PAPER 15: MODULE 19: E-TEXT

UGC MHRD e Pathshala

Subject: English

Principal Investigator: Prof. Tutun Mukherjee, University of Hyderabad

Paper: 15: “Literary Translation in India”

Paper Coordinator: Prof. T. S. Satyanath, University of Delhi

MODULE 19: INDIA AND ITS NEIGHBOR’S IN TRANSLATIONAL RELATION

Content Writer: Dr. MrinmoyPramanick, University of Calcutta

Content Reviewer: Prof. T. S. Satyanath, University of Delhi

Language Editor: Prof. T. S. Satyanath, University of Delhi

Introduction

Indian and its neighboring countries are culturally connected since the ancient period of Indian

history. This connections mostly happened with intellectual exchanges in different periods. One

side there were invasion of foreign powers in India, some of them only invaded and snatched

wealth from India and some of them settled here. Ancient travelers like Fa-Hien, Hiuen-Tsang, I-

tsing, Al-Masudi, Marco Polo and DominigoPaes etc. came from different countries and

travelers like Atish-Dipankar went China from India. Both the ways intercultural connections

happened between India and other countries. When foreign power settled here as a ruler,

naturally cross-cultural contact zones were established. This cultural experience is translatable,

this cultural experience needs to be translated and whole issue of such kind of cultural encounter

happens through translation, though not always in the sense of literal translation but in a greater

sense. Later in the age of modernity and colonization connections between India and its

neighboring countries got more pace. India and South East Asia, especially Burma, India-China,

India – Japan, all these connections again reestablished in different ways either as by product of

colonialism or because of political and economic interests. British colony was extended till

Burma in the last half of the 19th century and Indians were sent there for different purposes.

Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal were used for business purposes since the pre-

colonial era and it was increased during colonial rule. Hence, Indians were taken to Africa, to the

South East Asian countries to Mauritius Island and many other places either to work as

subordinate staffs or officers of British government or as working class, labor class people. This
is how a diaspora of Hindi speaking people was built in Mauritius, and so many Indians were

settled in Burma and other countries.

Since the time of Hindu conquest over Burma, Indonesia, Maldives etc.,the Ramayana,

the Mahabharata, Dhammapada and many other texts written in Sanskrit and Palilanguages and

more specifically texts on Buddhism spread over these countries. Later on different Asian studies

department or department of Indian Literature or India studies established in neighboring

countries and study of Indian literature along with translation practices increased more and

widely. Likewise, India also has departments like South East Asian studies, department of

Chinese and Japanese which are translating Indian literature in concerned language and vice

versa. This is how translational relation among different Asian literatures happened and

increased gradually.

India and Arab

SulaimanNadwi’s 1962 work, originally written in Urdu, titled "Arab Wa Hind

KeTaalluqat" talks about Indo-Arab economic, social and cultural relations. Maqbul, in 1969

wrote a book, called "Indo - Arab relations with the Arab world from Ancient up to Modem

Times” (CHAPTER TWO: SURVEY OF LITERATURE, HYPOTHESIS AND

METHODOLOGY) also shows Indo-Arab cultural and economic relation. These researches are

necessary to understand the age old historical relations between the countries. This historical

accounts also gives hint about the relation of Indo-Arab literary exchanges. Translational relation

between Indian and Arab countries is such an old practice that famous Indian text Panchatantra
was translated into Arabic in 750 CE by a Persian translator Abdullah Ibn al-

Muqaffa as KalīlahwaDimnah. Before this translation Panchatantra was translated into middle

Persian in 570 CE Borzuya. Based on this translation a Syriac translation was done

KalilagandDamnag. Through this multiple translations and immense popularity of the text,

Panchatantra reached in Europe in eleventh century and it was translated into several European

languages even before beginning of seventeenth century. Travel of this text proves there was an

age old history of travelling, business and other communications between India, Persia and other

countries of the Middle East. But it is not only Indian Panchatantra which was received widely

in the countries of Middle East and then in Europe, India also was influenced and received

Arabian Nights, which is not only a popular text but translated and interpreted in different Indian

languages many times.

Spread of Islam in India carried Arabic knowledge along with the religion. The Q’uran

was started to be translated into different Indian language for the common people who did not

have access to Arabic. This culture of translation of Arabic philosophy, literature and religious

texts started since the medieval era of Indian literary history.

Antoine Galland was most successful translator of the Arabian Nights. With this English

translation the book got its life beyond the Islamic world.Apart from Galland, there were many

more translators of Arabic literature from British India, like Friedrich Ruckert, Richard Burton

from the Fort William College, Calcutta. Arabic literature departments what have been

introducing since the beginning of 20th century in India, gave more pace in translating literatures
from Arabic into Indian languages and vice versa. Among modern Arabic authors

NaguibMahfouz, who received Nobel Prize for literature in 1988, is one among most popular and

translated into Indian languages.

