater reservoirs [2]. It is made up
of eight countries: Bolivia; Brazil; Colombia; Ecuador; Guyana; Peru; Suriname; and
Venezuela [3,4]. The biodiversity present in the Amazon is a source of plants for human
nutrition, including native and introduced fruits domesticated by indigenous populations,
which are mostly collected and cultivated for consumption in local markets [5].
Most tropical fruit production comes from Latin American and Caribbean countries.
Brazil, Ecuador, México, and Costa Rica are the main producers and exporters of fresh
tropical fruits worldwide [6]. However, fruits in the Ecuadorian Amazon are subsistence
crops, mainly destined for self-consumption and livestock feed, with low productivity
due to poor field management, limited use of technology, and lack of organization of
value chains [7]. Fortunately, the consumption of fruits and vegetables is promoted by
international and governmental organizations due to their benefits for human health [8].
The need to identify new sources of bioactive compounds has increased, and with it, the
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/plants
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 2 of 20

research and consumption of native or exotic tropical fruits, which have been shown to
have minerals, vitamins, fibers, phenolic compounds, and pigments [9].
Bioactive components of fruits, such as vitamins, carotenoids, and phenolic com-
pounds, are associated with the prevention of chronic pathologies, including cancer, car-
diovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, and Alzheimer’s disease [10]. These components
are characterized by their antioxidant properties, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, antimi-
crobial, anticancer, antiviral, and antimutagenic activities [11]. Nowadays, profiling the
bio-chemical and bioactive components of fruits is essential to identify their health ben-
efits [12]. Unfortunately, Amazonian fruits marketed at local fairs, which are part of
the cultural identity of the people [7], lack scientific exploration of their agro-industrial,
nutritional, and functional potential [9].
Local markets are a source of information on how botanical resources are used in
different regions and on traditional knowledge in general [13]. Among the human groups
of the Amazon region, the indigenous people often have greater ethnobotanical knowledge.
The main use of fruits in Amazonian communities is for food, and, in some cases, they are
considered medicinal [14]. The diversity of species in a region does not mean greater use
by the local population; generally, the most abundant species in the ecosystem are used,
with a predominance of easily accessible species [15]. Traditional crops and knowledge
about their use have been lost with the domestication of species for agriculture. There is a
record of 1561 species of edible plants in Ecuador, which corresponds to 9% of the country’s
flora [16].
Once the importance of the bioactive profiles of fruits and their nutritional and func-
tional properties have been established, and considering their high diversity in the Ecuado-
rian Amazon region, there has been little scientific exploration, which has prevented the
deepening of new knowledge and their correct use. In this sense, the present work aimed
to synthesize the available information on ethnobotany, physicochemical composition, and
bioactive compounds of edible fruits present in the Ecuadorian Amazon to know and
promote their importance, as well as to evaluate their existing biodiversity.

2. Results
After implementing the methodology, a thorough review of 66 documents was con-
ducted, out of which 27 were considered relevant for the selection of edible fruits from the
Ecuadorian Amazon and ethnobotanical description [7,17–42] (Supplementary Table S1).
The remaining 39 documents were utilized to describe the physicochemical features and
bioactive components of the nine chosen fruits (Table 1).

Table 1. References included by topic.

Fruits References Included

Aphandra natalia [17]
Eugenia stipitata [32,43–50]
Gustavia macarenensis [27,42,51]
Mauritia flexuosa [21,25,41,44,47,52,53]
Myrciaria dubia [46,54–58]
Oenocarpus bataua [26,27,59,60]
Plukenetia volubilis [61–65]
Pouteria caimito [47,66,67]
Solanum quitoense [32,33,43,68,69]

The results of this work are presented in three subsections: the first one shows an
analysis of the use, origin, and location of the fruits in the Ecuadorian Amazon, responding
to the objective of analyzing their ethnobotany in a preliminary way. In the Section 2, a
brief description of the most studied Amazonian fruits in Ecuador was made, and their
physicochemical characteristics were compiled, identifying their possible management. In
 and their physicochemical characteristics were compiled, identifying their possible man-
agement. In the third section, the bioactive components analyzed in fruits sampled in the
Amazon
Plants region of Ecuador were presented to know the potential of these products as
2023, 12, 3635 3 of 20
functional foods.

2.1. Ethnobotany the Section 3, the bioactive components analyzed in fruits sampled in the Amazon region
of Ecuador were presented to know the potential of these products as functional foods.
The analysis of the information made it possible to identify 55 species of edible fruits
studied in the Ecuadorian Amazon (Supplementary Table S1). The provinces in which the
2.1. Ethnobotany
greatest number of studies were
The identified
analysis were Orellana
of the information made itand Sucumbíos
possible to identify(Figure 1).ofThe
55 species edible fruits
category of use after food was medicine, followed by animal food and material. The formwhich the
studied in the Ecuadorian Amazon (Supplementary Table S1). The provinces in
greatest number of studies were identified were Orellana and Sucumbíos (Figure 1). The
in which the fruits arecategory
usuallyofconsumed is fresh fruit, and the part that was reported as
use after food was medicine, followed by animal food and material. The form
the most used was thein pulp. Most
which the ofare
fruits the fruitsconsumed
usually originate from
is fresh native
fruit, and thespecies
part that(32)
wasrather
reported as the
than being introducedmost (23).used
Therewas was a great
the pulp. Mostbiodiversity of fruitsfrom
of the fruits originate used; thespecies
native works(32) ana-
rather than
lyzed identified 26 families of edible fruits in the Ecuadorian Amazon. The family withanalyzed
being introduced (23). There was a great biodiversity of fruits used; the works
the greatest number ofidentified
species 26 wasfamilies of edible fruits in the Ecuadorian Amazon. The family with the
Arecaceae (10 species), followed by Rubiaceae (5 spe-
greatest number of species was Arecaceae (10 species), followed by Rubiaceae (5 species),
cies), Malvaceae, and Myrtaceae
Malvaceae, and (4 species).
Myrtaceae (4 species).

Figure 1. (a) Location of number of fruits

Figure 1. (a) reported
Location of number byofprovince in the
fruits reported by Ecuadorian
province in theAmazon.
Ecuadorian(b) Fruits (b) Fruits
Amazon.
use categories identified.use
(c)categories
Part of the fruit used
identified. and
(c) Part of reported in and
the fruit used the reported
investigations.
in the investigations.

2.2. Physicochemical Characterization

2.2. Physicochemical Characterization
In this section, a brief description of the nine edible native fruits of the Ecuadorian
In this section, a Amazon
brief description ofinthe
were selected thisnine edible
review: native
Aphandra fruits
natalia; of the
Eugenia Ecuadorian
stipitate; Gustavia macare-
Amazon were selected in this review: Aphandra natalia; Eugenia stipitate; Gustavia mac- Pouteria
nensis; Mauritia flexuosa; Myrciaria dubia; Oenocarpus bataua; Plukenetia volubilis;
caimito; Solanum quitoense (Table 2). At the same time, the information corresponding to
arenensis; Mauritia flexuosa; Myrciaria dubia; Oenocarpus bataua; Plukenetia volubilis; Pouteria
morphometric characteristics and nutritional composition is summarized.
caimito; Solanum quitoense (Table 2). At the same time, the information corresponding to
morphometric characteristics and nutritional composition is summarized.
 Plants 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21

