Overview

• Lecture 1: Basics of Sound

• Lecture 2: Propagation, Measurement, and Human

Response to Sound

• Lecture 3: Absorption, Reverberation, and Room Acoustics

• Lecture 4: Sound Transmission and Insulation

• Lecture 5: Noise Assessment and Control

Supporting materials

Background Reading
• McMullan R “ Environmental Science in Building”
7th ed: Chapters 8, 9,10, & resource 3
• Marshall Long “Architectural Acoustics” 2006, Elsevier, available
electronically through CIS

• Question sheet – end of course note, do in your own time to

support learning
Lecture 1: principles of sound
Session objectives:

• Understand the basics of sound waves and the parameters used

to describe them
• Understand how sound can be expressed in terms of pressure,
power and intensity and related to the hearing threshold
through the decibel scale
• How to carry out simple calculations to manipulate and add
sound levels
Acoustics in the Built Environment
• is an important consideration in the design, operation, and
construction of most buildings with significant impact on
health, wellbeing, communication and productivity.

• can be affected by:

geometry and volume of space
sound absorption, transmission, and reflection
characteristics of
surfaces and materials enclosing and separating the space.
generation of sound inside and outside the space.
airborne sound transmission.
impact noise.
Acoustics in the Built Environment

• Building design determines sound quality and clarity in a room

• Building design minimises intrusion from unwanted sound

(noise)

• Good acoustic design satisfies health and safety needs

(maximum noise levels) and creates environments that promote
the right quality of sound within a room and minimise
unwanted noise.
Sound waves

Compression (high pressure)

Rarefraction
(low pressure)

Direction of
Vibrating pressure wave
surface
 Wave properties
Amplitude, 𝑆

Velocity, 𝑐

Time or
distance

Wavelength, 𝜆 Reference
point

• Wavelength, 𝜆 = distance between any two repeating points on

the wave (m)
• Periodic time of the wave, 𝑇 = time taken for 1 wavelength to
pass reference point (s)
• Velocity of wave, 𝑐 = 𝜆 𝑇 (m/s)
Speed of sound
• Velocity of sound in a material is related to the physical
properties of the material
𝐸
𝑐=
𝜌
𝐸 = Modulus of elasticity (stress/strain) (N/m2)
𝜌 = density (kg/m3)
• Sound travels faster in materials with a higher elasticity

Material Density (kg/m3) Speed of sound (m/s)

Air at 0 °𝐶 1.293 331
Air at 20 °𝐶 1.21 344
Water at 15 °𝐶 998 1450
Lead 11300 1230
Steel 770 5050
Glass 2500 5200
Concrete 2300 3400
Wave properties
• Frequency, 𝑓 = the number of cycles of vibration per second
(Hz)
1
• Related to the periodic time by 𝑇 =
𝑓

• So velocity can be written as 𝑐 = 𝜆𝑓

• Pitch is frequency perceived by humans

o 1 Hz Building sway
o 50Hz Mains power
o 265 Hz Middle C
o 100-2000 Hz Voice range
o 20-20,000 Hz Hearing range
Harmonics
Wave equation
• Wave Equation describes wave in terms of amplitude, 𝑆 and
frequency
𝑆 = 𝑆0 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = 𝑆0 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑆 = Amplitude at a point in time
𝑆0 = Amplitude at 𝑡 = 0 s (peak amplitude)
𝑡 = Time (s)

• Amplitude, 𝑆0 relates to loudness of the sound

• Real sounds are not pure sine waves
Defining a sound
Strength or “loudness” of a sound depends on its energy content.

• Sound power, W (W)

Rate at which sound energy is produced at a source
• Sound pressure, P (Pa)
Average variation in atmospheric pressure due to the sound,
expressed as root mean square (RMS) value
• Sound energy intensity, I (W/m2)
Sound power per unit area
Sound pressure and intensity

Imaginary 1
m2 surface
Sound Sound wave exert
source
a force on surface (N)

Pressure = Force/Area  Sound pressure (N/m2)

Imaginary
1 m2
Sound window
Sound energy passes
source
through window (J/s)

Energy/Area  Sound intensity (W/m2)

Sound Energy Intensity

• For free field propagation this can be expressed as

𝑊
𝐼=
𝑆
• Intensity can also be expressed in terms of the sound pressure
by the formula
𝑃2
𝐼=
𝜌𝑐
• Sound energy density, 𝜀, is defined as the energy per unit
volume and is given by
𝐼 𝑃2
𝜀= =
𝑐 𝜌𝑐
Sound levels

• Threshold of hearing:
o At 1000 Hz, people with normal hearing can perceive a
sound pressure of 2 x 10-5 N/m2
o Corresponds to a sound intensity of 10-12 W/m2

• Sound levels express sound pressure, intensity or power

relative to the hearing threshold.
o All expressed in Decibels (dB)
o base 10 logarithmic scale
o ratio of the sound relative to the hearing threshold.
Sound levels
Measuring sound levels at some distance from a noise source.