India and South East Asia

There is immense and so deep reception of Indian text, tradition and culture in the South East

Asia since the time of Hindu kingdom. The Ramayana as a grand narrative is spread over Indian

culture and Indian literature since thousands of years. And innumerous texts have been created

based on this grand narrative. We can find no less significance of the Ramayana story in the

cultures of different countries in South East Asia than India. The Ramayana stories have been

recreating in various forms of human expression in South East Asian countries like Bali,

Cambodia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Indonesia, and Java etc. since end of 9th century. Different

versions of stories are found which bring us new readings of the Ramayana.

“That the Ramayana was already well known in Java by the end of the ninth century is evident

from the magnificent series of reliefs carved into the walls of the temples of Prambanan in

central Java around 900 AD. However, the the first literary version in Old Javanese,

the Ramayana Kakawin, appears to date from a century later. It is based not directly on

Valmiki’sRamayana but on a later Indian poetical version, the so-called Bhattikavya, a Sanskrit

poem written by Bhatti (6/7th century)”. Which proves that not only the Ramayana but also

other Sanskrit texts used to be receive regularly. This cultural relation shows a continuous

cultural traveling between the countries and cultures. Thousands years old shadow puppet
theatre(The Ramayana in Southeast Asia: (4) Indonesia and Malaysia) of Java uses the

Ramayana and the Mahabharata stories as themes of its narrative. The influence of Hindu culture

and tradition gradually has been extended towards Bali from Java. As a result we can find the

Ramayana and the Mahabharata in many more artistic forms. “The Malay version of

the Ramayana,Hikayat Seri Rama, is believed to have been committed to writing between the

13th and 15th centuries. One of the oldest Malay manuscripts in this country – and probably the

oldest known illuminated Malay manuscript…As attested to in media ranging from the great 7th-

century Ramayana stone pedestal in the Cham temple at TraKieu in Vietnam, to 20th-century

performances of the Ceritera Seri Rama in thewayang Siam shadow puppet theatre of Kelantan

and 21st-century Indonesian comics, theRamayana has retained its position as a literary classic in

Southeast Asia through the centuries”.

The abduction of Sita by Ravana, depicted in stone reliefs at Prambanan temple, central Java, ca.

900. Photograph by W.G.N. van der Sleen, 1929. Tropenmuseum.

Two scenes from a Balinese palm leaf manuscript of the Ramayana, written and illustrated by

Ida BagusAdnyana of GeriyaGunung Sari, Pliatan, Bali, c. 1975. (Top) Sita sees the golden deer
and urges Rama to catch it; (bottom) Ravana in the guise of an old hermit lures Sita out of the

safety of her magic circle. British Library, Or.14022

Dancer of the Royal Ballet in the costume of Hanuman. Postcard from around 1915 issued by the

ComitéCambodgien de la Société des Amis d’Angkor, from a collector’s album of postcards from Laos,

Cambodia, Burma and Siam. British Library, ORB. 30/6309, p. [30]

Ravana (called Dathagiri in the Burmese tradition), the ten-headed demon king of Lanka (Thiho), sends

Gambi in the form of a shwethamin (golden deer) to Sita (Thida) (top right). Sita persuades Rama to go
and catch the golden deer for her (left), and so he leaves Sita under the protection of his brother

Lakshmana (Letkhana), and goes after the golden deer (bottom right). British Library Or.14178, f.8

In modern times, though few in number but we find translations of different South East Asian

literature in different Indian languages. Literary texts from South East Asia usually comes under

the title of Asian literature, Asian children literature, Asian folk tales etc. Thus modern Burmese

literature, Indonesian literature and Vietnamese literature comes into India. The Vietnam War

and urge to protest against imperialism also makes Indians to show extended solidarity to the

Vietnamese. Vietnam War has even greater political significance in the international spectrum.

War and whole narrative related or about war helps ex-colonies to imagine their third world

identity. Vietnam helps India especially to release its anger towards imperialism, on imperialism

literary and culturally. Hence, Vietnamese poetry, stories, war narratives, letter of Ho Chi Minh,

Ho Chi Minh’s other writings also extensively translated into Indian languages. For example,

many little magazines of Bengal published Vietnamese literature continuously during war. Even

many books of translated literature from Vietnamese and many little magazines also have

published special issues on Vietnam after three decades of the war happened.