Plants 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21

Table
Table 2.
2. Description
Description of
of fruit
fruit species
species of
of the
the Ecuadorian
Ecuadorian Amazon
Amazon with
with information
information on
on physicochemi-
physicochemi-
cal
cal characteristics.
characteristics.
Plants 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEWTable 2. Description of fruit species of the Ecuadorian Amazon with information on physicochemi- 4 of 21
Fruit cal characteristics. Description
Fruit
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 Description
Table 2. Description of fruit species of the Ecuadorian Amazon with information on physicochemi-4 of 20
Fruit Aphandra
cal natalia
Aphandra natalia (Balslev
(Balslev and
characteristics. and Henderson) Barfod
Barfod is
Henderson)Description is aa species
species of
of palm
palm native
native to
to the
the Ecuadorian
Ecuadorian
Amazon;
Amazon;
Aphandra Table it
it is
natalia2.characterized
is characterized
Description
(Balslev and by
by
of fruit having
speciesaaofhard,
having
Henderson) hard,
the
Barfod scaly
scaly
Ecuadorian is arind,
rind,
species slightly
slightly
Amazon of palm sweet,
withsweet, native fibrous
fibrous
information to the pulp
pulp
on with
with high-
physicochemi-
Ecuadorian high-
Fruit fat content, and large seeds that are used Description
for making handicrafts. The mesocarp oil of this fruit
fat content,
Amazon; cal characteristics.
and large seeds that are of used for making handicrafts. The mesocarp oil ofwith this high-fruit
Table it
Aphandra 2. is
natalia
characterized
Description (Balslev of fruit by
and(71.92%).
having
species
Henderson)
a hard,
the Ecuadorian
Barfod in
scaly rind, Amazon
is aPeru,species
slightly with
of palm
sweet,
information fibrousphysicochemical
native on to the
pulp
the extraction
Ecuadorianof
has
fat aa high
hascontent,high oleic
oleic
and acid
acid
large content
content
seeds (71.92%).
that are used However,
However,
for making in Peru,
handicrafts. Brazil,
Brazil, and
and
The Ecuador,
Ecuador,
mesocarp the
oil extraction
of this fruit of
Fruit Amazon;characteristics.
it is manufacture
characterizedofbybrooms havingand Description
a hard, scaly rind,ofslightly sweet, fibrous pulp withfre- high-
fibers
fibers for
for
has a highnatalia the
the manufacture
oleic acid content of brooms
(71.92%). and
However,the
the collection
collection
in of leaves
leaves for
for roofing
roofing are
are the
the most
most fre-
Aphandra
fat content, andthis (Balslev
large seeds andthat Henderson)
are usedon Barfod
for making is Peru,
a species Brazil,
handicrafts. of palmand Ecuador,
Thenative mesocarp to the the oil
extraction
Ecuadorian
oftothis fruit
of
Fruit quent
quentfor
fibers uses
uses the for
for this species
manufacture speciesof [70].
[70].broomsIt
It grows
grows and onthe terraces
terraces
Description
collection along
along of rivers
rivers at
leaves at an
for an altitude
altitude
roofing are of up
ofthe
upmost to 800800 fre-mm
Amazon;
has a high itoleic
is characterized
acid content by having aHowever,
(71.92%). hard, scaly in rind,
Peru, slightly
Brazil, sweet,
and fibrousthe
Ecuador, pulp with high-
extraction of
but
but can
quent can uses
Aphandra be
be cultivated
cultivated
for this
natalia speciesat
at up
(Balslev up[70]. to
to 1000
and 1000
Itare mm above
grows
Henderson) aboveon sea
sea level.
terraces
Barfod level.
is a along This
Thisrivers
species species
species
of palm atTheis
anfound
is
native found
altitude
to thein
in aEcuadorian
aofwide
upoftorange,
wide range,
800fruit mex-ex-
fat content,
fibers forfrom and
the manufacture large seeds that
of brooms usedand for making
the collection handicrafts.
of leaves for mesocarp
roofing are theoil this
most fre-
tendingAmazon;
tending
but from itsouth
south of
is characterizedofattheupNapo
the Napo by River
having
River ain Ecuador
inhard,
Ecuador scaly to
to the
rind, the lowlands
slightly
lowlands sweet, of the
the western
fibrous
offound pulp
western Amazon
with
Amazon range,basin,
high-fat basin,
has
quent acanhigh
content,
be
uses
cultivated
oleic
for
and
acid
this
large
content
species
seeds
to(71.92%).
[70].
that
1000
areIt
m above
grows
used
However,
for onmaking
sea
terraces
level.
in This
Peru,
along
handicrafts.
species
Brazil,
rivers
The
and
at
is
mesocarpan Ecuador,
altitudeoil
in
of
athe
of
wide
this upextraction
fruitto has 800ain
ex-
mof
across
across the
tending the
from northern
northern
south Peruvian
ofPeruvian
the Napo Amazon
Amazon
River into the
toEcuador Acre
the Acretointhe in Brazil.
Brazil. lowlands This species
This speciesof the can also
can alsoAmazon
western be found
be foundbasin, in
fibers
but can
highforbe the
oleic manufacture
cultivated
acid content at up of tobrooms
(71.92%). 1000 m and
However, above the
insea collection
Peru, level.Brazil, This ofand leaves
species
Ecuador, foris roofing
found
the inare
extraction a andthe
wideof most range,
fibers fre-
forex-
home
home
across gardens
gardens
the northern and
and agroforestry
agroforestry
Peruvian Amazon systems,
systems, toon where
where
the Acre it provides
it inprovides
Brazil. shade
shade
This for
for
species livestock
livestock
canfrequent
also andbe protects
protects
found in the
the
quent
tendingthe uses from for
manufacture this
south species
of
of brooms
the [70].
Napo and It grows
the
River collection
in terraces
Ecuador of leavesto along
thefor rivers
roofing
lowlands at
are ofan
the altitude
the most western of up
Amazon to
uses 800for m
basin,
soil from
soil this
home from erosion
erosion [71],
[70].[71], but its
but its low low densities
densities are
are due due to its
antoaltitude dispersal
its dispersal rather
rather than
m than environmental
environmental
but
acrosscangardensspecies
be
the cultivated
northern
and agroforestry
It grows
at up on
Peruvian to 1000
Amazon
systems,
terraces m along
above where
to the rivers
seaAcre
it
at provides
level. This species
in Brazil.
shade
of up to
This
for
is800
species
livestock
found but
can inalso a and
can wide protects
be cultivated
be foundrange,inex- the
limitations
limitations
soil at up to
from [72].
[72].m[71],
1000
erosion above but seaitslevel.low This
densitiesspeciesare is found
due toinitsa wide dispersal range,rather extending than from south of the
environmental
tending
home from south
gardens and of the Napo River
agroforestry systems, in Ecuador it to the lowlands shade of forthe westernand Amazon basin,
Family:Napo
Family:
limitations Arecaceae|Common
River
Arecaceae|Common
[72]. in Ecuador to thename: lowlands
name: Tagua;
Tagua;of where
theVegetable
western
Vegetable
provides ivory.
Amazon livestock
ivory. basin, across the northern Peruvian
protects the
across
soil from
Amazontheerosion
northern
to the [71],
AcrePeruvian
but
in its
Brazil. Amazon
low This densities to the
species are
can Acre due
also in
be toBrazil.
its
found This
dispersal
in home species
rather
gardens can
thanandalso be found in
environmental
agroforestry
Eugenia
Eugenia
Family: stipitata
stipitata
Arecaceae|Common McVaugh
McVaugh has
has an
name:an oval-shaped
oval-shaped
Tagua; climacteric
climacteric
Vegetable ivory. berry
berry fruit
fruit with
with aa sweet sweet and
and sour sour
home gardens
systems,
limitations where
[72]. and itagroforestry
provides shade systems,
for where
livestock and it provides
protects the shade
soil from for livestock
erosion [71], and butprotects
its low the
taste
taste
Eugenia and
and
densities
a
a
stipitatavery
very
are due
pleasant
pleasant
McVaugh to its
characteristic
characteristic
haslow an densities
oval-shaped aroma,
aroma, which
which
climacteric turns
turns from
from
berry fruit green
green to
to
withthan yellow
yellow
a sweet or
or orange
orange
and sour
soil
Family:from erosion
Arecaceae|Common [71], butdispersal
its name: rather
Tagua; thanare environmental
due to its
Vegetable ivory. limitations
dispersal rather[72]. environmental
when
when
taste ripe,
ripe,
Family:
and a with
with three
three
Arecaceae|Common
very pleasant harvests
harvests
characteristic per
per
name: year.
year.
Tagua; The
The
aroma, fruits
fruits
Vegetable
which are
are
ivory.
turnsused
used for
for
from the
the
green preparation
preparation
to yellow of
oforhomemade
homemade
orange
limitations
Eugenia [72]. McVaugh has an oval-shaped climacteric berry fruit with a sweet and
stipitata sour
juices,
juices,
when although
although
ripe,
Eugenia with
stipitata they
they
three McVaughalso
also
harvestshave
havehas medicinal
medicinal
per
an year.
oval-shaped The uses
uses [43].
fruits[43].
climacteric areThis
This used species
species
berry for the
fruit is
is native
native
preparation
with a to
sweetto western
western
and of Amazonia
Amazonia
homemade
sour taste
Family:
taste Arecaceae|Common
andGuianas;
a very pleasant name:
characteristic Tagua; aroma, Vegetable
which turns ivory. from green to yellowinorBolivia, orangeBra-
and
andand
juices, the
the aGuianas;
very pleasant
although they it
it grows
grows in
in tropical
characteristic
also have tropical aroma,
medicinal and
andwhich subtropical
subtropical
uses turnsThis
[43]. climates
climates
from greenand
species and
toisyellowis
is cultivated
native cultivated
or orangeinwhen Bolivia, ripe,Bra-
Eugenia
when stipitata
ripe, with McVaugh
three harvests has an per oval-shaped
year. The climacteric
fruits are used berryfor fruit
the withtoa western
preparation sweet of and Amazonia
homemade sour
zil, Colombia,
with
zil, Colombia,
and the three
Guianas; Ecuador,
harvests
Ecuador,
it growsandper and
year. Peru.
The
Peru. It is
in tropical It
fruitsis
and an
are approximately
used
ansubtropical
approximatelyfor the 3-meter
preparation
climates 3-meter and shrub
of homemade
shrub
is cultivatedwith
with dense dense
juices, foliage
although
foliageBra-
in Bolivia, that
that
taste
juices, and
they a very
although
also havepleasant
theymedicinalalsocharacteristic
have
usessoils.medicinal
[43]. Thisaroma, uses which
species [43].
is native turns
This tospecies from
western green
is native
Amazonia to to yellow
western
and theorGuianas;
orange
Amazonia it
grows
grows
zil, in
Colombia, fertile,
in fertile, well-drained
well-drained
Ecuador, and Peru.soils. It [49].
[49].
is an approximately 3-meter shrub with dense foliage that
when
and theripe,
grows inwith
Guianas; tropical three and
it grows harvests
subtropical
in tropicalper climates
year.andThe and fruits
subtropical areclimates
is cultivated used in for the is
Bolivia,
and preparation
Brazil,
cultivated Colombia, of
in homemade
Ecuador,
Bolivia, Bra-
Family:
Family:
grows in Myrtaceae|Common
Myrtaceae|Common
fertile, well-drained name:
name:
soils. Araza;
Araza;
[49]. Amazonia
Amazonia guava.
guava.
juices,
zil, and
Colombia, Peru.
althoughEcuador, It is an approximately
they alsoand have Peru. 3-meter
medicinal
It is an shrub
uses with dense
[43]. This species
approximately foliage
3-meter that
isshrub grows
nativewith in fertile,
to westerndense Amazonia
foliage that
Gustavia
Gustavia macarenensis
macarenensis Philipson
Philipson is
is aa type
type of Amazonia
fruit
fruit that that has aa soft, orange pulp
pulp with a high-fat con-
Family:
and
grows
well-drained
Myrtaceae|Common
theinGuianas;fertile,
soils. [49].
it grows
well-drained
name:
in tropical
soils. and of
Araza;
[49]. subtropical has
guava.
climates soft, and orangeis cultivated with in aBolivia,
high-fat Bra- con-
tent.
tent.
Gustavia It
Family:
It is
is known
known
macarenensis for
Myrtaceae|Common
for its
its pleasant
pleasant
Philipson taste
name:
taste
is aIttype when
Araza;
when eaten
Amazonia
eaten fresh
fresh and
guava.and can
can also
also be
be used
used as
as a
a purgative.
purgative. The
The
zil, Colombia,
Family: Myrtaceae|CommonEcuador, and Peru. name: is anof
Araza; fruit
approximately
Amazonia that has a3-meter
guava. soft, orange shrubpulp withwith dense a high-fat
foliage that con-
fruit’s
fruit’s
tent. shell
shell
Gustavia
It inis known can be
can well-drained
be
macarenensis infused
forinfused and
Philipson
its pleasant and used
used
is a type
taste as
as
when a uterine
aofuterine
fruit
eaten that antihemorrhagic,
antihemorrhagic,
has aand
fresh soft,can orangealsopulp while
while
be used withthe
theaas fresh
fresh
high-fat seeds
seeds
a purgative. content.can
canThe
grows
Gustavia fertile,
macarenensis Philipson soils. a[49].
iswhen type of fruit that has a soft,
help
help
fruit’s Itcounteract
is known
counteract
shell can for
bedysentery
its
dysentery pleasant
infused and
and
and taste sinusitis.
sinusitis.
used as a This
eaten
This
uterine makes
fresh
makes andit can
it aa promising
antihemorrhagic, also
promising be orange
used as apulp
fruit
fruit
while for with aThe
applications
purgative.
for
the applications
fresh
high-fat
seeds in
fruit’sin the
can
con-
the
Family:
tent. shell Myrtaceae|Common
Itcosmetic,
is can
known be infused for itsand pleasant name:
used astaste Araza;
a uterinewhen Amazonia
eaten
antihemorrhagic, fresh and guava. can the
while alsofresh be used
seedsas can a help
purgative. The
food, cosmetic, and
food,counteract
help and pharmaceutical
dysentery pharmaceutical industries
industries [27].
[27]. This This species
species can can be
be found
found at
at various
variousin alti-
alti-
Gustavia
fruit’scounteract
shellmacarenensis
can dysentery
be infused andand
Philipson sinusitis.
sinusitis.
and is a type
used This
as a
This
of
makes fruit
uterine
makes
itthat ithasa promising
aantihemorrhagic,
promising a soft, fruitorange fruit
forwhile for applications
pulp
applications the with
freshin athe high-fat
seeds food,can the
con-
tudes,
tudes, ranging
ranging from
from 260
260 to to 1200 mm above
1200industries above[27]. sea
sea level.
level. Its
Its habitat
habitat in can
Ecuador covers all
all provinces of
food,
tent.
help Itcosmetic,
cosmetic,
is known
counteract and andfor
dysentery
pharmaceutical
pharmaceutical
its pleasant and tasteindustries
sinusitis. when This eaten [27].
This
makes freshThis
species
it a and species
cancan
promising beinfoundEcuador
alsofruit be
be found
at usedfor
covers
various asat avarious
altitudes,
applications
provinces
purgative. alti-The
in the
of
the
the Amazon
tudes, Amazon
ranging
ranging region.
fromregion.
from 260 to The
The
260 1200 tree
totree can
canmgrow
m above
1200 grow
sea level.
above up
upsea to
toIts25
level. mm tall,
25habitat tall,
Its in with
with
Ecuador
habitat aaindense
dense
covers
Ecuador and
and all rounded
rounded
provinces
covers all crown.
crown.the Its
ofprovinces Its of
fruit’s
food, shell can be
cosmetic, andinfused pharmaceutical and used industries as a uterine antihemorrhagic,
[27]. This species can while be found the fresh seeds can
at various alti-
fruits
fruits
the Amazonare
Amazonare riperipe when
region.
whenThe
region. they
they
The tree fallcan
fall
tree offgrow
off
can the
the
grow tree
uptree to
up [42].
25tom25
[42]. tall,
m with
tall, awithdense a and rounded
dense and crown. Its
rounded fruits are
crown. Itsthe
help
tudes, counteract
ranging
ripe Lecythidaceae|Common
when dysentery
from 260 to
they fall off the tree [42]. and
1200 sinusitis.
m above This
sea makes
level. it
Its a promising
habitat in Ecuadorfruit for applications
covers all provinces in of
Family:
Family:
fruits are Lecythidaceae|Common
ripe when they fall off thename:
name:
tree Alan
Alan paso;
[42]. paso; Inaco; Inaco; Inak; Inak; Passo;Passo; Sachu Sachu pasu. pasu.
food,
the cosmetic,
Amazon and
region. pharmaceutical
The tree can grow industries
up [27].
to 25 m1tall, This species
with a dense can be found at various alti-
aaand rounded crown. Its
Family: Lecythidaceae|Common name: Alan paso; Inaco; Inak; Passo; Sachu pasu.
Myrciaria
Myrciaria dubia
dubia L.f.
L.f.260 berry
berry is
is round
round and
andAlan contains
contains paso;1Its to
to 4habitat
4 seeds,
seeds, with diameter of approximately
Family:
tudes,
fruits are
Myrciaria
Lecythidaceae|Common
rangingripe from
when
dubia L.f. they
berrytofall1200
is off
round m name:
the above
andtree sea level.
[42].
contains 1 to 4
Inaco;
seeds,
Inak;
with inwith
a
Passo;
Ecuador
diameter
diameter
Sachu covers
of
ofall
pasu.
approximately
approximately
provinces of
2.5 cm.
cm. The
2.5 Amazon
Myrciaria The color
color
dubia of
of The
L.f. the
the berry
berry changes
changes andfromfrom green
green to
to violet–red
violet–red as
as it ripens,
itaand
ripens, which
which is
is duedue to to thethe
the
Family:2.5 cm. region.
Lecythidaceae|Common
The color ofberry
thetree is can
berry round grow
name:
changes up contains
Alan
from togreen
25paso;m1totall,to 4with
Inaco; seeds,
violet–red a as
Inak; with
dense
itPasso;
ripens, diameterrounded
Sachu
which ofdue
pasu.
is approximately
crown.to theIts
presence
presence
2.5 cm. The of
of phenolic
phenolic
color of thecompounds
compounds
berry changes [54].
[54]. This
This
from fruit
fruit
green contains
contains
to violet–red various
various as bioactive
bioactive
it ripens, components
components
which is due like
like
to thean-
an-
fruits presence
Myrciaria are ripe ofwhen
dubia phenolic
L.f.they compounds
berry fall is off
round the[54].tree
and This
[42]. fruit contains
contains 1 to 4and variouswith
seeds, bioactive a diametercomponents like
of approximately
thocyanins,
thocyanins,
presence flavonols,
flavonols,
of phenolic
anthocyanins, flavonols, ellagitannins,
ellagitannins,
compounds ellagitannins, proanthocyanins,
proanthocyanins,
[54]. This fruit
proanthocyanins, contains and
andvarious carotenoids
carotenoids
carotenoids bioactive [58].[58].
[58]. Peru
Peru
components
Peru mainly
mainly
mainly exports ex-
ex-
like an-
Family:
2.5 cm. Lecythidaceae|Common
The color of theofberry changes name: Alan
from paso;
green toInaco;
violet–red Inak; Passo;
as it ripens, Sachu pasu.
which is dueThe to the
ports
ports this
thocyanins, this
thisfruit fruit
fruitin the in
in the
flavonols, formform
the form of
of flour,
flour,
ellagitannins, extract,
flour, extract,
extract,
proanthocyanins,and
and dehydrated
and dehydrated dehydrated products
and products
due to its due
products
carotenoids economic
due
[58]. to
toPeruits economic
itspotential.
economic
mainly poten-
ex-poten-
Myrciaria
presence dubia
ofisphenolic L.f. berry
to compounds is round and
[54]. This contains
infruit 1
Brazilcontains to 4 seeds, various with a diameter
bioactive of
components approximately like
and an-
tial.species
tial.
ports The
The
this species
species
fruit
native
inis isthenative
nativethe Amazon
form to
toofthe
the
flour,
rainforest
Amazon
Amazonextract, rainforest
rainforest and in grows
in Brazil
Brazilproducts naturally
and
and grows grows on the banks
naturally
naturally of
on
on rivers
the
the banksbanks
2.5 cm.
thocyanins,
lakes The duringcolor
flavonols, of the
periods berry
ellagitannins,
of flooding changes fromand
[73].proanthocyanins, green dehydrated
to violet–red
and as it ripens,
carotenoids
due
[58].
towhich
its economic
Peru is due to
mainly
poten-
ex-the
of
of rivers
tial. rivers
The and
and
species lakes
lakes is during
during
native to periods
periods
the Amazon of
of flooding
flooding
rainforest [73].
[73]. in Brazil and grows naturally on the banks
presence
ports Family:
this Myrtaceae|Common
offruit
phenolic in the compoundsform of flour, name:[54]. Camu-camu;
This fruit
extract, Guayabo;various
contains
and dehydrated Guayabito;
products bioactive Guapuro
due tocomponentsitsblanco.
economic like poten-an-
Family:
ofFamily:
rivers Myrtaceae|Common
Myrtaceae|Common
and lakes during periods name:
name: of Camu-camu;
Camu-camu;
flooding [73]. Guayabo;
Guayabo; Guayabito; Guayabito; Guapuro Guapuro blanco. blanco.
thocyanins,
tial. The species
Mauritia flavonols,
flexuosa is(Kunth)
native ellagitannins,
(Kunth)toMcVaugh the Amazon proanthocyanins,
is a palm rainforest
that constitutes and
in Brazila and carotenoids grows naturally
socioeconomic [58]. Peru
resourceon mainly
forthe local ex-
banks
Mauritia
Mauritia flexuosa
flexuosa (Kunth) McVaugh is aa palm that constitutes a socioeconomic resource
blanco.for local
Family:
ports
of riversthis Myrtaceae|Common
indigenous fruitlakes
and communities
in the formMcVaugh
during of
periods
name:
in flour,
the is
extract,
of
palm
Camu-camu;
Ecuadorianflooding and that
Amazon, constitutes
Guayabo;
dehydrated
[73]. growingproducts inapoorly
socioeconomic
Guayabito; Guapuro
drained
due to its soilsresource
and
economic for local
poten-
indigenous
indigenous communities
communities in
inthe the
the Ecuadorian
Ecuadorian Amazon,
Amazon, growing
growing in poorly
ingrowspoorly drained
isdrained soils
soils and gen-
Mauritia
tial.
Family:
generating
The flexuosa
species
Myrtaceae|Common is(Kunth)
resources native suchMcVaugh
to as food,
Amazon
name: isCamu-camu;
a palm
nesting sites,
rainforest that and constitutes
habitat
in
Guayabo;Brazil [74]. a This
and socioeconomic
Guayabito;
fruitnaturally a highly
Guapuro resource theand
traded
on
blanco. for
item
banks gen-
local
eratingin
erating
indigenous resources
local markets.
resourcescommunities suchIts
such as
vibrant
as food,
food,
inperiods nesting
orangenesting
the Ecuadorian pulp sites,
is
sites, and
commonly
and
Amazon, habitatused
habitat [74].
to
[74]. make This
This fruit
sweets,
fruit
growing in poorly drained soils and gen- is
ice
is a
a highly
cream,
highly traded
juices,
traded jams, item
item
of rivers
Mauritia and
flexuosa
and markets.
oil.
lakes
It is also
during
(Kunth)
avibrant McVaugh
rich source
ofisflooding
of bioactive a palm [73].constitutes
that
compounds, with amake
a higher socioeconomic
β-carotene resource
content for
suchlocal
thanjuices,
in
in local
local
erating markets.
resources Its
Its
such vibrant
as food, orange
orange nesting pulp
pulp is
is
sites, commonly
commonly
and habitat used
used [74]. to
toThis
make fruitsweets,
sweets,
is ice
ice cream,
a highly cream,
traded juices,
item
Family:
indigenous
products Myrtaceae|Common
communities
as carrots and in the
spinach. name: AsCamu-camu;
Ecuadorian a result, Amazon,it can be Guayabo; growing
classified Guayabito;
asin poorly
a functional Guapuro
drained
food [21]. blanco.
soils This and gen-
jams,
injams,
local and
and oil.
oil.
markets. It
It is
isIts also
also aa rich
vibrant rich source
source
orange of
of
pulp bioactive
bioactive
is commonly compounds,
compounds, used to with
with
make aa sweets,
higher
higher β-carotene
β-carotene
ice cream, content
content
juices,
Mauritia
eratingspecies has
flexuosa
resources a broad
(Kunth)
such distribution
McVaugh
as food,and in
nesting South
is a palmAmerica,
sites,As that
andresult, primarily
constitutes
habitatit [74]. in the
a Amazon
socioeconomic
This region,
fruit is aashighly spanning
resource tradedfood for local
item
than
jams, such
thanacross
such
and products
products
oil.
Bolivia,It is also as
Brazil,as acarrots
carrots
rich
Colombia, source spinach.
andEcuador,
spinach.
of bioactive As aacompounds,
Guyana, result,
Peru, it can
canwith
Trinidad be
beand classified
classified
a higher
Tobago, as aa functional
functional
β-carotene
and Venezuela contentfood
[75].
indigenous
in local markets. communities Its vibrant in the orange Ecuadorian
pulp isin Amazon, growing
commonly used toprimarily in poorly
make sweets, drained ice cream,soils and juices, gen-
[21].
than This
[21].Itsuch
This
can be species
species
in various
products has
has asahabitats,
broad
acarrots
broad and distribution
distribution
ranging spinach. in
from lowlandAs South
South
a result, America,
America,
tropical forests
it [74].
can to open in
primarily
be classified in the
theaAmazon
savannah
as Amazonlandscapes,
functional region,
region,