𝑃2
• Sound Pressure Level (SPL) 𝐿𝑃 = 10 log
2 × 10−5 2

• Sound Intensity Level (SIL) 𝐼

𝐿𝐼 = 10 log −12
• Considering the noise source itself 10

• Sound Power Level (SWL) 𝑊

𝐿𝑊 = 10 log −12
10
Sound Level Example 1.1
An engineer records a sound intensity of 8 x 10-5 W/m2. Assuming
the density of air is 1.18 kg/m3 and the velocity of sound is 344
m/s, express this as a sound pressure level.
Sound Level Example 1.1
An engineer records a sound intensity of 8 x 10-5 W/m2. Assuming
the density of air is 1.18 kg/m3 and the velocity of sound is 344
m/s, express this as a sound pressure level.

𝑃2 𝑃2
𝐼= = = 8 × 10−5 𝑊 𝑚2
𝜌𝑐 1.18 × 344

𝑃2 = 1.18 × 344 × 8 × 10−5 𝑃𝑎2 = 3.25 × 10−2 𝑃𝑎2

Sound pressure level

𝑃2 3.25 × 10−2
𝐿𝑝 = 10 log = 10 log
2 × 10−5 2 2 × 10−5 2
= 10 × log 0.812 + 8
= 79.1 𝑑𝐵
Perception of sound levels

Difference in sound level Perceived difference

+1 dB Negligible
+3 dB Slightly louder
+10 dB 2 x as loud
+20 dB 4 x as loud
Sound pressure level
Addition of sound levels
• General rules

𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

2
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃12 + 𝑃22 + 𝑃32
Addition of sound pressure levels

What is the change in SPL if two equal SPL’s are added together?

𝑃2
𝐿𝑃 = 10 log
2 × 10−5 2

𝐿𝑃,𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 𝐿𝑃 + 3

Rule: Increases by 3 dB
Doubling Sound Pressure Level
What is the change in the sound pressure level if the sound
pressure is doubled?
𝑃2
𝐿𝑃 = 10 log
2 × 10−5 2

Doubling the sound pressure

2𝑃 2 4𝑃2
𝐿𝑃 = 10 log −5 2
= 10 log
2 × 10 2 × 10−5 2

𝑃2
= 10 log −5 2
+ 10 log 4
2 × 10

𝐿𝑃,𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 𝐿𝑃 + 6
Rule: Increases by 6 dB
Adding unequal SPL’s

Different between the two Add to the higher of the two

sound pressure levels (dB) sound levels (dB)
0 3.0
1 2.5
2 2.0
3 2.0
4 1.5
5 1.0
6 1.0
7 1.0
8 0.5
9 0.5
10 or more 0.5
Sound Level Example 1.2
An engineer records the following sound pressure levels for 2
extract fans. The readings are taken for each fan separately at a
point equi-distant from both fans.
Fan A: LP = 64 dB, Fan B: LP = 70 dB

What is the combined SPL when both fans are run simultaneously?
Sound Level Example 1.2
An engineer records the following sound pressure levels for 2
extract fans. The readings are taken for each fan separately at a
point equi-distant from both fans.
Fan A: LP = 64 dB, Fan B: LP = 70 dB

What is the combined SPL when both fans are run simultaneously?

𝑃𝐴2
𝐿𝑝𝐴 = 10 log = 64𝑑𝐵
2 × 10−5 2

64
𝑃𝐴2 = 2× 10−5 2 × 10 10 = 1.005 × 10−3 𝑃𝑎2
𝑃𝐵2
𝐿𝑝𝐵 = 10 log = 70𝑑𝐵
2 × 10−5 2

70
𝑃𝐵2 = 2 × 10−5 2 × 10 10 = 4.0 × 10−3 𝑃𝑎2
Sound Level Example 1.2
An engineer records the following sound pressure levels for 2
extract fans. The readings are taken for each fan separately at a
point equi-distant from both fans.
Fan A: LP = 64 dB, Fan B: LP = 70 dB

What is the combined SPL when both fans are run simultaneously?

2
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝐴2 + 𝑃𝐵2 = 5.005 × 10−3 𝑃𝑎2

2
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 5.005 × 10−3
𝐿𝑝,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 10 log = 10 log = 71.0 𝑑𝐵
2 × 10−5 2 2 × 10−5 2
Summary

• Speed of sound depends on material properties

• Express sound at source as a power or at a distance by pressure
or intensity
• Sound levels express power, pressure or intensity in decibel
scale relative to human hearing threshold
• Can add sound pressures or intensities from more than one
source to determine overall effect