India and East Asia

 As I mentioned earlier that East Asian countries like China has a, age old relation with

India. Because of great reception of Buddhism in China so many Buddhist literature from India

and Nepal were brought into Chinese language.First Asian Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore

visited China and wrote on China also. In Modern era Tagore was translated widely in Chinese

language. Especially Indian Literature or Hindi or India studies departments in different Chinese

universities, especially in Beijing took such projects of translating Indian literature into Chinese.

After the Cultural Revolution in China literature of Chinese people’s war, literature of

communist party, writings of Mao tse Tung, writings of famous Chinese authorLu Xun were

used to be translated into different Indian languages from the World Literature Centre of Peking.

Though such literature initially were translated from China but later these books got their ‘after

life’ in Indian translation tradition.

Tagore himself was very much fascinated with Japanese Haiku, later this form was

adopted by different Indian poets. Tagore translated few Haikus while he was writing his

travelogue,Japan Jatrir Patra(1919).Tagore was translated in a great number in Japanese

language either by the Japanese or by the Indians. Tagore and Okakura’s friendship also brought

a move in Indo-Japan translational relation.

World renowned Japanese novelist Haruki Murakami also is translated into several

Indian languages, especially his famous, Kafka on the Shore. A very recent translation of this

novel into Bengali is published by Jadavpur University, translated by Avijit Mukherjee.

 Along with creative literatures, we find dictionaries in Indian and East Asian languages

which also can be considered as very translational relation. SahityaAkademi has published

Tibetan-Hindi dictionary in two volumes, compiled by Rahul Sankrityayan. Suniti Pathak

translated selected poems of Tagore into Tibetan, titled as, “Sanyam-Naga-Badus-Pa”.

National book trust also find Asian literature should be translated and there should be

representation of Asia between two covers for the Indian readers to imagine the Asia. It

published “Together in Dramaland”, which includes translation of texts from China, Japan,

Mayanmar, Indonesia, Philippines, North Korea, and Singapore etc.

Nepal and Sri Lanka

India and Nepal has quite interesting diplomatic understanding and Nepal is not only a

mere neighbor of India but there was inseparable relation between these two countries in terms

of language, literature and culture. One of the early Indian text written in proto modern Indian

language found in the royal court of Nepal, which is known as Charyapada. This text is claimed

as first text of Bengali, Hindi, Oriya, and Assamese. And other side Nepali is an Indian language.

Millions of Indians speak Nepali as their mother tongue. So the history of Nepali literature shares

itsexperience from both the countries. There are two categories of Nepali text while we

understand the history of Nepali literature, one is Nepali literature produced in Nepali and the

second is Nepali literature produced in India. SahityaAkademi and National Book Trust

publishes translation of quite a few Nepali texts into different Indian Languages. There are many

regional publishing houses who also have published Nepali literature into several other Indian
languages. SahityaAkademi’s contribution into Nepali translation of literatures, criticism and

literary history from other language is quite large (http://sahitya-akademi.gov.in/sahitya-

akademi/publications/nepali.pdf). Such sharing experiences started from Buddhism to modern

Indian literature, extend a different kind of cultural understanding and sympathy towards each

other.

Sri Lanka also has similar kind of cultural and historical relation with India since ancient

time, since the time of the Ramayana and later it was again enriched with the expansion of

Buddhism. Srilanka produces its literature into Tamil, Pali and Sinhalese. National Book Trust

publishedMirrored Images: An Anthology of Sri Lankan Poetry edited by RajivaWijesinha,

BRIDGING CONNECTIONS: An Anthology of Sri Lankan Short StoriesRajivaWijesinha (Ed. &

Comp.) (http://www.nbtindia.gov.in/writereaddata/attachment/tuesday-february-10-20155-22-

58-pmenglish-catalogue-2015.pdf).

India, Pakistan and Bangladesh

This is quite interesting to discover the translational relation among India, Bangladesh and

Pakistan, as these were together before 1947. So, these three countries do not share same history

since last few decades. There are so many authors who cannot be claimed of any one country’s

or belong to two or three countries together. Most of the famous Bengali authors belong to both

Indian and Bangladeshi Bengali literary tradition. There are Urdu writers like Sadat Hasan

Manto, Altaf Fatima who belong to Indian Urdu and Pakistani Urdu both. To discover the
translational relation between India, Bangladesh and Pakistan we need to survey the post

Independent literary history of these three countries.

Bangladesh is a single language dominated country and Bengali is dominating language

for literary production, publication and circulation. But in case of Pakistan, there are quite a few

languages which have literary history of long time. Urdu, Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi, Balochi,

Saraiki, Kashmiri all these languages are spoken in Pakistan. So, by the very nature of origin of

both the countries as separated from each other is again linked with the linguistic traditions. If

we want to read a greater history of Punjabi, or Urdu, or Sindhi or Kahsmiri literature we have to

consider the literature from both the countries. Translational relation in this case is actually the

case of looking original again and back.