food
erating
jams, and resources
floodplains, oil. It is
and
such
also as
a food,
rich
springsBrazil, source
[76]. The
nesting of sites,
bioactive
tree is a palm
and habitat
compounds,
that grows
This
with
up toPeru,
fruit
a
40 m Trinidadhigher
tall,
is a
featuring
highly
β-carotene traded content item
spanning
spanning
[21]. This across
across
species Bolivia,
Bolivia,
hasvibranta broad Brazil, Colombia,
Colombia,
distribution Ecuador,
Ecuador, Guyana,
Guyana, Peru, Trinidad andaTobago,
and cylindrical
Tobago, and
and
in local
than such
and markets.
smoothproducts stem Its as
with carrots
a orange
diameter and pulp isin
spinach.
ranging As
from
South America,
commonly a 30 result,
to 60 usedit
cm. can It
primarily
tohas
bemake classified
a spherical
in theice
sweets, as
crown a
Amazon
cream,
functional
of elongated
region,
juices,food
Venezuela
Venezuela
spanning [75].
[75]. It
It can
can be
be in
in various
various habitats,
habitats, ranging
ranging from
from lowland
lowland tropical
tropical forests
forests to
to open
open sa-
sa-
jams,
[21]. and across
leaves
This oil.
reaching
species It isBolivia,
also
up to
has
Brazil,
aabroad
6rich
m insource Colombia,
length
distribution of
[77] bioactive Ecuador,
in South compounds,Guyana, with
America,
Peru,aTrinidad
primarily higher in grows
the
and Tobago,
β-carotene
Amazon content
region,
and
vannah
vannah
Venezuela landscapes,
landscapes,
[75]. It can floodplains,
floodplains, and
and springs
springsAguaje; [76].
[76]. The The tree is
treeMoriche. a palm
is a palmtropical that
that grows up
upto to
toopen40
40 msa-m tall,
tall,
than Family:
spanning such across Arecaceae|Common
products Bolivia,as be in various
carrots
Brazil, andname: habitats,
Morete;
spinach.
Colombia, As ranging
Ecuador,a result, from
Buriti;
Guyana,it can lowland
be
Peru,classifiedTrinidad asforests
aandfunctional
Tobago,food and
vannah
[21]. Thislandscapes,
species floodplains, and springs [76]. The tree is primarily a palm that in grows up to 40 m tall,
Venezuela [75]. Ithas canabe broadin various distribution habitats, in South
ranging America,
from lowland tropical theforests
Amazon to open region, sa-
spanning
vannah landscapes, across Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
floodplains, and springs Ecuador,
[76]. The Guyana,
tree is aPeru, palmTrinidad that grows andup Tobago,
to 40 mand tall,
Venezuela [75]. It can be in various habitats, ranging from lowland tropical forests to open sa-
vannah landscapes, floodplains, and springs [76]. The tree is a palm that grows up to 40 m tall,
 featuring a cylindrical and smooth stem with a diameter ranging from 30 to 60 cm. It has a
spherical crown of elongated leaves reaching up to 6 m in length [77]
Plants 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 21
Family: Arecaceae|Common name: Morete; Aguaje; Buriti; Moriche.
featuring a cylindrical and smooth stem with a diameter ranging from 30 to 60 cm. It has a
Plants 2023, 12, x FOR PEEROenocarpus
REVIEW bataua Mart. tree produces fruit with a valuable violet-colored pulp. This pulp is5 of 21
spherical crown of elongated leaves reaching up to 6 m in length [77]
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 rich in monounsaturated fats and antioxidants that can be extracted for use. Additionally, 5 ofthe20
Family:
featuring Arecaceae|Common
a cylindrical and name:stem
smooth Morete; with Aguaje;
a diameter Buriti; Moriche.
ranging from 30 to 60 cm. It has a con-
fruit is used to make both fermented and non-fermented beverages and desserts [78]. They
Oenocarpus
spherical batauaofMart.
crown elongated tree produces
leaves fruit with
reaching upatovaluable 6 m in violet-colored
length [77]a promising pulp. This pulp is
stitute
featuring a key element
a cylindrical in andthe food smooth securitystem with of Amazonian
athat
diameter peoples
ranging andfrom 30 toAdditionally,
60 cm. element
It has afor
rich
Family:in monounsaturated
Arecaceae|Common fats and
name: antioxidants
Morete; Aguaje; can be
Buriti; extracted
Moriche. for use. the
the food
Tableand
spherical cosmetic
Cont.
2.crown of industryleaves
elongated [79]. This reaching is a typeup of6palm
to m in that
length thrives
[77] in tropical rainforests
fruit is usedbataua
Oenocarpus to make Mart. both tree fermented
produces and fruit non-fermented
withincluding
a valuable beverages
violet-colored and dessertsThis [78]. Theyiscon-
and is commonly
Family: Arecaceae|Common found in the Amazon
name: Morete;biome, Aguaje; Buriti; both flooded andpulp.
Moriche. mainland pulp forests
stitute
rich in a key element
monounsaturated in the food security
fats and 4antioxidants of Amazonian
that can peoples
be extracted and a promising
for use. element for
Fruit [60]. It can reach heights between and 26 Description
m and can yield up to eleven tonsAdditionally,
of fruit per hectare the
Oenocarpus
the food andbataua cosmetic Mart. tree produces
industry [79]. This fruit is awith
typeaof valuable
palmbeverages violet-colored
that thrives pulp. This
indesserts
tropical pulp is
rainforests
fruit
annually is used[27]. Itto make
is one bothof the fermented
most and
usedfruit non-fermented
palms within Amazonia, and
growing preferably [78].
in poorly They con-
richOenocarpus
and isincommonly bataua
monounsaturated found
Mart.
in
tree
fats
the
produces
and
Amazon antioxidantsbiome,
athat
valuable
including can be violet-colored
bothextracted
flooded forpulp.
and use. This pulp
Additionally,
mainland
is rich inthe
forests
stitute
drained a key element
soils; additional
monounsaturated in the
fats and food
usesantioxidants security
of it include of Amazonian
thatstraw,
can befiber, extracted peoples
andfor wood and
use. [26]. a promising
Additionally, the fruit is used element for
fruitItiscan
[60]. used reachto make heights both fermented
between 4 and and 26isnon-fermented
mabeverages
and beverages and tons desserts [78].per They con-
the food
Family: to make and cosmetic
both
Arecaceae|Common fermented industryandname: [79].
non-fermented This
Chapil; typecan
Patawa; ofSeje;yield
palm
and up to
that
desserts
Ungurahua.
eleven
thrives
[78]. They in tropical of fruit
constitute a keyhectare
rainforests
stitute a key
annually [27]. inelement
It isfoodonein ofthethe food
most security
used palms ofpeoples
Amazonian
inincluding
Amazonia, peoples growing and apreferably
promising inelement
poorly for
and element
is commonly
Plukenetia volubilis
the found security
L. [79].
producesin the ofAmazon
Amazonian
fruits whose biome, seeds
and a promising
are both
appreciated floodedelement
for their and formainland
high
the food
content
and
forests
of un-
the
drained food
cosmetic and
soils; cosmetic
industry
additional industry
This
uses is a[79].
type
of it 4include This
of palmis a type
that of
thrives palm in that
tropical thrives
rainforests in tropical
and is rainforests
commonly
[60]. It can
saturated reach
fatty heights between and and 26straw,
m andfiber, can and wood
yield up to eleven [26]. tons of fruit per hectare
andfoundis commonly in theacids Amazonfound(omegasbiome,
in the 3including
Amazon 6) and both proteins
biome,flooded (27–33%),
and
including mainlandbothwhich forests
flooded are [60].rich
and in essential
Itmainland
can reach heights amino
forests
Family:
annually Arecaceae|Common
[27]. It is one of the name:
most Chapil;
used palms Patawa;
in Seje;
Amazonia, Ungurahua.
growing preferably in poorly
acids and
[60].between
It canconsumed4 and 26 m
reach heightsasand nuts can
between[80].
yield The4up andleaves
to eleven
26 m have tonsantioxidant
and yield upcomponents
of fruit per hectare
can to eleven annually
tonssuch [27].asIt flavonoids,
ofcontent
fruit is one of
perofhectare
Plukenetia
drainedthe most volubilis
soils; used L. produces
additional
palms in uses
Amazonia, offruits
it includewhose
growing seeds
straw,
preferably are
fiber, appreciated
in and
poorly wood drained for soils;
[26]. their high
additional uses of un-
itthe
terpenoids,
annually and
[27]. Itsaponins
is one of [81].
the This
most species
used palmsis a shrubby
in Amazonia, climbing growing plant that
preferably originates in from
poorly
saturated
include fatty
Family: Arecaceae|Commonstraw, acidsfiber, (omegas
and wood 3 and
[26].
name:inChapil; 6) and proteins (27–33%), which are rich in essential amino
Amazon
drained rainforests and can thrive warm Patawa; climates, Seje;
fromUngurahua.
the high[26]. altitudes of the Andean
acids
Plukenetiaandsoils;
Family: consumed
volubilis
additional
Arecaceae|Common
L. as nuts
produces
uses [80].of
name:itThe
fruits
include
leavesstraw,
Chapil;
whose have fiber,
Patawa;
seeds
Seje;and
antioxidant
are appreciated
wood
Ungurahua. components such as flavonoids,
jungle
Family: toArecaceae|Common
the lowlands of the Peruvian name: Amazon
Chapil; Patawa;[82]. Its Seje; seeds contain their
Ungurahua.
for essential highamino content of un-
acids,
terpenoids,
Plukenetia
saturated and
fatty saponins
volubilis
acids L.
(omegas [81].3This
produces fruits
and species
6) whose
and isseeds
a shrubby
proteins are(27–33%), climbing
appreciated forplant
which theirare that
highrich originates
content
in essentialof from amino the
making it a promising economic crop in Central and South America, as well as in Southeast
Plukenetia
Amazon unsaturated volubilis
rainforests fattyL. and produces
acids (omegas
can thrive fruits
3 and
in whose
warm seeds
6) andclimates,
proteins are(27–33%),
appreciated
from the which
high foraretheir
altitudes rich in high content
essential
of the Andeanamino of un-
acids and
Asian countriesconsumed [80]. asasnuts [80]. The leaves have antioxidant components such as flavonoids,
acids
saturated andfatty consumed
acids (omegas nuts [80]. 3 and The 6)leaves
and proteinshave antioxidant components suchrichasinflavonoids,
jungle
terpenoids, to the lowlands
and of the Peruvian Amazon [82]. (27–33%),
Its seeds which are
contain essential essential
amino acids, amino
Family: terpenoids, and saponins [81].This
saponins
Euphorbiaceae|Common [81]. This name:species
species Sacha isaashrubby
is shrubby
inchi; Sacha climbing
climbing yuchi; plantplant thatthat
Sacha originates
yuchiqui;
originates Mountain
from from
the the
acids
making and consumed
itrainforests
a promising as nuts
economic [80]. The
crop inleaves
Central have antioxidant
andfrom South components such as flavonoids,
AmazonAmazon
peanuts; Wild rainforests
peanuts; and and can
Inca thrive
canpeanuts;
thrive inSacha
warm
warm climates,
climates,
peanuts. from theAmerica,
the
high highaltitudesas well
altitudes of the asofAndean
inthe Southeast
Andeanjungle
terpenoids,
Asian to countries
the and[80].
lowlands saponins
of the [81]. This
Peruvian Amazon species [82]. is Its
a shrubby
seeds containclimbing essential plant amino thatacids, originatesmaking from
it a the
jungle
Pouteria to the
caimito lowlands
(Ruizand of
andcan the
Pav.) Peruvian
Radlk isAmazon
a round [82]. Its
berry from seeds
that often contain
has altitudesessential
a pointedofend amino with acids,
a
Amazon
Family:promising rainforests
economic crop in thrive
Central inand warm South climates,
America, as well the as high
in Southeast Asian the Andean
making Euphorbiaceae|Common
smooth it a promising
peel that contains economiclatex. When
name:
crop in
it
Sacha
Centralinchi;
ripens, itand Sacha yuchi;
South America, Sacha astowell yuchiqui; as in Mountain
Southeast
jungle
peanuts;countries
toWildthe[80].lowlands
peanuts; of
Inca thepeanuts;
Peruvian Sacha Amazon peanuts. [82]. Its seeds contain essential amino acids,is a
changes from green bright yellow and
Asian
climacteric countries
Family: fruit [80].
that contains beneficial bioactive compounds [83]. However, itMountain
has a short shelf
making
Pouteria it aEuphorbiaceae|Common
caimito promising
(Ruiz and economic
Pav.) crop
Radlk
name: Sacha inchi;
isinaSacha
Central
round and
berry
Sacha
South yuchi;
that often America, Sacha
has aas
yuchiqui;
well as
pointed in Southeast
end with a
Family:
life peanuts;
duecountriesEuphorbiaceae|Common
Wild
to browning peanuts; Inca peanuts; name: Sacha peanuts.inchi; Sacha
and high levels of ethylene production [84]. The fruit’s pulp is translucent, yuchi; Sacha yuchiqui; Mountain
Asian
smooth peel that [80].
contains latex. WhenSacha it ripens, it changes from green to bright yellow and is a
peanuts;
white, juicy,
Pouteria Wild peanuts;
soft,
caimito sweet,
(Ruiz Inca
andPav.)
and peanuts;
mucilaginous.
Radlk is a Sacha Itpeanuts.
round is inchi;
usually
berry that eaten
often raw,
has abut pointed it can end alsowith beMountain
aused
smooth to
Family: Euphorbiaceae|Common
climacteric fruit that contains beneficial name: bioactive compoundsSacha yuchi;
[83]. Sacha
However, yuchiqui;itisend
has awith
short shelf
Pouteria
make peel caimito
that
soft Wild drinks, (Ruiz
contains and
latex.
ice creams, Pav.)
When Radlk
it ripens,
sorbets, and is a
it round
changes
other berry
from that
green often
to bright has a
yellow
desserts. This tree is a perennial that can grow pointed and a climacteric a
peanuts;
life due to browning peanuts; and highInca peanuts;
levels Sacha
ofcompounds peanuts.
up tofruit
smooth 5–15 that
peel mcontains
that
tall and beneficial
contains is native latex. bioactive
toWhenthe Amazon itethylene
ripens, region
production
it [83].
ofHowever,
changes South
[84].
from America
The
has afruit’s
itgreen short
to
[85].bright pulplife
shelf
It is yellow
is translucent,
alsodue found to is a
and in
Pouteria
white, browning caimito
juicy, and
soft, (Ruiz
high
sweet, and
levels
and Pav.)
of Radlkproduction
ethylene
mucilaginous. is a round It is berry
[84].
usually The that often
fruit’s
eaten pulp
raw, has is
but atranslucent,
itpointed
can also end
white,
be with
used ato
juicy,
climacteric
many other fruit
places, thatincluding
contains Central beneficial bioactive
America, the compounds
West Indies, [83]. However,
Northern it has aand
Australia, short shelf
Malay-
smooth
make soft,
soft sweet,
peel that andice mucilaginous.
contains latex. ItWhen
is usually eatendesserts.
it ripens, raw, but itThis
it changes can from also be
treegreen is used toto makeyellow
bright soft drinks,
canand is a
life It
sia. due
ice todrinks,
iscreams,
grown browning on farms,
sorbets,
creams,
and
and high
inother
sorbets,
levels
orchards
desserts.
and
of
and This
other
ethylene
gardens,
tree is production
a and
perennialin urban [84].
that The
forestry
can
a fruit’s
grow
perennial
in
up pulp
some
to 5–15
thatismtranslucent,
regions tall
grow
of
and
upclimacteric
tois5–15 fruit
mtosoft,
tall that
and contains
is native beneficial
toofthe Amazon bioactive compounds [83]. However, it has a short shelf
white,
northern juicy,
native Brazil the
[86].sweet,
Amazon andregion mucilaginous. South AmericaIt region [85]. of
is usually It isSouth
eaten
also found America
raw, in but many [85].
it can Italso
other is places,
also
be usedfoundtoin
life including
many due other to browning
places,
Central and
including high levels
Central of ethylene
America, the production
West Indies, [84]. The
Northern fruit’s pulp
Australia, is translucent,
andon Malay-
make soft
Family: drinks,
Sapotaceae|Common iceAmerica,
creams, the sorbets,
name: WestCaimito;
Indies,
and other Northern desserts.
Cauje; Australia,
Luma. This tree and Malaysia.
is a perennial It is grownthat can grow
white,
sia. farms,
It is juicy,
grown in soft,
orchards
onand sweet,
farms,and and
gardens, mucilaginous.
in orchards and in urban
and gardens, It is
forestryusually
and in eaten
some
in urban raw,
regions but
of it
northern
forestry[85]. can
in some also
Brazil be used
[86].
regions oftoin
up to
Solanum 5–15 m
quitoense tall Lam. is native
is a perennial to the Amazon region of South America It is also found
make
northern soft
Family: drinks, ice creams,
Sapotaceae|Common
Brazil [86]. name: herbaceous
sorbets, and other
Caimito; Cauje; plant
desserts.Luma. nativeThisto treeEcuador
is a perennial and Colombia; that canthe grow
manyisother
fruit edible places,
and includingaCentral
resembles small America,
orange with the West Indies,
pubescence, sweetNorthern acid Australia,
flavor, and and Malay-
exotic and
up to
Family: 5–15
Solanum m tall and
quitoense
Sapotaceae|Common Lam. is native
is aorchards to theCaimito;
perennial
name: AmazonCauje;
herbaceous region
plant of South
native
Luma. America
to Ecuador and[85]. Colombia;It is also thefoundfruitofis in
sia.
very It is
pleasantgrown on farms,
characteristic in aroma [87]. and gardens,
In pubescence,
Ecuador, and
the in
crop urban is grownforestry mainly in some inand regions
thevery Amazon
many
Solanum edibleother andplaces,
quitoense resembles
Lam. including
a small
is a perennialCentral
orange America,
with
herbaceous theplantWestsweet Indies,
native acid Northern
toflavor,
Ecuador and Australia,
exotic
and Colombia; andthe Malay-
northern
region at
pleasant
Brazil
the [86].
altitude
characteristic of between
aroma [87].1500 In and
Ecuador, 2400 the m; the
crop iscommon
grown name
mainly in is naranjilla;
the Amazon it is con-
region at
sia.
fruit It is
is edible grown and on farms,
resembles in orchards
a andsmall and
orange gardens, and in urban forestry in some regions ofand
Family:
sumed the inSapotaceae|Common
altitude
juice, of between
although 1500
it is name:
also 2400
marketed m; thewith
Caimito; as Cauje;
common
pulp
pubescence,
andLuma.
name has is beensweet acid
naranjilla; used itto isflavor,
consumed
produce
andinexotic
bottledjuice,juices
northern
very pleasant
although
Brazil [86].marketed
itcharacteristic
is also aroma
asa pulp [87].
and InhasEcuador,
been used the crop
to native
produce is grown
bottled mainly
juices and in thecream
ice Amazon [88].
Solanum
and ice cream quitoense [88]. Lam.
This is a perennial
plant, perennial herbaceous shrub plant
that can growtoup Ecuador
to 2.5 mand tall, Colombia;
is originally the
Family:
region This at Sapotaceae|Common
plant,
the a perennial
altitude of shrub
between name:
that can
1500 Caimito;
grow
and up
2400 to Cauje;
2.5
m; m
the Luma.
tall,
commonis originally name from is the Andes
naranjilla; and
it is can
con- beand
fruit is
from the edible
Andes and and resembles
can bePeru a small
found from orange Venezuela with pubescence,
to Peru [89].sweet acid flavor,
It isbetween
typically grown and at exotic
eleva-
Solanum
sumed found in quitoense
from Venezuela
juice, Lam. isto
although it aisperennial
also [89]. It is
marketed herbaceous
typically
as pulp plant
grown and atnative
elevations
has been to Ecuador
used to and
1000Colombia;
produce 1900 m.the
andbottled juices
veryThere
tions pleasant
between are two
characteristic
1000 typesandof1900 aroma
m. There
this plant:
[87].are
varietas
Inquitoense,
Ecuador,
two typeswhich the
of this cropdoes
isnot
plant: grown varietas
have
mainly
thorns
in the
quitoense,
and and
Amazon
is found which in and
fruit
and is
ice at edible
cream and
[88]. resembles
This a small orange with pubescence, sweet acid flavor, exotic
region
does not have
Colombia the altitude
thorns
and Ecuador, of plant,
and between
is
and found
a perennial
varietas1500 andshrub
in Colombia 2400 and
septentrionale, m;that the cancommon
Ecuador,
which
grow
has thornsand
upname toand2.5
varietas iscanm tall, is originally
naranjilla;
be found it
septentrionale, inis con- which
very the
from pleasant Andes characteristic
and can be aromafrom
found [87].Venezuela
In Ecuador, to the
Peru crop[89]. is Itgrown
is mainlygrown
typically in the at Amazon
eleva-
sumed
has thorns in juice,
Colombia, andPanama, although
can anditCosta
be found isinalso Rica marketed
Colombia, [68]. InPanama, as pulpit
Ecuador, and
and has been
is primarily
Costa Rica used
grown [68].into In produce
the mountainous
Ecuador, bottled
it is pri- juices
region
tions between
foothillsat theand altitude
1000 and
Amazonian of1900between m.a There
plains 1500
for both and
are 2400
two
local typesm; the
consumption ofcan common
this and plant:
exportname
varietas
to2.5 is naranjilla;
Colombia quitoense, [90]. it which
is con-
and ice cream [88]. This plant, perennial
marily grown in the mountainous foothills and Amazonian plains for both local consumption shrub that grow up to m tall, is originally
sumed
does Family:
not in juice, although
Solanaceae|Common it is alsoname: marketed
Naranjilla; as pulp and has been
Lulo.Ecuador, used to septentrionale,
produce bottledwhich juices
fromexport
and the have Andes thorns
to Colombiaand can andbe is found in Colombia and
[90].found from Venezuela to Peru [89]. It is typically grown at eleva-
and varietas
and
has ice
thorns cream and1000 [88].
can be This foundplant, a perennial shrub that can grow up to 2.5 m tall, is originally
tions
Family: between
Solanaceae|Common and 1900 in m. Colombia,
name: There are Panama,
Naranjilla; two types and Costa Rica [68]. In Ecuador, it is pri-
Lulo.of this plant: varietas quitoense, which
from the
marily grown Andes in andmountainous
the can be found foothills from Venezuela and Amazonianto Peru [89]. It isfortypically grown at eleva-
does not Based have thorns on theand is found in Colombia
physicochemical characteristics and Ecuador, listedplains inand Tablevarietas3,both local
it isseptentrionale,
possible consumption
to distin- which
tions
and guishbetween
export to
between 1000
Colombia and
two 1900
[90].
groups m. ofThere
fruits. are Thetwo types
first group of this
has plant:
oily, varietas
compact, quitoense,
fibrous pulpwhich and
has thorns Based and can onbethe found in Colombia,characteristics
physicochemical Panama, and Costa listed Rica in Table [68].3,InitEcuador, is possible it istopri-distin-
doesincludes
Family: not have thorns and
Solanaceae|Common is foundname: inNaranjilla;
Colombia and Ecuador, flexuosa, and varietas septentrionale, which
marily grown
guish Aphandra
in the mountainous
between natalia,
two groups Gustavia foothills
of fruits. The Lulo.
macarenensis,
and first Mauritia
Amazonian group has plains oily, and Plukenetia
forcompact,
both local volubilis.
consumption
fibrous pulp and
has Thethorns second and can
group hasbe found in Colombia,
sweet Gustavia and sourmacarenensis, Panama,
juicy pulp and and Costa
includes Rica [68].
Eugenia In Ecuador,
stipitata, it is
Myrciaria pri-
and export includes Aphandra
to Colombia natalia,
[90]. Mauritia flexuosa, and Plukenetia volubilis.
marily
dubia, grown Based
Oenocarpusin theon mountainous
the physicochemical
bataua, Pouteria foothills
caimito, andand Amazonian
characteristics Solanum listed plains
quitoense,in for
Table which both
3, it local
is
have consumption
possible
been to
studied distin-
Family: Solanaceae|Common name: Naranjilla; Lulo.
andwith export
guish theto Colombia
between
interest two
of [90].
groups
relating of fruits.
quality The first group
characteristics to agronomic has oily,and compact, storagefibrous conditions. pulp and
Family: Solanaceae|Common
includes Based Aphandra natalia,
on the physicochemical name:
Gustavia Naranjilla;
macarenensis,
characteristicsLulo. Mauritia listed inflexuosa, Table 3,and it isPlukenetia
possible to volubilis.
distin-
guish between two groups of fruits. The first group has oily, compact, fibrous pulp and
Based
includes on the physicochemical
Aphandra characteristics
natalia, Gustavia macarenensis, listed in
Mauritia Table 3,and
flexuosa, it isPlukenetia
possible to distin-
volubilis.
guish between two groups of fruits. The first group has oily, compact, fibrous pulp and
includes Aphandra natalia, Gustavia macarenensis, Mauritia flexuosa, and Plukenetia volubilis.
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 6 of 20

Table 3. Physicochemical characteristics of edible fruits native to Ecuadorian Amazonia.

Total
Transverse Titrable
Length Weight Moisture Pulp Yield Soluble Maturity Crude Proteins Carbohydrates
Fruit Diameter Acidity Ash (%) Lipids (%) Reference
(cm) (g) (%) (%) Solids Index Fibre (%) (%) (%)
(cm) (%)
(◦ Brix)
Aphandra 13.56 ± Not 522.77 ± 44.52 ± 0.11 2.62 ± 0.05 11.30 ± 57.92 ± 5.11 ±
NR NR 0.04 * NR 23.0 ± 2.35 * [17]
natalia 4.97 applicable 48.01 (Mesocarp) * 0.59 * 3.05 * 0.10 *
Eugenia 89.65 (pulp 9.92– [32,43–
5.54 7–12 30–105 80.30–94.42 3.83–5.06 2.40 ± 0.02 1.60 ± 0.45 2.1–2.94 * 6.69–8.24 * 0.59–3.02 * 60.36–64.54 *
stipitata + peel) 12.68 * 48]
Gustavia
153.93– 60.05–69.8 11.53– 31.60–
macare- 5.73–7.04 6.09–8.50 61.74–70.94 59.34 NR NR 2.34–4.08 12.39–12.8 19.73–26.75 [42,51]
280.18 (oil pulp) 25.17 53.57
nensis
Mauritia 54.8–56.23
5.47 ± 0.15 4.59 ± 0.18 48.7–51.83 11.0–20.19 7.73 ± 0.06 7.60 ± 0.23 1.07 2.27 ± 0.05 38.0 ± 0.3 26.6 ± 0.3 2.47 ± 0.07 15.1 ± 0.3 [21,25]
flexuosa (pulp)
Myrciaria [46,54–
1.2–2.5 1.0–3.2 6.9 93.2 50–60 6.2–9.39 2.30–4.97 2.14 1.8–2.64 0.1–1.3 0.2–0.3 0.4–0.5 3.5–4.7
dubia 56]
Oenocarpus 12.8–22.2 [26,59,
33.3–35.9 23.9–24 13.23 42.4 11.84 NR NR NR 1.1 31.5 3.3 47.2
bataua 38.3 * 60]
3–5 (star-
Plukenetia 1.5–2 3.3–8.32 18.0 ±
shaped NR NR NR NR NR 2.9–6.46 33.4–54.3 24.2–29.7 7.29–30.9 [61–63]
volubilis (oval seed) (seed) 0.095
capsule)
Pouteria [47,66,
NR NR NR 81.87–95.8 NR 3.8–17.50 0.04–5.9 NR 0.32–0.49 NR 0.1–0.15 4.60–4.97 NR
caimito 67]
Solanum 65.7– 90.74 ± 0.73 63.01– 9.22 ± 0.69 ± 0.05 11.2 ± 1.99 [32,33,
4.7–5.24 5.4–5.89 6.53–9.55 1.85–3.78 1.83–3.72 5.84 ± 0.85 NR
quitoense 311.54 (whole fruit) 84.72 0.22 11.65 * 7.44 * 68]
* Values expressed in dry weight (values without * are expressed in fresh weight); NR: Not reported.
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 7 of 20

Solanum quitoense, in addition to the data reported in Table 3, has information on

respiration rate (46.1 mgCO2 /kg·h), ethylene production (1.6 mg C2 H4 /kg·h), and pH
(2.96 ± 0.20–3.3); this is probably because it is one of the fruits cultivated in the Ecuadorian
Amazon that is marketed nationally, as well as yellow pitahaya, which is grown mainly in
the province of Morona Santiago, city Palora, and it is mainly destined for exported [36].
Information on fruit quality characteristics such as pH, soluble solids, titratable acidity,
and flavor are subject to variations in environmental conditions such as temperature and
rainfall [91]. Plukenetia volubilis has high protein content, while Aphandra natalia, Gustavia
macarenensis, and Plukenetia volubilis all have lipid content above 30%, indicating their
potential as sources of vegetable fats.

2.3. Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Capacity

Identifying and quantifying bioactive components can greatly impact the recognition
and commercial success of fruits. Açaí, for example, was relatively unknown in the 1990s
but became the third most popular fruit juice in the U.S. by 2008. Its high antioxidant
capacity earned it the label of a superfood [92]. The bioactive compounds reported by the
research on Ecuadorian Amazonian fruits are mainly vitamin C, polyphenols, flavonoids,
carotenoids, and total anthocyanins (Table 4).
In addition to the bioactive compounds shown in Table 4, Oenocarpus bataua reported
transresveratrol content (pulp:1.94 ± 0.10, peel:7.98 ± 0.01, seed: 12.33 ± 0.02 mg/g
d.w.), and Gustavia macarenensis reported as non-detected [27]. This form of resveratrol
is biologically active in the human body [95]; it is present in plant foods and recognized
for its health benefits such as cardioprotective, antidiabetic, antiobesity, antiaging, and
neuroprotective due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and autophagy-modulating
properties [96]. Pulp oil from the fruits Aphandra natalia and Gustavia macarenensis reported
α-tocopherols concentrations of 21.52 ± 1.30 and 90.23 ± 2.32 mg/Kg, respectively [17,27].
These compounds increase when there is high light, salinity, nutrient deficiency, and cold,
with α-tocopherol being the most potent form of vitamin E [97].
 Plants
Plants
Plants 2023,
Plants 2023,
2023,12,
2023, 12,
12,x12, xxFOR
xFOR
FOR FOR PEER
PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW
REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 8821
88 ofof of 21
21
of 21
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 8 of 20

Table
Table
Table
Table 4.Bioactive
4. Bioactive
4.4.Bioactive
Bioactive compounds
compounds
compounds content
content
content
compounds content ofedible
of edible
ofofedible
edible fruits
fruits
fruits ofthe
ofofthe
fruits the
of the Ecuadorian
Ecuadorian
Ecuadorian Amazon.
Amazon.
Amazon.
Ecuadorian Amazon.
Table 4. Bioactive compounds content of edible fruits of the Ecuadorian Amazon.
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit Total
Total
Total Carotenoids
Carotenoids
Carotenoids
Total Carotenoids
Fruit Vitamin
Vitamin
Vitamin
Vitamin CC(mg/100
(mg/100
CC(mg/100
(mg/100 Total
Total
Total Phenolics
Phenolics
Phenolics
Total Phenolics Total
Total
Total
Total Flavonoids
Flavonoids
Flavonoids
Flavonoids Total
Total
Total
Total Anthocyanin
Anthocyanin
Anthocyanin
Anthocyanin
(Scientific
(Scientific
(Scientific
(Scientific Antioxidant
Antioxidant
Antioxidant
(Scientific Capacity
Capacity
Capacity
Antioxidant Capacity
Antioxidant Capacity Vitamin C (mg/100 g)
Total Phenolics Total Flavonoids (mg
(mg (mg
β-β-
Total
β-
(mg β-
Carotenoids (mg Total Anthocyanin Reference
Reference
Reference
Reference
Reference
g)
g)g)
g) (mg
(mg (mg
(mg GAE/100
GAE/100
GAE/100
(mg GAE/100
GAE/100 g)
g) g)
g)g) (mg/100
(mg/100
(mg/100
(mg/100
(mg/100 g)g) g)
g)g) β-Carotene/kg) (mg/100
(mg/100
(mg/100
(mg/100g)
(mg/100 g)g)
g)g)
Name)
Name)
Name)
Name) Name) Carotene/kg)
Carotene/kg)
Carotene/kg)
Carotene/kg)

Aphandra
Aphandra
Aphandra
Aphandra ± 1.0
DPPH:
Aphandra DPPH:
DPPH:
DPPH: 60±60
60
natalia ±DPPH:
60 ±±1.0
1.0
1.0 1.0
µmol60µmol
µmol
µmol TE/kgµmol
TE/kg
TE/kg
TE/kg TE/kg
(pulp
(pulp (pulp
(pulp oil)
oil) oil)
NR
NR
oil) NR
NR
NR 8.36
8.36 8.36
±±±
8.36
8.36 1.84±1.84
1.84
±1.841.84
(pulp
(pulp
(pulp (pulp
(pulp oil)
oil)
oil) oil)NR
oil) NR
NRNRNR 0.240.24
0.24±±0.02
0.24
0.24±±±0.02
0.020.02
0.02 NRNR NRNR
NR [17]
[17] [17] [17]
[17]
natalia
natalia
natalia
natalia (pulp oil)