Bangladesh regularly publishes translation from different literary and non-literary texts

from different World and Indian languages. Famous and canonical literary and non-literary texts

from India also has been translated from English to Bangla in Bangladesh like Gandhi, Nehru,

Ambedkar, Moulana Azad and literary texts like Anita Desai, Kiran Desai, Amitava Ghosh,

JhumpaLahiri, ArabindoAdiga and many more.

We find very less number of literature translated in any of the Indian languages from

Afghanistan. Though there are so many representation of Afghans in different Indian literatures

but literary translation is too few. It is very recent phenomena that different novels written by

Khaled Hosseini has translated into different Indian languages. Such kind of experience shows

that, though many countries stay as neighbors, many language stay as neighbors, but we do not
consider all of those areas as literary areas or cultural zones. We popularly known them in some

other identity.

Role of SahityaAkademi and National Book Trust

SahityaAkademi and National Book Trust, these two government sponsored publication

houses have immense contribution to build cultural relations between India and other Asian

countries. Initiatives of these houses mainly try to build a pan Asian identity and take project to

understand Asian mind through literary relations. Along with Asian identity translations of

different Asian literatures also help to understand so called third world history. National Book

Trust had quite important and interesting project along with UNESCO what had vision to build

Asia Pacific cultural relation through literary exchange. National Book Trust writes about their

“Asia/Pacific Co-Publication Programme”, “This is a novel attempt under the aegis of UNESCO,

at developing books for Asian children by Asian authors. To have children in Korea share their

fantasies with their counterparts in Sri Lanka is probably no small achievement. And when

Indian and Pakistani editors work as part of a team to build a list for children in the 20 odd

countries of the continent we inhabit, it’s a great new beginning. These books are steps for

bridging minds and creating a common heritage for this vast continent and are the very best of

Asia today”. Such kind of literary, cultural and translational relation is no doubt offer a broader

spectrum to have knowledge about different Asian literatures which are less known or less

explored. But it has greater significance too, which is in terms of peace and harmony among the

communities staying together for long, long time in history. SahityaAkdemi also publishes
translation of literature of China and other countries of Asia or India’s neighboring countries.

SahityaAkademi, once in 1980s focused on different traditions of the Ramayana and different

variations of the Ramayana found in different Asian countries. Such kind of initiatives definitely

help us to understand the cross-cultural histories of the countries and a greater readership of

grand narrative.

Conclusion

India has observed more number of literature, philosophy, history texts to be translated

from different European languages because of colonialism and expansion of European education

in India. So the history of reception, influence of European literature in India is more strategic

and structural. And such practices had been happened for quite a long time in India very

systematically. Naturally such practices are hegemonic and culturally rooted. So we have been

carrying that legacy. But India’s connection with other Asian countries perhaps is not so

systematic or so structural and also it did not happen without any interruption. English literature

or literature written in English is studied so widely in Indian academics that other areas of the

world are not much explored by the Indians or it is more or less same picture in other Asian

countries. So it is very much hard to remember famous text from other Asian countries may be

whole Asia shares same kind of experience. This discussion shows that translation relation

between India and its neighboring countries not only history of exploring literary fields but it is

also a symbol other relations such as cultural, economic, political and so on. History of
translational relation also unfolds the history of other relations mentioned above. Such kind of

reading helps us to understand the life of literature beyond mere academics or institutional

practices of literature. This history of influence, reception and cross cultural communication also

helps to read the mind of the communities staying together or as neighbor since a long time in

the history. We must acknowledge that discussion of such kind which is less practiced

institutionally definitely unfolds new world in front of practitioners and gives rebirth of forgotten

or less remembered history of dialogues.

References:

"CHAPTER TWO: SURVEY OF LITERATURE, HYPOTHESIS AND METHODOLOGY." n.d. 14 September 2016.

<http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/14518/7/07_chapter%202.pdf>.

"Index of Publication." n.d. Sahitya Akademi. Web. 8 August 2016. <http://sahitya-

akademi.gov.in/sahitya-akademi/publications/index_of_publication.jsp>.

"Introduction." n.d. National Book Trust. Web. 8 August 2016.

<http://www.nbtindia.gov.in/default.aspx>.

"The Ramayana in Southeast Asia: (4) Indonesia and Malaysia." 15 May 2014. British Library. 12 August

2016. <http://blogs.bl.uk/asian-and-african/2014/05/the-ramayana-in-southeast-asia-4-

indonesia-and-malaysia.html>.