DPPH:DPPH:
DPPH:
DPPH: 392.10–3621.8
392.10–3621.8
DPPH: 392.10–3621.8
392.10–3621.8
392.10–3621.8 **µmol
**µmol
µmol µmol TE/kg
TE/kg
*TE/kg
µmol
TE/kg
TE/kg (pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp) ABTS: 758.22 ± 5.01 * µmoL 14,243 (seed) 125–600.72 * (pulp)
Eugenia stipitata 5.60–8.3 125–600.72
125–600.72
125–600.72
125–600.72 ** ** 31.00–33.39 (pulp) ND [32,43,44,46,47,49,50]
Eugenia
Eugenia
Eugenia
Eugenia ABTS:ABTS:
ABTS:
ABTS: 758.22
758.22
758.22
758.22
TE/g ±±5.01
±±5.01
5.01 5.01
(pulp) **µmoL
**µmoL µmoL
µmoL TE/g
TE/g TE/g
TE/g 14,243
14,243
14,243
14,243
154.20 (seed)
(seed) (seed)
(seed)
(pulp) 4373 ± 0.23 (seed)
DPPH: 84.4 µmol TE/100 (pulp) 5.60–8.3
5.60–8.3
5.60–8.3
5.60–8.3 (pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp) 31.00–33.39
31.00–33.39
31.00–33.39
31.00–33.39 (pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp) ND
(pulp) ND ND
ND [32,43,44,46,47,49,50]
[32,43,44,46,47,49,50]
[32,43,44,46,47,49,50]
[32,43,44,46,47,49,50]
stipitata (pulp)
stipitata
stipitata
stipitata (pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp) 154.20
154.20
154.20
154.20(pulp)
(pulp) (pulp)
(pulp)
FRAP: 63 µmol FeSO4/g (pulp) 4373
4373 4373
4373 ±±0.23
±±0.23
0.23 0.23 (seed)
(seed)
(seed)
(seed)
DPPH:DPPH:
DPPH:
DPPH: 84.4
84.4 84.4
84.4 µmol
µmol µmol
µmol TE/100
TE/100 TE/100
TE/100 (pulp)(pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp)
DPPH: 688.40 ± 2.28 * µmol
FRAP:FRAP:
FRAP:
FRAP: 63 63
63µmol
µmol
63 µmol
µmol
AA/100 gFeSO4/g
FeSO4/g
FeSO4/g (pulp)(pulp)
FeSO4/g (pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp)
DPPH:DPPH:
DPPH:
DPPH: 688.40
688.40 DPPH:
688.40
688.40 ± 1146.41
±
2.28
± 2.28 2.28
± 2.28 * ±
*
µmol
* µmol 1.12
µmol
* µmol * µmol
AA/100
AA/100
AA/100
AA/100 gg gg5.48 ± 0.24 * (pulp) 634.30 ± 5.01 * (pulp)
25.57 ± 0.60 * (pulp) 25.57 ± 0.60 * (pulp)
Gustavia AA/100 g (peel) 1165.87 ± 17.66 * (peel)
(pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp)
macarenensis DPPH: 523.82 ± 14.09 * µmol
15.85 ± 0.06 * (peel)
153.16 ± 3.45 * (seed) 25.57
25.57
383.59
25.57 ±
25.57±
± ±
0.60
8.136
0.60
± 0.60
** *
* (peel)
0.60 * 2.62 ± 0.16 (pulp) 9.13 ± 0.11 * (peel) [27,42]
2.20 ± 0.11 * (seed) 111.39 ± 0.79 * (seed) 5.79 ± 0.12 * (seed)
DPPH:DPPH:
DPPH:
DPPH: 1146.41
1146.41
1146.41
1146.41
AA/100 ±g±1.12
±±1.12
1.12 1.12
(seed) **µmol
**µmol
µmol µmol AA/100
AA/100
AA/100
AA/100 634.30
634.30
634.30 ±±±5.01
634.30
156.49 ±5.01
5.01
±2.625.01 **(pulp)
*(pulp) (pulp)
(pulp)
*(pulp (pulp)
(pulp)
oil) (pulp) (pulp)
DPPH: 170 ± 2.86 µmol TE/Kg 5.48 5.485.48
5.48 ±±0.24
±±0.24
0.240.24 **(pulp)
**(pulp) (pulp)
(pulp) 25.57
25.57
25.57 ±±0.60
±±0.60
25.57 0.600.60 **(pulp)
**(pulp)(pulp)
(pulp)
Gustavia
Gustavia
Gustavia gg(peel)
Gustavia g (peel)
(peel)
g (peel) (pulp oil) 1165.87
1165.87
1165.87
1165.87±±17.66±
17.6617.66
± 17.66 *
**(peel) (peel)
(peel)
* (peel) 383.59
383.59
383.59 ±±8.136
±±8.136
383.59 8.136
8.136 ** **
15.8515.85
15.85
15.85 ±±0.06
±±0.06
0.060.06 **(peel)
**(peel)(peel)
(peel) 2.62
2.62
2.62 ±±0.16
±±0.16
2.62 0.160.16 (pulp)9.13
(pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp) 9.13
9.13 ±±0.11
±±0.11
9.13 0.110.11 **(peel)
**(peel)(peel)[27,42]
(peel) [27,42]
[27,42]
[27,42]
macarenensis
macarenensis
macarenensis
macarenensisDPPH:DPPH:
DPPH:
DPPH: 523.82
523.82
523.82
523.82 ±±14.09
±±14.09
14.0914.09 **µmol
**µmol
µmol µmol AA/100
AA/100
AA/100
AA/100 153.16
153.16
153.16 ±±3.45
±±3.45
153.16 3.45 3.45 **(seed)
**(seed) (seed)(peel)
(seed) (peel)
(peel)
(peel)
DPPH: 14.7–17.98 * µmoL TE/g 2.20 2.202.20
±±±
2.20
3.28 ±0.11
0.11
0.11 0.11
±0.78 **(seed)
**(seed) (seed)
(seed) 5.79
5.79
5.79 ±±0.12
±±0.12
5.79 0.120.12 **(seed)
**(seed)(seed)
(seed)
Mauritia gg(seed)
(seed) (pulp)
gg(seed)
(seed) 156.49
156.49
156.49
156.49
725.0–743.2±±2.62
±±2.62
2.62*2.62(pulp
(pulp
(pulp) (pulp
(pulp oil)
oil) oil) 111.39
111.39
111.39
oil) ±±0.79
±±*0.79
111.39
55.8–196 0.790.79
(pulp)** ** 3.10 mg cyanidin
33.4 ± 0.48 * (pulp) 239.4–216.4 (pulp) [25,41,52,93]
flexuosa
DPPH:DPPH:
DPPH:
DPPH: 170
170 170±FRAP
170 ±2.86
2.86 11.38–15.68
±±2.86
2.86µmol
µmol µmol
µmol *TE/Kg
TE/Kg
TE/Kg µmoL
TE/Kg TE/g
(pulp 59.93
(pulp
(pulp
(pulp 29.026–174.36 (shell) 20.27–185.58
(seed) (shell)
(seed)
(seed)
(seed) 3-O-glucoside 100 g−1
(Pulp)
oil)
oil) oil)
oil)
DPPH: 1.93 µmol TE/g (ripe
DPPH:DPPH:
DPPH:
DPPH: 14.7–17.98
14.7–17.98
14.7–17.98
14.7–17.98 **µmoL
fresh pulp) **µmoL
µmoLµmoL TE/g
TE/g TE/g
TE/g 960–4752.23 (pulp) 12,798.80 (pulp)
Myrciaria dubia 3.28
3.28 3.28
3.28
1109.62±±±0.78
±±0.78
0.780.78
56.5 (ripe 13,348.97 ± 99.94 (ripe 55.8–196
55.8–196
55.8–196
55.8–196
55.1–211.64 (pulp) 1 (pulp)
**(pulp)
**(pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp) 170.00 (pulp)
[57,58,94]
Mauritia (pulp)
Mauritia
Mauritia
Mauritia (pulp) DPPH: 1328.50 ± 14.40 µmol
(pulp)
(pulp) peel)
725.0–743.2
725.0–743.2
725.0–743.2
725.0–743.2 ** *
(pulp)
* (pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp) 6199.8 (ripe peel) 3.10 3.10
3.10 mg
mg
3.10 mg cyanidin
cyanidin
±
cyanidin
223.14
mg 3-3- 3-
6.89 (ripe
cyanidin 3-
peel)
TE/g (ripe peel) 33.4
33.4 33.4
33.4 ±±0.48
±±0.48
0.480.48
**(pulp) (pulp) peel)
**(pulp)
(pulp) 20.27–185.58 239.4–216.4
20.27–185.58
20.27–185.58
20.27–185.58 239.4–216.4
239.4–216.4
239.4–216.4 (pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp) [25,41,52,93]
[25,41,52,93]
[25,41,52,93]
[25,41,52,93]
flexuosa FRAP
flexuosa
flexuosa
flexuosa FRAPFRAP
FRAP 11.38–15.68
11.38–15.68
11.38–15.68
11.38–15.68 **µmoL**µmoL
µmoLµmoL TE/g
TE/g TE/g
TE/g 29.026–174.36
29.026–174.36
29.026–174.36
29.026–174.36 (shell)
(shell)
(shell)
(shell) O-glucoside
O-glucoside
O-glucoside
O-glucoside 100
100 100 −1 g−1
gg−1
100 −1
g −1
DPPH: 478.94 ± 4.85 * µmol 59.9359.93
59.93
59.93 (shell)
(shell)
(shell)
(shell)
(Pulp)
(Pulp)
(Pulp)
(Pulp) AA/100 g (pulp)
DPPH:
DPPH: 1.931.93 µmolµmol TE/g TE/g
(ripe(ripe fresh 622.97 ± 4.84 * (pulp) 55.34 ± 0.29 * (pulp) 14.82 ± 0.20 * (pulp)
DPPH:
DPPH:
Oenocarpus 1.931.93 µmol
DPPH:µmolTE/g
654.56TE/g(ripe
± *fresh
fresh
(ripe
0.94 fresh
µmol
bataua 960–4752.23
960–4752.23
0.12
960–4752.23
960–4752.23 (pulp)
± 0.00 (pulp)
(pulp)(pulp)
(pulp) 12,798.80
12,798.80
1009.38
12,798.80
12,798.80 1.80 (pulp)
(pulp)
±(pulp) * (peel)
(pulp) 57.17 ± 0.42 * (peel) NR 170.00
170.00
170.00 46.48 (pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp)
170.00 ± 0.31 * (peel)
(pulp) [27]
Myrciaria
Myrciaria
Myrciaria
Myrciaria pulp)pulp) AA/100 g (peel)
pulp)
pulp) 758.25 ± 3.221 * (seed) 11(pulp)
47.15 ± 0.06 * (seed) 11(pulp) (pulp)
(pulp) 14.71 ± 0.02 * (seed)
DPPH: 589.44 ± 5.29 * µmol 1109.62
1109.62
1109.62
1109.62 ±±56.5
±±56.5
56.556.5
(ripe
(ripe (ripe13,348.97
(ripe 13,348.97
13,348.97
13,348.97 ±±99.94
±±99.94
99.94 99.94(ripe
(ripe (ripe
(ripe 55.1–211.64
55.1–211.64
55.1–211.64
55.1–211.64 (pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp)
(pulp) 223.14
223.14
223.14 ±±6.89
±±6.89
223.14 6.89 6.89
(ripe
(ripe (ripe[57,58,94]
(ripe [57,58,94]
[57,58,94]
[57,58,94]
dubiadubia
dubia
dubia DPPH:DPPH:
DPPH:
DPPH: 1328.50
1328.50
1328.50
1328.50
AA/100 ±g±14.40
±±14.40
14.40 14.40
µmol
µmol
(seed) µmol
µmol TE/g
TE/g TE/g
TE/g 6199.8
6199.8
6199.8 (ripe
6199.8 (ripe
(ripe
(ripe peel)
peel)
peel)
peel)
peel)peel)
peel)
peel) peel)peel)
peel)
peel) peel)peel)
peel)
peel)
(ripe(ripe
(ripe peel)
peel)
(ripe peel)
peel)
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 9 of 20

Table 4. Cont.

Fruit
Total Phenolics Total Flavonoids Total Carotenoids (mg Total Anthocyanin
(Scientific Antioxidant Capacity Vitamin C (mg/100 g) Reference
(mg GAE/100 g) (mg/100 g) β-Carotene/kg) (mg/100 g)
Name)
DPPH: 32.43 ± 1.63% (Oil
pressed-cake)
Plukenetia 6.58 ± 0.27 (oil seed)
FRAP: 732.67 ± 35.29 µmol NR NR NR NR [65]
volubilis (seed) 51 (Oil pressed-cake)
FeSO4 /L (Oil pressed-cake)
ORAC: 6.5–9.8 µmol TE/g
DPPH: 734.98 ± 0.26 µmol
TE/100 (pulp) 172.75 ± 0.77 (pulp)
Pouteria caimito 2.0–3.11 (pulp) NR 0.25 (pulp) NR [47,66,67]
FRAP: 1211.03 ± 1.12 µmol 60.0 ± 0.015 (pulp)
TE/100 (pulp)
DPPH: 21.26 ± 1.35 * µmol
TE/g (pulp)
Solanum 0.1 * (whole fruit)
ABTS 76.40 ± 1.33 * µmol TE/g 775.31–897.58 * 991.57 ± 20.24 34.08 ± 2.42–57.93 * ND [32,43,69]
quitoense 4.16 ± 1.49 (pulp)
(pulp)
ORAC: 0.15 ± 0.02 mM/g (Pulp)
* Values expressed in dry weight (values without * are expressed in fresh weight). Values expressed as ng/g of dry weight; GAE, gallic acid equivalent; TE, trolox equivalent; AA,
ascorbic acid equivalent; ND, not detectable; NR, not reported.
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 10 of 20

3. Discussion
3.1. Ethnobotany
Orellana, Sucumbíos, and Napo are the provinces of the Ecuadorian Amazon with
the most records of useful species. In Ecuador, fruits are part of the plants mostly used
by animals as food, and it has been recorded that the animals that mainly feed on fruits
are birds, followed by mammals, fish, and reptiles [71]. Fruits are commonly viewed
as a healthy food choice due to their natural sweetness, making them a popular snack
throughout the day [98]. The local community recognizes fruits from the Amazonian
biodiversity as a source of micronutrients that promote good health [99]; it has been
observed that children who spend less time with their families in natural settings tend
to prefer commercial fruit over wild fruit [100]. However, it is important to note that
children may grow tired of the basic flavors they initially enjoy and may develop a taste for
more intricate flavors [101,102]. Therefore, there is growing interest in “superfruits” that
possess high nutraceutical value by containing bioactive compounds, which encourages
the consumption of affordable foods from the local biome [103].
The second category of use of fruits is medicinal, followed by animal feed and materi-
als. Regarding the use of fruits as medicine, younger generations may be less familiar with
their properties, while women tend to be the main source of traditional knowledge and
plant conservation. Communities located far from health centers tend to have more knowl-
edge about plant use due to limited transportation and resources for accessing medicine.
This contrasts with communities located closer to health centers [38].
In Ecuador, fruits, seeds, and leaves are the most consumed parts of the food
species [71]. Interestingly, the peels of fruits are often discarded despite their potential
pharmacological benefits. These peels contain bioactive compounds like polyphenols,
flavonoids, carotenoids, terpenoids, and alkaloids, which have antioxidant, antiviral, anti-
cancer, and antidiabetic properties [104]. They can be used for various purposes, such as
raw materials for energy generation like bioethanol, biomethane, biohydrogen, and bio-oil.
Additionally, bioactive chemicals can be extracted from them, and they can also be used as
biofertilizers or bio-adsorbents [105].

3.2. Physicochemical Characterization

The fruits from the Ecuadorian Amazon that reported morphometric weight data
(Table 3) are mostly round or oval, except for Aphandra natalia and Plukenetia volubilis, which
are irregularly shaped. Morphometric characterization of fruits and seeds is essential for
taxonomic identification and verification of environmental, phenotypic, and genetic varia-
tion in plant populations [106]. Fresh fruits are considered highly perishable food products
because they have a high moisture content, and if not handled properly, there is accelerated
deterioration [107]. Fruit weight is a quality trait that allows investigation of domestication
and species improvement [108]. Pulp yield was reported for three Ecuadorian Amazonian
fruits; this parameter can be related to the amount of total soluble solids, acids, salts, and
other substances dissolved in the aqueous phase; therefore, fruits with higher values are
suitable for processing [109].
Fruits from the Ecuadorian Amazon are consumed by local people, especially for their
sweet and exotic flavor. For farmers, fruit trees are not the main crops; rather, they are
species that are kept on the farm to diversify products for self-consumption and to market
their surplus at local fairs during the harvest season. The Amazon fruit season in Ecuador
occurs once a year between November and March. Indigenous women are the main traders
of Amazonian fruits and are the ones who report uses in addition to food, such as cosmetic
and medicinal use. The difficulties that exist for the use of these fruits are the long distances
that must be traveled to harvest them, the fact that they are highly perishable products, the
scarce and inadequate transportation, and the low, unregulated prices. Despite this, it is
encouraging that the younger generations still like Amazonian fruits, and there is a high
demand from local people during the harvest season.
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 11 of 20

In the nutritional composition of the fruits studied in the Ecuadorian Amazon (Table 3),
fiber and lipid content are relevant for Aphandra natalia, Gustavia macarenensis, and Plukenetia
volubilis. The fat content of Aphandra natalia sampled in the Amazon region of Ecuador
(57.92 ± 3.05 dry wt%) is higher than that of fruits of the same Aracaceae family, such as
Mauritia flexuosa (38.38 dry wt%) and Oenocarpus bataua (21.65 dry wt%) sampled in the
Brazilian Amazon [110]; however, they coincide in the lipid profile reporting a high oleic
acid content (Aphandra natalia 71.92%; Mauritia flexuosa 75.7%; Oenocarpus bataua 76.8%
in dry wt), so this fruit can be considered a source of high-quality vegetable oil [17]. In
contrast, Gustavia macarenensis has a lipid profile composed of palmitic (42.89%) and oleic
(43.30%) acids [42].
The fat component of Plukenetia volubilis is characterized by a high content of polyun-
saturated (51.5%) and monounsaturated (32.5%) fatty acids, which differ from a Peruvian
accession that shows values of 46.6% and 36.5%, respectively. This is probably due to
influential factors such as genetic differences and growing conditions like elevation and
temperature [111]. The high carbohydrate content of Eugenia stipitata can be explained by
the amount of total sugars (50% dry wt%) and dietary fiber (39 dry wt%) [112]. The protein
content of over 10% in Eugenia stipitate, Gustavia macarenensis, Plukenetia volubilis, and
Solanum quitoense is high compared to the 3.5% generally present in fruits [112]. Fruits such
as Myrciaria dubia and Pouteria caimito report low lipid and protein values but have benefits
such as reduced oxidative stress and plasma cholesterol, respectively [47,56]. Despite the
nutritional content of Amazonian fruits, which can be considered underutilized fruits, their
industrial and commercial application is limited because they are seasonal crops with a
short shelf life [110].

3.3. Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Capacity

Antioxidant capacity is reported according to the method of analysis, which makes
it difficult to make comparisons. However, it is a measure that allows establishing a
reference on the capacity of a food to eliminate free radicals, which cause cell damage
and are correlated with mutagenesis, carcinogenesis, and aging [113]. This identifies the
importance of food consumption as part of a diet with protective effects for health and
the need for research on the components responsible for this capacity, such as vitamin
C, phenolic compounds, and carotenoids [114]. According to [115], the non-traditional
tropical fruits from Brazil that stood out for their antioxidant capacity were puçápreto
(EC50 = 414 and 65.6 g/g DPPH), camu-camu (EC50 = 478 and 42.6 g/g DPPH), and acerola
(EC50 = 670 and 49.2 g/g DPPH), which correlated with the phenol content and specifically
for acerola and camu-camu with the vitamin C content. Fruits selected for this review that
report this parameter and highlight their high level of vitamin C were Eugenia stipitata,
Gustavia macarenensis, Oenocarpus bataua, and Pouteria caimito, confirming the potential of
underutilized tropical fruits as functional foods.
Fruits and vegetables are the best natural source of vitamin C for humans. Vitamin C
is an antioxidant capable of terminating free radical chain reactions through disproportion
to non-toxic and non-radical products [114]. The fruits reported in Table 4 contain low
concentrations of vitamin C, except Myrciaria dubia (camu-camu), considering that most
tropical fruits have concentrations higher than 1000 mg/100 g. For instance, there are poorly
known fruits present in the Amazon biome that have the highest reported concentrations;
among them are acerola (1600 mg/100 g) and camu-camu (1882 ± 43.2 mg/100 g) [115].
Phenolic compounds are the most abundant dietary antioxidants that protect mam-
malian systems. Tropical fruits are rich sources of polyphenols compared to temperate cli-
mate fruits, especially those with polyphenol concentrations greater than 1000 mg GAE/100
g [114]. Of the fruits described in this study, the content of Eugenia stipitata and Myrciaria
dubia pulp, as well as the contents of the peel of Gustavia macarenensis, Myrciaria dubia, and
Oenocarpus bataua, was higher than 1000 mg GAE/100 g. Mauritia flexuosa and Solanum
quitoense have values above 700 mg GAE/100 g, which are higher than those reported for
Mauritia flexuosa samples from two Brazilian localities (362.90 ± 7.98–435.08 ± 6.97) [116]
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 12 of 20

and lower than the value for Solanum quitoense collected in the province of Pichincha,
Ecuador (1008 mg of GAE/100 g d.w.) [68]. Oenocarpus bataua and Gustavia macarenensis
showed values above 600 mg GAE/100 g for the pulp, although the concentration was
higher in their peels; a similar result showed the pulp of Oenocarpus bataua collected in
the city of Pucallpa in the Peruvian Amazon (672.3 ± 46.9). The variation in phenol con-
centrations of fruits from different localities may be due to climatic and agronomic factors
such as light exposure, rainfall, relief, soil type, location, crop variety, harvest time, crop
management, maturity stage of the product, type, and storage conditions of the harvest,
etc. [117].
Flavonoids constitute the largest class of polyphenols. The fruits in which there
was a higher number of flavonoids were Solanum quitoense and Eugenia stipitata, which
report higher values than products considered rich in these nutrients, such as Allium
fistulosum L (272.05 mg/100 g of dry weight), Psidium guajava L. (112. 85 mg/100 g), and
Camellia chinensis Kuntze (149.10 mg/100 g) [118], but, they had lower concentrations than
pomegranate peel (>2000 mg QE/100 g d.w.), which is characterized by its potential as a
natural antioxidant [104]. For Gustavia macarenensis and Oenocarpus bataua, it is highlighted
that the flavonoid content is higher in the peels than in the edible part of the fruit.
Carotenoids are very versatile bioactives because they are precursors of vitamin A,
pigments, antioxidants, and health-promoting compounds. In fruits, carotenoids such as
xanthophylls are found in greater quantities and are mainly housed in the chromoplasts
of ripe fruits [119] and provide yellow to red color to plant tissues, thus attracting con-
sumers [120]. The Ecuadorian Amazon Eugenia stipitata and Solanum quitoense were the
fruits that reported higher contents of total carotenoids (31 and 34.8 µg β-carotene/g
respectively); however, Amazonian fruits studied in Brazil, such as Mauritia flexuosa
(234–713 µg/g) and Bactris gasipaes (26–357 µg/g) [20], showed higher concentrations. In
addition, it is important to consider that the presence of lipids is relevant for the bioavail-
ability of carotenoids and that the concentration of these compounds varies depending
on the origin, environment, climate, soil [116], ripening stage, characteristics, and storage
time [76].
Anthocyanins are flavonoid compounds found in plant tissues and are characterized
by their antioxidant properties and pigmenting power. In fruits, they constitute one of
the pigments responsible for the color change in the ripening process, which allows their
identification for animal consumption and the distribution of viable ripe seeds [120,121].
Pigmentation by anthocyanins decreases with high temperatures and increases with cold
temperatures and in conditions of high light intensity. In this review, the fruits that
recorded these compounds were Gustavia macarenensis, Mauritia flexuosa, Myrciaria dubia,
and Oenocarpus bataua, while Solanum quitoense and Eugenia stipitata indicate that these
compounds were not detected. However, the reported ranks are low with respect to the
anthocyanin content of blackberries (81.3 mg/10 g FW), black grapes (41 mg/10 g FW),
and raspberry (22.8 mg/10 g FW), which are anthocyanin-rich [122].
Tocopherols can scavenge free radicals and protect plant tissues from lipid perox-
idation and oxidative damage. The concentration of pulp oil from the fruits Aphandra
natalia and Gustavia macarenensis recorded in Table 4 would be below values for olive fruits
(267 ± 7.3 mg/kg d.w.) [123], in a similar range detected for mandarin (50–150 mg/kg)
where α-tocopherols is the predominant form of total tocopherols (over 70%) as in grape-
fruit and orange [97], and higher than reported for passion fruit, considering that in this
fruit α-tocopherols were not detected but β-γ-δ tocopherols were present (0.52–0.61 mg/kg).
It is relevant to indicate that tocopherols presented a decrease in the passion fruit crop that
was conventionally managed with respect to organic management [124]. In the olive crop,
these compounds also decreased with the application of fertigation; however, during cold
storage of mandarins, the concentration was maintained [123].
Considering the characteristics and properties of native Amazonian fruits, it is crucial
to expand research on their nutraceutical functions and the domestication process of these
species, which begins with the exploitation of wild plants, continues with the cultivation of
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 13 of 20

plants selected by nature, and ends with the fixation of morphological and genetic char-
acteristics through human selection. This will allow for the establishment of appropriate
strategies for using genetic resources, as well as for the conservation and extraction of
non-timber resources [125,126].

4. Materials and Methods

3.4. Study Area
The study area for this research was the Ecuadorian Amazon region, which, according
to the political–territorial division of the country, is subdivided into 6 provinces with admin-
istrative autonomy: Sucumbíos; Napo; Orellana; Pastaza; Morona Santiago; and Zamora
Chinchipe [127]. The importance of this region in Ecuador is high because it constitutes 46%
of the national territory (120,000 km) and has a population of 956,699 inhabitants, according
to the projection for 2020 and considering data from the 2010 population census [128].

3.5. The Systematic Literature Review

The systematic review of the literature conducted from June to August 2023 was
carried out following the guidelines for the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic
Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) [129]. Briefly, the research question was formulated;
then, the inclusion/exclusion criteria and the databases for the search were established to
continue with the filtering, extraction, synthesis, and interpretation of the data obtained,
and finally, the discussion of the results was performed.
The databases used were Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, Scielo, and Redalyc.
Articles published up to August 2023 were included. The keywords on which the search
was based are described in Table 5. The inclusion criteria were articles that sampled fruits in
the Ecuadorian Amazon region. These documents were used to identify the fruits studied
in the Ecuadorian Amazon region (55 fruits), which were listed with their ethnobotanical
characteristics (Supplementary Table S1). From this list of 55 fruits, fruits of indigenous
origin were selected if they had at least two references from the first search of the review
(Aphandra natalia, Eugenia stipitate, Gustavia macarenensis, Mauritia flexuosa, Myrciaria dubia,
Oenocarpus bataua, Plukenetia volubilis, Theobroma cacao); however, Theobroma cacao was
excluded because it is a traditional export product. The search for information on the
9 selected fruits was carried out using the keywords in Table 5, subject fruit description.

Table 5. Search parameters of the literature review.

Subject Search Parameters

Fruits “fruit” AND “Amazon” AND “Ecuador”
Ethnobotany “ethnobotany” AND “Ecuador” AND “Amazon”
Bioactive compounds “bioactive” AND “Ecuador” AND “Amazon”
“scientific name of fruit” AND “physicochemical”
Fruit description
“scientific name of fruit” AND “bioactive”

The search for the identification of edible fruits studied in the Ecuadorian Ama-
zon region yielded a total of 310 documents, which were screened, including only 27
(Figure 2). In addition, 738 documents resulted from the search carried out to describe
the physicochemical characteristics and bioactive components of the selected fruits. These
documents were also screened by a title/abstract and full document reading, including
only 39 documents in the review of the selected fruits: Aphandra natalia; Eugenia stipitate;
Gustavia macarenensis; Mauritia flexuosa; Myrciaria dubia; Oenocarpus bataua; and Plukenetia
volubilis. The inclusion criterion for the second search was the 10 most-cited documents.
 region yielded a total of 310 documents, which were screened, including only 27 (Figure
2). In addition, 738 documents resulted from the search carried out to describe the physi-
cochemical characteristics and bioactive components of the selected fruits. These docu-
ments were also screened by a title/abstract and full document reading, including only 39
documents in the review of the selected fruits: Aphandra natalia; Eugenia stipitate; Gustavia
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 14 of 20
macarenensis; Mauritia flexuosa; Myrciaria dubia; Oenocarpus bataua; and Plukenetia volubilis.
The inclusion criterion for the second search was the 10 most-cited documents.

Figure2.2.Schematic
Figure Schematicdiagram
diagramof
ofidentification,
identification,screening,
screening,and
andincluded
includeddataset
datasetthrough
throughPRISMA.
PRISMA.

4.5.Conclusions
Conclusions
The
TheEcuadorian
EcuadorianAmazonian
Amazonianfruitfruittrees
treeswith
withthe
themost
moststudies
studiesavailable wereAphandra
availablewere Aphandra
natalia, Solanum quitoense, and Eugenia stipitata. The analysis of the ethnobotanical
natalia, Solanum quitoense, and Eugenia stipitata. The analysis of the ethnobotanical infor-
mation identified that the most used part of the fruits is the pulp, that
information identified that the most used part of the fruits is the pulp, that the mostthe most frequent
uses of theuses
frequent fruitsofare
thefresh consumption,
fruits preparation ofpreparation
are fresh consumption, typical dishes, and medicinal
of typical dishes, use,
and
and that Sucumbíos and Orellana are the Amazonian provinces where
medicinal use, and that Sucumbíos and Orellana are the Amazonian provinces where the the fruits have been
investigated the most.
fruits have been investigated the most.
Within
Within thephysicochemical
the physicochemical characteristics
characteristics of offruits,
fruits,morphometric
morphometric and andnutritional
nutritional
content information is the most regularly reported. The fiber, fat, and
content information is the most regularly reported. The fiber, fat, and protein protein contents of the
contents of
Amazonian fruits Aphandra natalia, Solanum quitoense, Gustavia macarenensis, and Plukenetia
the Amazonian fruits Aphandra natalia, Solanum quitoense, Gustavia macarenensis, and
volubilis were relevant with respect to what the fruits generally present, which demonstrates
Plukenetia volubilis were relevant with respect to what the fruits generally present, which
their potential as an alternative for the food industry through their processing, considering
demonstrates their potential as an alternative for the food industry through their
their high susceptibility and seasonal production.
processing, considering their high susceptibility and seasonal production.
The bioactive components analyzed in all fruits were total polyphenols. Solanum
The bioactive components analyzed in all fruits were total polyphenols. Solanum qui-
quitoense and Eugenia stipitata were the fruits with the highest content of total flavonoids
toense and Eugenia stipitata were the fruits with the highest content of total flavonoids and
and carotenoids in the pulp, while Gustavia macarenensis and Oenocarpus bataua reported
carotenoids in the pulp, while Gustavia macarenensis and Oenocarpus bataua reported
higher amounts of anthocyanins in the pulp and flavonoids in the peel. The amount of
higher amounts of anthocyanins in the pulp and flavonoids in the peel. The amount of
these bioactive components reported in Ecuadorian Amazonian fruits are like products
these bioactive components reported in Ecuadorian Amazonian fruits are like products
characterized by their high content, which allows asserting the nutraceutical capacity of
characterized by their high content, which allows asserting the nutraceutical capacity of
these products.
theseConsidering
products. the 55 edible fruits identified and 9 fruits selected for this bibliographic
review, there is a great need to expand research on quality parameters, bioactive compo-
nents, and domestication of native Amazonian fruits to establish nutritional alternatives
with nutraceutical properties and the commercialization of non-timber resources that can
contribute to the sustainable development of the region.

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at https:

//www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/plants12203635/s1, Table S1: Ethnobotanical information on
edible fruits of the Ecuadorian Amazon.
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 15 of 20

Author Contributions: Conceptualization and methodology, M.S.-C. and C.M.-R.; writing the origi-
nal draft, M.S-C.; writing—review and editing, M.C.G. and C.M.-R.; reviewing, revising, and finally
approving the manuscript, C.M.-R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
this manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the Escuela Superior Politécnica del Chimborazo
for their collaboration, support, and contribution to the doctoral process of the main author at the
University of Seville, Spain.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Charity, S.; Dudley, N.; Oliveira, D.; Stolton, S. Amazonía viva—Informe 2016: Un Enfoque Regional para la Conservación en la
Amazonía, 1st ed.; WWF—Fondo Mundial para la Naturaleza: Morges, Switzerland, 2016; Volume 1.
2. Codeço, C.T.; Dal’Asta, A.P.; Rorato, A.C.; Lana, R.M.; Neves, T.C.; Andreazzi, C.S.; Barbosa, M.; Escada, M.I.S.; Fernandes,
D.A.; Rodrigues, D.L.; et al. Epidemiology, biodiversity, and technological trajectories in the Brazilian Amazon: From malaria to
COVID-19. Front. Public Health 2021, 9, 647754. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Organización Del Trabajo de Cooperación Amazónica (OTCA). Available online: http://otca.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/
biomaz_documento_evaluacion_ES.pdf (accessed on 8 October 2023).
4. Marcovitch, J.; Pinsky, V.C. Amazon fund: Financing deforestation avoidance. Rev. Adm. 2014, 49, 280–290. [CrossRef]
5. Noronha Matos, K.A.; Praia Lima, D.; Pereira Barbosa, A.P.; Zerlotti Mercadante, A.; Campos Chisté, R. Peels of Tucumã
(Astrocaryum vulgare) and peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) are by-products classified as very high carotenoid sources. Food Chem.
2019, 272, 216–221. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
6. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO). Perspectivas a Mediano Plazo: Perspectivas para la Producción y el
Comercio Mundial de Bananos y Frutas Tropicales 2019–2028; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2020.
7. Vargas-Tierras, Y.B.; Prado-Beltran, J.K.; Nicolalde-Cruz, J.R.; Casanoves, F.; Virginio-Filho, E.D.; Viera-Arroyo, W.F. Characteriza-
tion and role of Amazonian fruit crops in family farms in the provinces of Sucumbios and Orellana (Ecuador). Corpoica-Cienc. Y
Tecnol. Agropecu. 2018, 19, 501–516. [CrossRef]
8. Machado, C.L.R.; Crespo-Lopez, M.E.; Augusto-Oliveira, M.; de Paula Arrifano, G.; de Matos Macchi, B.; Lopes-Araújo, A.;
Santos-Sacramento, L.; Souza-Monteiro, J.R.; Alvarez-Leite, J.I.; de Souza, C.B.A. Eating in the Amazon: Nutritional status of the
riverine populations and possible nudge interventions. Foods 2021, 10, 1015. [CrossRef]
9. Guevara, M.; Tejera, E.; Granda-Albuja, M.G.; Iturralde, G.; Chisaguano-Tonato, M.; Granda-Albuja, S.; Jaramillo-Vivanco, T.;
Giampieri, F.; Battino, M.; Alvarez-Suarez, J.M. Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of the main fruits consumed in the
western coastal region of Ecuador as a source of health-promoting compounds. Antioxidants 2019, 8, 387. [CrossRef]
10. Sayago-Ayerdi, S.; García-Martínez, D.L.; Ramírez-Castillo, A.C.; Ramírez-Concepción, H.R.; Viuda-Martos, M. Tropical fruits
and their co-products as bioactive compounds and their health effects: A review. Foods 2021, 10, 1952. [CrossRef]
11. Pereira Barbosa, A.P.; Moraes, A.F.; Chiste, R.C. Physicochemical characterization and quantification of bioactive compounds of
Antrocaryon amazonicum fruits cultivated in Brazilian Amazonia. Cyta-J. Food 2020, 18, 616–623. [CrossRef]
12. Mishra, D.S.; Berwal, M.K.; Singh, A.; Singh, A.K.; Rao, V.V.A.; Yadav, V.; Sharma, B.D. Phenotypic diversity for fruit quality traits
and bioactive compounds in red-fleshed Guava: Insights from multivariate analyses and machine learning algorithms. South Afr.
J. Bot. 2022, 149, 591–603. [CrossRef]
13. Costa Lima, P.G.; Coelho–Ferreira, M.; Da Silva Santos, R. Perspectives on medicinal plants in public markets across the Amazon:
A review. Econ. Bot 2016, 70, 64–78. [CrossRef]
14. Stagegaard, J.; Sørensen, M.; Kvist, L.P. Estimations of the importance of plant resources extracted by inhabitants of the Peruvian
Amazon flood plains. Perspect. Plant Ecol. Evol. Syst. 2002, 5, 103–122. [CrossRef]
15. Katz, E.; López, C.L.; Fleury, M.; Miller, R.P.; Payê, V.; Dias, T.; Silva, F.; Oliveira, Z.; Moreira, E. No greens in the forest? note on
the limited consumption of greens in the Amazon. Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. 2012, 81, 4. [CrossRef]
16. Macía, M.J.; Armesilla, P.J.; Cámara-Leret, R.; Paniagua-Zambrana, N.; Villalba, S.; Balslev, H.; Pardo-de-Santayana, M. Palm uses
in northwestern South America: A quantitative review. Bot. Rev. 2011, 77, 462–570. [CrossRef]
17. Viafara, D.; Abreu-Naranjo, R.; Alvarez-Suarez, J.M.; Reyes-Mera, J.J.; Barreno-Ayala, M. Chemical characterisation and an-
tioxidant activity of Aphandra natalia mesocarp and its oil from the Amazon region of Ecuador. J. Food Meas. Charact. 2018, 12,
2835–2843. [CrossRef]
18. Kronborg, M.; Grández, C.A.; Ferreira, E.; Balslev, H. Aphandra natalia (arecaceae)-a little known source of piassaba fibers from the
western Amazon. Rev. Peru. Biol. 2008, 15, 103–113. [CrossRef]
19. Pedersen, H.B. Production and harvest of fibers from Aphandra natalia (palmae) in Ecuador. Ecol. Manag. 1996, 80, 155–161.
[CrossRef]
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 16 of 20

20. Paniagua-Zambrana, N.; Cámara-Leret, R.; Macía, M.J. Patterns of medicinal use of palms across Northwestern South America.
Bot. Rev. 2015, 81, 317–415. [CrossRef]
21. Jaramillo-Vivanco, T.; Balslev, H.; Montúfar, R.; Cámara, R.M.; Giampieri, F.; Battino, M.; Cámara, M.; Alvarez-Suarez, J.M. Three
Amazonian palms as underestimated and little-known sources of nutrients, bioactive compounds and edible insects. Food Chem.
2022, 372, 131273. [CrossRef]
22. González-Jaramillo, N.; Bailon-Moscoso, N.; Duarte-Casar, R.; Romero-Benavides, J.C. Peach palm (Bactris gasipaes Kunth.):
Ancestral tropical staple with future potential. Plants 2022, 11, 3134. [CrossRef]
23. Innerhofer, S.; Bernhardt, K.-G. Ethnobotanic garden design in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Biodivers. Conserv. 2011, 20, 429–439.
[CrossRef]
24. Arellano-Acuna, E.; Rojas-Zavaleta, I.; Maria Paucar-Menacho, L. Camu-Camu (Myrciaria dubia): Tropical fruit of excellent
functional that help to improve the quality of life. Sci. Agropecu. 2016, 7, 433–443. [CrossRef]
25. Rivera, M.; Ramos, M.; Silva, M.; Briceno, J.; Alvarez, M. Effect of the temperature prior to extraction on the yield and fatty acid
profile of Morete oil (Mauritia flexuosa L.F.). Granja-Rev. Cienc. Vida 2022, 35, 98–111. [CrossRef]
26. Miller, C. Fruit production of the Ungurahua palm (Oenocarpus bataua subsp bataua, Arecaceae) in an indigenous managed
reserve. Econ. Bot 2002, 56, 165–176. [CrossRef]
27. Méndez-Durazno, C.; Cisneros-Perez, P.A.; Loja-Ojeda, B.A.; Monge-Sevilla, R.; Romero-Estévez, D.; Fernández, L.; Espinoza-
Montero, P.J. Antioxidant capacity through electrochemical methods and chemical composition of Oenocarpus Bataua and Gustavia
Macarenensis from the Ecuadorian Amazon. Antioxidants 2023, 12, 318. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
28. Giovannini, P. Medicinal plants of the Achuar (Jivaro) of Amazonian Ecuador: Ethnobotanical survey and comparison with other
Amazonian pharmacopoeias. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2015, 164, 78–88. [CrossRef]
29. Ponce-Sanchez, J.; Zurita-Benavides, M.G.; Penuela, M.C. Reproductive ecology of white Cacao (Theobroma bicolor Humb. &
Bonpl.) in Ecuador, Western Amazonia: Floral visitors and the impact of fungus and mistletoe on fruit production. Braz. J. Bot.
2021, 44, 479–489. [CrossRef]
30. Sanchez-Capa, M.; Viteri-Sanchez, S.; Burbano-Cachiguango, A.; Abril-Donoso, M.; Vargas-Tierras, T.; Suarez-Cedillo, S.;
Mestanza-Ramón, C. New characteristics in the fermentation process of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) “Super Arbol” in La Joya de
Los Sachas, Ecuador. Sustainability 2022, 14, 7564. [CrossRef]
31. Herrera, R.; Vasquez, S.C.; Granja, F.; Molina-Muller, M.; Capa-Morocho, M.; Guaman, A.O. Interaction of N, P and K on soil
characteristics, growth and quality of cocoa sprouts and fruits in Ecuadorian Amazon. Bioagro 2022, 34, 277–288. [CrossRef]
32. Llerena, W.; Samaniego, I.; Angós, I.; Brito, B.; Ortiz, B.; Carrillo, W. Biocompounds content prediction in Ecuadorian fruits using
a mathematical model. Foods 2019, 8, 284. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
33. Navarrete, A.T.; Burgos, J.C.V.; Quintana, Y.G.; Crespo, Y.A. Partial chemical composition, and morphometric and sensory
characteristics of organically and conventionally produced fruits of Naranjilla (Solanum quitoense var. Palora) in the Wamani
community, Ecuadorian Amazon. Interciencia 2018, 43, 115–119.
34. Vargas Tierras, Y.; Díaz Martínez, A.; Congo Yépez, C.; Tinoco Jaramillo, L.; Viera Arroyo, W. Comparison of fruit quality traits of
Papaya (Carica papaya L.) genotypes from Shushufindi and La Joya de Los Sachas, Ecuador. Corpoica-Cienc. Y Tecnol. Agropecu.
2021, 22, 5–10. [CrossRef]
35. Valarezo, E.; Ojeda-Riascos, S.; Cartuche, L.; Andrade-Gonzalez, N.; Gonzalez-Sanchez, I.; Meneses, M.A. Extraction and study of
the essential oil of Copal (Dacryodes peruviana), an Amazonian Fruit with the highest yield worldwide. Plants 2020, 9, 1658.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
36. Vargas-Tierras, Y.; Diaz, A.; Caicedo, C.; Macas, J.; Suarez-Tapia, A.; Viera, W. Benefits of legume species in an agroforestry
production system of yellow Pitahaya in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Sustainability 2021, 13, 9261. [CrossRef]
37. Santamaría-Aguilar, D.; Pérez, Á.J.; Liesner, R.L. Mayna yasuniana (Achariaceae), una especie nueva para el Ecuador. Neotrop.
Biodivers. 2017, 3, 50–56. [CrossRef]
38. Weckmüller, H.; Barriocanal, C.; Maneja, R.; Boada, M. Factors affecting traditional medicinal plant knowledge of the Waorani,
Ecuador. Sustainability 2019, 11, 4460. [CrossRef]
39. Kodahl, N. Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.)-from lost crop of the incas to part of the solution to global challenges? Planta 2020,
251, 80. [CrossRef]
40. Fukalova-Fukalova, T.; Castillo, J.; Parreño, K.; Gaibor, M.; Londoño-Larrea, P. Preliminary studies of performance and lipid
profiles of Ecuadorian P. volubilis L. as contribution to agricultural innovation. In Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies;
Springer: Singapore, 2022; Volume 252, pp. 151–163.
41. Abreu-Naranjo, R.; Paredes-Moreta, J.G.; Granda-Albuja, G.; Iturralde, G.; González-Paramás, A.M.; Alvarez-Suarez, J.M.
Bioactive compounds, phenolic profile, antioxidant capacity and effectiveness against lipid peroxidation of cell membranes of
Mauritia flexuosa L. fruit extracts from three biomes in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Heliyon 2020, 6, e05211. [CrossRef]
42. Mera, J.J.R.; Abreu-Naranjo, R.; Alvarez-Suarez, J.M.; Viafara, D. Chemical characterization, fatty acid profile and antioxidant
activity of Gustavia macarenensis fruit mesocarp and its oil from the Amazonian region of Ecuador as an unconventional source of
vegetable oil. Grasas Y Aceites 2019, 70, e298. [CrossRef]
43. Llerena, W.; Samaniego, I.; Navarro, M.; Ortíz, J.; Angós, I.; Carrillo, W. Effect of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) in
the antioxidant capacity of Arazá (Eugenia stipitata McVaugh), Naranjilla (Solanum quitoense Lam.), and Tree Tomato (Solanum
betaceum Cav.) fruits from Ecuador. J. Food Process. Preserv. 2020, 44, e14757. [CrossRef]
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 17 of 20

44. De Araújo, F.F.; Neri-Numa, I.A.; de Paulo Farias, D.; da Cunha, G.R.M.C.; Pastore, G.M. Wild Brazilian species of Eugenia genera
(Myrtaceae) as an innovation hotspot for food and pharmacological purposes. Food Res. Int. 2019, 121, 57–72. [CrossRef]
45. Almeida, R.D.F.; Peters, L.P.; Carvalho, C.M. Nutritional composition and biological activities of Amazonian fruits Araca-Boi,
Bacaba, Buriti, Caja and Pataua—A literature review. Rbone-Rev. Bras. Obesidade Nutr. E Emagrecimento 2023, 17, 130–147.
46. Avila-Sosa, R.; Montero-Rodríguez, A.F.; Aguilar-Alonso, P.; Vera-López, O.; Lazcano-Hernández, M.; Morales-Medina, J.C.;
Navarro-Cruz, A.R. Antioxidant properties of Amazonian fruits: A mini review of in vivo and in vitro studies. Oxid. Med. Cell.
Longev. 2019, 2019, 8204129. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
47. Rosan Fortunato Seixas, F.; Kempfer Bassoli, B.; Borghi Virgolin, L.; Chancare Garcia, L.; Soares Janzantti, N. Physicochemical
properties and effects of fruit pulps from the Amazon biome on physiological parameters in rats. Nutrients 2021, 13, 1484.
[CrossRef]
48. Toledo Romanienko, D.A. Determinación del Valor Nutritivo y Funcional de Tres Clones Seleccionados de Arazá (Eugenia stipitata)
y seis de Borojó (Borojoa patinoi), y Evaluación del Proceso para la Obtención de Pulpas Pasteurizadas y Congeladas. Bachelor
Thesis, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito, Ecuador, 2009.
49. de Araújo, F.F.; de Paulo Farias, D.; Neri-Numa, I.A.; Dias-Audibert, F.L.; Delafiori, J.; de Souza, F.G.; Catharino, R.R.; do
Sacramento, C.K.; Pastore, G.M. Chemical characterization of Eugenia stipitata: A native fruit from the Amazon rich in nutrients
and source of bioactive compounds. Food Res. Int. 2021, 139, 109904. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
50. Neri-Numa, I.A.; Carvalho-Silva, L.B.; Morales, J.P.; Malta, L.G.; Muramoto, M.T.; Ferreira, J.E.M.; de Carvalho, J.E.; Ruiz,
A.L.T.G.; Maróstica Junior, M.R.; Pastore, G.M. Evaluation of the antioxidant, antiproliferative and antimutagenic potential of
Araçá-boi fruit (Eugenia stipitata Mc Vaugh—Myrtaceae) of the Brazilian Amazon Forest. Food Res. Int. 2013, 50, 70–76. [CrossRef]
51. Gonzalez Collaguazo, J.; Luzuriaga Gutierrez, V. Estudio Botánico y Fitoquímico del Fruto de Gustavia Macarenensis, de la
Provincia de Orellana, Ecuador. Bachelor Thesis, Universidad Politecnica Saleciana, Quito, Ecuador, 2020.
52. Hamacek, F.R.; Della Lucia, C.M.; da Silva, B.P.; Moreira, A.V.B.; Pinheiro-Sant’ana, H.M. Buriti of the Cerrado of Minas Gerais,
Brazil: Physical and chemical characterization and content of carotenoids and vitamins. Food Sci. Technol. 2018, 38, 263–269.
[CrossRef]
53. Pereira-Freire, J.A.; de Souza Aquino, J.; Nascimento Campos, A.R.; Freitas Viana, V.G.; da Costa Júnior, J.S.; do Nascimento
Silva, J.; Moura, A.K.S.; Citó, A.M.D.G.L.; dos Reis Moreira-Araújo, R.S.; Frota, K.D.M.G.; et al. Nutritional, physicochemical
and structural parameters of Mauritia flexuosa fruits and by-products for biotechnological exploration of sustainable goods. Food
Technol. Biotechnol. 2022, 60, 155–165. [CrossRef]
54. Freitas, C.A.B.; Silva, A.S.; Alves, C.N.; Nascimento, W.M.O.; Lopes, A.S.; Lima, M.O.; Muller, R.C.S. Characterization of the fruit
pulp of Camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia) of seven different genotypes and their rankings using statistical methods PCA and HCA. J.
Braz. Chem. Soc. 2016, 27, 1838–1846. [CrossRef]
55. Barrios Renteria, J.C.; Espinoza-Espinoza, L.A.; Valdiviezo-Marcelo, J.; Moreno-Quispe, L.A. Sensorially accepted Mangifera indica
and Myrciaria dubia yogurts with high ascorbic acid content. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 2022, 6, 999400. [CrossRef]
56. Londoño Hernández, L.; Montalvo Rodriguez, C.; Arroyave Sierra, O.J.; Garcia Gonzalez, E. Potential use of Camu-Camu
(Myrciaria dubia) in functional food development. Rev. Colomb. Investig. Agroindustriales 2022, 9, 26–41. [CrossRef]
57. Grigio, M.L.; de Moura, E.A.; Chagas, E.A.; Durigan, M.F.B.; Chagas, P.C.; de Carvalho, G.F.; Zanchetta, J.J. Bioactive compounds
in and antioxidant activity of Camu-camu fruits harvested at different maturation stages during postharvest storage. Acta
Sci.-Agron. 2021, 43, e50997. [CrossRef]
58. García-Chacón, J.M.; Marín-Loaiza, J.C.; Osorio, C. Camu camu (Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh): An Amazonian Fruit with
biofunctional properties–A review. ACS Omega 2023, 8, 5169–5183. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
59. Santos, M.F.G.; Marmesat, S.; Brito, E.S.; Alves, R.E.; Dobarganes, M.C. Major components in oils obtained from Amazonian palm
fruits. Grasas Y Aceites 2013, 64, 328–334. [CrossRef]
60. Hidalgo, P.S.P.; Nunomura, R.D.S.; Nunomura, S.M. Amazon oilseeds: Chemistry and antioxidant activity of Patawa (Oenocarpus
bataua Mart.). Rev. Virtual Química 2016, 8, 130–140. [CrossRef]
61. Carrillo, W.; Quinteros, M.F.; Carpio, C.; Morales, D.; Vásquez, G.; Álvarez, M.; Silva, M. Identification of fatty acids in Sacha
Inchi oil (Plukenetia volubilis L.) from Ecuador. Asian J. Pharm. Clin. Res. 2018, 11, 379–381. [CrossRef]
62. Wang, S.; Zhu, F.; Kakuda, Y. Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.): Nutritional composition, biological activity, and uses. Food Chem.
2018, 265, 316–328. [CrossRef]
63. Liu, Q.; Xu, Y.K.; Zhang, P.; Na, Z.; Tang, T.; Shi, Y.X. Chemical composition and oxidative evolution of Sacha Inchi (Plukentia
volubilis L.) oil from Xishuangbanna (China). Grasas Y Aceites 2014, 65, e012. [CrossRef]
64. Gutierrez, L.F.; Rosada, L.M.; Jimenez, A. Chemical composition of Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) seeds and characteristics of
their lipid fraction. Grasas Y Aceites 2011, 62, 76–83. [CrossRef]
65. Rawdkuen, S.; Murdayanti, D.; Ketnawa, S.; Phongthai, S. Chemical properties and nutritional factors of pressed-cake from tea
and Sacha Inchi seeds. Food Biosci. 2016, 15, 64–71. [CrossRef]
66. Canuto, G.A.B.; Xavier, A.A.O.; Leandro, C.N.; de Benassi, M.T. Physical and chemical characterization of fruit pulps from
Amazonia and their correlation to free radical scavenger activity. Rev. Bras. Frutic. 2010, 32, 1196–1205. [CrossRef]
67. Virgolin, L.B.; Seixas, F.R.F.; Janzantti, N.S. Composition, content of bioactive compounds, and antioxidant activity of fruit pulps
from the Brazilian Amazon biome. Pesqui. Agropecu. Bras. 2017, 52, 933–941. [CrossRef]
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 18 of 20

68. Gancel, A.-L.; Alter, P.; Dhuique-Mayer, C.; Ruales, J.; Vaillant, F. identifying carotenoids and phenolic compounds in Naranjilla
(Solanum quitoense Lam. var. Puyo hybrid), an Andean Fruit. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56, 11890–11899. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
69. Mertz, C.; Gancel, A.L.; Gunata, Z.; Alter, P.; Dhuique-Mayer, C.; Vaillant, F.; Perez, A.M.; Ruales, J.; Brat, P. Phenolic compounds,
carotenoids and antioxidant activity of three tropical fruits. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2009, 22, 381–387. [CrossRef]
70. Balslev, H.; Knudsen, T.R.; Byg, A.; Kronborg, M.; Grandez, C. Traditional knowledge, use, and management of Aphandra natalia
(Arecaceae) in Amazonian Peru. Econ. Bot 2010, 64, 55–67. [CrossRef]
71. Balslev, H.; Navarrete, H.; De la Torre, L.; Macía, M. Enciclopedia de las plantas útiles del Ecuador. Herb. QCA Herb. AAU Quito
Aarhus 2008, 947, 1–949p.
72. Boll, T.; Svenning, J.-C.; Vormisto, J.; Normand, S.; Grández, C.; Balslev, H. spatial distribution and environmental preferences of
the Piassaba palm Aphandra natalia (Arecaceae) along the Pastaza and Urituyacu rivers in Peru. Ecol. Manag. 2005, 213, 175–183.
[CrossRef]
73. Zillo, R.R.; da Silva, P.P.M.; Spoto, M.H.F.; Martin, J.G.P. Camu-Camu harvested with reddish-green peel preserves its physico-
chemical characteristics and antioxidant compounds during cold storage. Braz. J. Food Technol. 2019, 22, e2017060. [CrossRef]
74. Van der Hoek, Y.; Álvarez Solas, S.; Peñuela, M.C. The palm Mauritia flexuosa, a keystone plant resource on multiple fronts.
Biodivers. Conserv. 2019, 28, 539–551. [CrossRef]
75. Quintero-Angel, M.; Martínez-Girón, J.; Orjuela-Salazar, S. Agroindustrial valorization of the pulp and peel, seed, flour, and oil of
Moriche (Mauritia flexuosa) from the Bita river, Colombia: A potential source of essential fatty acids. Biomass Convers Biorefin 2023,
13, 10789–10797. [CrossRef]
76. do Nascimento Silva, N.R.R.; Cavalcante, R.B.M.; da Silva, F.A. Nutritional properties of Buriti (Mauritia flexuosa) and health
benefits. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2023, 117, 105092. [CrossRef]
77. Barboza, N.L.; da Cruz, J.M.; Corrêa, R.F.; Lamarão, C.V.; Lima, A.R.; Inada, N.M.; Sanches, E.A.; de Araújo Bezerra, J.; Campelo,
P.H. Buriti (Mauritia flexuosa L. f.): An Amazonian fruit with potential health benefits. Food Res. Int. 2022, 159, 111654. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
78. Isaza, C.; Martorell, C.; Cevallos, D.; Galeano, G.; Valencia, R.; Balslev, H. Demography of Oenocarpus bataua and implications for
sustainable harvest of its fruit in Western Amazon. Popul. Ecol. 2016, 58, 463–476. [CrossRef]
79. Mosquera, T.; Noriega, P.; Tapia, W.; Perez, S.H. Effectiveness evaluation of cosmetic creams from vegetal Amazon olis: Mauritia
flexuosa (Morete) Plukenetia volubilis (Sacha Inchi) and Oenocarpus bataua (Ungurahua). Granja-Rev. Cienc. Vida 2012, 16, 14–22.
[CrossRef]
80. Cordero-Clavijo, L.M.; Serna-Saldívar, S.O.; Lazo-Vélez, M.A.; González, J.F.A.-; Panata-Saquicilí, D.; Briones-Garcia, M. Charac-
terization, functional and biological value of protein-enriched defatted meals from Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis) and Chocho
(Lupinus mutabilis). J. Food Meas. Charact. 2021, 15, 5071–5077. [CrossRef]
81. Kumar, B.; Smita, K.; Cumbal, L.; Debut, A. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) leaf extracts.
Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2014, 21, 605–609. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
82. Luis Eduardo;, R.H.; Valdiviezo Rogel, C.J.; Bonilla Bermeo, S.M. Caracterización del aceite de la semilla de Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia
volubilis) del cantón San Vicente, Manabí, Ecuador, obtenida mediante procesos no térmicos de extrusión. Granja-Rev. Cienc. Vida
2019, 30, 77–87. [CrossRef]
83. Abreu, M.M.; Nobrega, P.D.A.; Sales, P.F.; De Oliveira, F.R.; Nascimento, A.A. Antimicrobial and antidiarrheal activities of
methanolic fruit peel extract of Pouteria caimito. Pharmacogn. J. 2019, 11, 944–950. [CrossRef]
84. Alsaif, M.A.; Veeramani, C.; El Newehy, A.S.; Aloud, A.A.; Al-Numair, K.S. Pouteria caimito fruit derived nanoparticles inhibited
the Apple ring rot disease as well as extended the shelf-life of sliced apples. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2023, 30, 103744. [CrossRef]
85. Lim, T.K. Pouteria caimito. In Edible Medicinal And Non-Medicinal Plants: Volume 6, Fruits; Lim, T.K., Ed.; Springer: Dordrecht, The
Netherlands, 2013; pp. 129–132. ISBN 978-94-007-5628-1.
86. Susanto, S.; Bin Arif, A.; Widayanti, S.M.; Matra, D.D. Ascorbic acid extends the shelf-life of Abiu (Pouteria caimito) fruit by
maintaining quality and delaying browning symptoms. Hort. J. 2023, 92, 216–226. [CrossRef]
87. Ramírez, F. Notes about Lulo (Solanum quitoense Lam.): An important South American underutilized Plant. Genet. Resour. Crop
Evol. 2021, 68, 93–100. [CrossRef]
88. Cornejo-Franco, J.F.; Alvarez-Quinto, R.A.; Grinstead, S.; Mollov, D.; Karasev, A.V.; Ochoa, J.; Quito-Avila, D.F. A new Tymovirus
isolated from Solanum quitoense: Characterization and prevalence in two Solanaceous crops in Ecuador. Plant Dis. 2019, 103,
2246–2251. [CrossRef]
89. Chacon, W.D.C.; Valencia, G.A.; Rojas, G.M.A.; Henao, A.C.A. Drying and pyrolysis of Lulo peel: Non-isothermal analysis of
physicochemical, kinetics, and master plots. Bioenergy Res. 2020, 13, 927–938. [CrossRef]
90. Vargas, Y.; Viera, W.; Díaz, A.; Tinoco, L.; Macas, J.; Caicedo, C.; Almeida, M.; Vásquez-Castillo, W. Contribution of agroforestry
systems in the cultivation of Naranjilla (Solanum quitoense) grown in the Amazon region of Ecuador. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 10637.
[CrossRef]
91. Woods, F.M.; Dozier, W.A.; Ebel, R.C.; Thomas, R.H.; Nesbitt, M.; Wilkins, B.S.; Himelrick, D.G. Fruit quality and antioxidant
properties in Alabama-grown blackberries during fruit maturation. Int. J. Fruit Sci. 2007, 6, 67–85. [CrossRef]
92. Schauss, A.G. Chapter 32—Açaí (Euterpe Oleracea Mart.): A macro and nutrient rich palm fruit from the Amazon rain forest with
demonstrated bioactivities in vitro and in vivo. In Bioactive Foods in Promoting Health; Watson, R.R., Preedy, V.R., Eds.; Academic
Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 2010; pp. 479–490. ISBN 978-0-12-374628-3.
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 19 of 20

93. Rudke, A.R.; Andrade, K.S.; Mazzutti, S.; Zielinski, A.A.F.; Alves, V.R.; Vitali, L.; Ferreira, S.R.S. A comparative study of phenolic
compounds profile and in vitro antioxidant activity from Buriti (Mauritia flexuosa) by-Products Extracts. LWT 2021, 150, 111941.
[CrossRef]
94. Azevedo, L.; Ribeiro, P.F.D.; Oliveira, J.A.D.; Correia, M.G.; Ramos, F.M.; de Oliveira, E.B.; Barros, F.; Stringheta, P.C. Camu-Camu
(Myrciaria dubia) from commercial cultivation has higher levels of bioactive compounds than native cultivation (Amazon forest)
and presents antimutagenic effects in vivo. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2019, 99, 624–631. [CrossRef]
95. Walle, T. Bioavailability of resveratrol. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2011, 1215, 9–15. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
96. Zhang, L.-X.; Li, C.-X.; Kakar, M.U.; Khan, M.S.; Wu, P.-F.; Amir, R.M.; Dai, D.-F.; Naveed, M.; Li, Q.-Y.; Saeed, M.; et al. Resveratrol
(RV): A Pharmacological review and call for further research. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2021, 143, 112164. [CrossRef]
97. Rey, F.; Rodrigo, M.J.; Zacarias, L. accumulation of tocopherols and transcriptional regulation of their biosynthesis during cold
storage of Mandarin fruit. Postharvest. Biol. Technol. 2021, 180, 111594. [CrossRef]
98. de Morais Sato, P.; Hatzlhoffer Lourenço, B.; do Manco Machado, R.; Augusto Cardoso, M.; Baeza Scagliusi, F. Food Classifications
by Brazilian Amazon Mothers: Interactions With Eating Practices. J. Nutr. Educ. Behav. 2021, 53, 880–885. [CrossRef]
99. Neves, L.C.; Tosin, J.M.; Benedette, R.M.; Cisneros-Zevallos, L. Post-harvest nutraceutical behavior during ripening and senescence
of 8 highly perishable fruit species from the Northern Brazilian Amazon region. Food Chem. 2015, 174, 188–196. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
100. Suwardi, A.B.; Navia, Z.I. Sustainable use and management of wild edible fruit plants: A case study in the Ulu Masen protected
forest, West Aceh, Indonesia. J. Sustain. For. 2023, 42, 811–830. [CrossRef]
101. Köster, E.P.; Mojet, J. 13—Familiarity, monotony or variety: The role of flavor complexity in food intake. In Flavor, 2nd ed.;
Guichard, E., Salles, C., Eds.; Woodhead Publishing: Sawston, UK, 2023; pp. 363–378. ISBN 978-0-323-89903-1.
102. Berlyne, D.E. Conflict, Arousal, and Curiosity; McGraw-Hill Book Company: New York, NY, USA, 1960.
103. Silva, G.N.d.M.e.; Rodrigues, E.S.B.; de Macêdo, I.Y.L.; Gil, H.P.V.; Campos, H.M.; Ghedini, P.C.; da Silva, L.C.; Batista, E.A.;
de Araújo, G.L.; Vaz, B.G.; et al. Blackberry jam fruit (Randia formosa (Jacq.) K. Schum): An Amazon superfruit with in vitro
neuroprotective properties. Food Biosci. 2022, 50, 102084. [CrossRef]
104. Can-Cauich, C.A.; Sauri-Duch, E.; Betancur-Ancona, D.; Chel-Guerrero, L.; González-Aguilar, G.A.; Cuevas-Glory, L.F.; Pérez-
Pacheco, E.; Moo-Huchin, V.M. Tropical fruit peel powders as functional ingredients: Evaluation of their bioactive compounds
and antioxidant activity. J. Funct. Foods 2017, 37, 501–506. [CrossRef]
105. Lima, R.S.; de Carvalho, A.P.A.; Conte-Junior, C.A. Health from Brazilian Amazon food wastes: Bioactive compounds, antioxi-
dants, antimicrobials, and potentials against cancer and oral diseases. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2022, 169–5183. [CrossRef]
106. Rocha, J.D.L.; Guilherme, F.A.G.; Rocha, D.I.; Pereira, K.D.R.; Coelho, C.P.; de Souza, L.F. Morphometry of fruits and pyrenes in
two morphotypes and populations of Butia purpurascens Glassman (Arecaceae). Cienc. Rural 2022, 52, 3–7. [CrossRef]
107. Shah, A.S.; Bhat, S.V.; Muzaffar, K.; Ibrahim, S.A.; Dar, B.N. Processing technology, chemical composition, microbial quality and
health benefits of dried fruits. Curr. Res. Nutr. Food Sci. 2022, 10, 71–84. [CrossRef]
108. Campoy, J.A.; Le Dantec, L.; Barreneche, T.; Dirlewanger, E.; Quero-Garcia, J. New insights into fruit firmness and weight control
in sweet cherry. Plant Mol. Biol. Rep. 2015, 33, 783–796. [CrossRef]
109. Espín, R.S.; Rivera, M.G.; Rivera, V.G.; Santos, F.C.; Guerrero, I.H.; Zambrano, L.G.; Borja, E.B. Rendimiento y atributos de calidad
de Mora (Rubus glaucus Benth) de cuatro zonas productoras de Bolívar. Rev. Investig. Talent. 2020, 7, 33–45. [CrossRef]
110. Darnet, S.H.; da Silva, L.H.M.; Rodrigues, A.M.D.; Lins, R.T. Nutritional composition, fatty acid and tocopherol contents of Buriti
(Mauritia flexuosa) and Patawa (Oenocarpus bataua) fruit pulp from the Amazon region. Cienc. E Tecnol. Aliment. 2011, 31, 488–491.
[CrossRef]
111. Kodahl, N.; Frandsen, H.B.; Lütken, H.; Petersen, I.L.; Paredes Andrade, N.J.; García-Davila, C.; Sørensen, M. Lipid composition
of the Amazonian ‘Mountain Sacha Inchis’ including Plukenetia carolis-vegae Bussmann, Paniagua & C.Téllez. Sci. Rep. 2022,
12, 6450. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
112. Rogez, H.; Buxant, R.; Mignolet, E.; Souza, J.N.S.; Silva, E.M.; Larondelle, Y. Chemical composition of the pulp of three typical
Amazonian fruits: Araça-Boi (Eugenia stipitata), Bacuri (Platonia insignis) and Cupuaçu (Theobroma grandiflorum). Eur. Food Res.
Technol. 2004, 218, 380–384. [CrossRef]
113. de Assis, S.A.; Vellosa, J.C.R.; Brunetti, I.L.; Khalil, N.M.; Leite, K.M.d.S.C.; Martins, A.B.G.; Oliveira, O.M.M.d.F. Antioxidant
activity, ascorbic acid and total phenol of exotic fruits occurring in Brazil. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2009, 60, 439–448. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
114. Pereira-Netto, A.B. Tropical fruits as natural, exceptionally rich, sources of bioactive compounds. Int. J. Fruit Sci. 2018, 18, 231–242.
[CrossRef]
115. Rufino, M.D.S.M.; Alves, R.E.; de Brito, E.S.; Pérez-Jiménez, J.; Saura-Calixto, F.; Mancini-Filho, J. Bioactive Compounds and
antioxidant capacities of 18 non-traditional tropical fruits from Brazil. Food Chem. 2010, 121, 996–1002. [CrossRef]
116. Cândido, T.L.N.; Silva, M.R.; Agostini-Costa, T.S. Bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity of Buriti (Mauritia flexuosa L.f.)
from the Cerrado and Amazon Biomes. Food Chem. 2015, 177, 313–319. [CrossRef]
117. Kondakova, V.; Tsvetkov, I.; Batchvarova, R.; Badjakov, I.; Dzhambazova, T.; Slavov, S. Phenol compounds—Qualitative index in
small fruits. Biotechnol. Biotechnol. Equip. 2009, 23, 1444–1448. [CrossRef]
118. Miean, K.H.; Mohamed, S. Flavonoid (Myricetin, Quercetin, Kaempferol, Luteolin, and Apigenin) content of edible tropical
plants. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2001, 49, 3106–3112. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Plants 2023, 12, 3635 20 of 20

119. Meléndez-Martínez, A.J.; Mapelli-Brahm, P.; Stinco, C.M. The Colourless carotenoids Phytoene and Phytofluene: From dietary
sources to their usefulness for the functional foods and nutricosmetics industries. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2018, 67, 91–103.
[CrossRef]
120. Luan, A.; Zhang, W.; Yang, M.; Zhong, Z.; Wu, J.; He, Y.; He, J. Unveiling the molecular mechanism involving anthocyanins in
pineapple peel discoloration during fruit maturation. Food Chem. 2023, 412, 135482. [CrossRef]
121. Joaquín-Cruz, E.; Dueñas, M.; García-Cruz, L.; Salinas-Moreno, Y.; Santos-Buelga, C.; García-Salinas, C. Anthocyanin and phenolic
characterization, chemical composition and antioxidant activity of Chagalapoli (Ardisia compressa K.) fruit: A tropical source of
natural pigments. Food Res. Int. 2015, 70, 151–157. [CrossRef]
122. Chandra Singh, M.; Price, W.E.; Kelso, C.; Arcot, J.; Probst, Y. Measuring the anthocyanin content of the Australian fruit and
vegetables for the development of a food composition database. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2022, 112, 104697. [CrossRef]
123. Tekaya, M.; Mechri, B.; Cheheb, H.; Attia, F.; Chraief, I.; Ayachi, M.; Boujneh, D.; Hammami, M. Changes in the profiles of mineral
elements, phenols, tocopherols, and soluble carbohydrates of olive fruit following foliar nutrient fertilization. LWT—Food Sci.
Technol. 2014, 59, 1047–1053. [CrossRef]
124. Pertuzatti, P.B.; Sganzerla, M.; Jacques, A.C.; Barcia, M.T.; Zambiazi, R.C. Carotenoids, tocopherols and ascorbic acid content
in Yellow Passion Fruit (Passiflora edulis) grown under different cultivation systems. LWT—Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 64, 259–263.
[CrossRef]
125. Rollo, A.; Ribeiro, M.M.; Costa, R.L.; Santos, C.; Clavo, P.Z.M.; Mandák, B.; Kalousová, M.; Vebrová, H.; Chuqulin, E.; Torres, S.G.;
et al. Genetic structure and pod morphology of Inga edulis cultivated vs. wild populations from the Peruvian Amazon. Forests
2020, 11, 655. [CrossRef]
126. Ramos, S.L.F.; Lopes, M.T.G.; Meneses, C.; Dequigiovanni, G.; de Macêdo, J.L.V.; Lopes, R.; Sebbenn, A.M.; da Silva, R.F.; de
Jesus Pinto Fraxe, T.; Veasey, E.A. Natural populations of Astrocaryum aculeatum Meyer in Amazonia: Genetic diversity and
conservation. Plants 2022, 11, 2957. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
127. Secretaría Técnica de la Circunscripción Territorial Especial Amazónica. Plan Integral para la Amazonía 2021–2025; Secretaría
Técnica de la Circunscripción Territorial Especial Amazónica: Puyo, Ecuador, 2021.
128. Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos (INEC). Available online: https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/proyecciones-
poblacionales/ (accessed on 8 October 2023).
129. Page, M.J.; Moher, D.; Bossuyt, P.M.; Boutron, I.; Hoffmann, T.C.; Mulrow, C.D.; Shamseer, L.; Tetzlaff, J.M.; Akl, E.A.; Brennan,
S.E.; et al. PRISMA 2020 Explanation and elaboration: Updated guidance and exemplars for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ
2021, 372, n160. [CrossRef]

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.