CHAPTER!

A brief discussion on the history

of early Muslim settlers in India.

The history of early Muslim settlers in India is of diversed

colour. This early history comprises the Muslim merchants, missionaries,
invaders, soldiers, noblemen, sultans, (the ruling classes), and commoners
who came to India since the advent of Islam in Arabia early in the seventh
century to the end of the thirteenth century A.D. If once they came in a
small group, in other times they arrived in droves and sometimes in
abundant like ants and locusts. Besides them, the indigenous people
converted to Islam increased the Muslim population in India to a great
extent. Thus by the thirteenth century, the Muslim population comprising the
immigrant and the indigenous raised to considerable number and they had
become a permanent socio-political entity in India. With them there
appeared new clothes, new fashions, new languages, medicine, science and
technology in Indian soil. Their mosques, their madrasahs, their mode of
*

worship, their archers and cavalrymen, their saints and scholars, began to
be seen in many cities and towns of India. Moreover, their government,
administration and laws began to influence the Indian urban and rural lives
so much so that in course of time many of their laws and principles were
adopted by the other communities of India.

The earliest Muslim settlers in India were traders. Because,

trade between the East and West, continued from the dates back to the B.C.
The Persian and the Arab traders were engaged in commerce on the western
 9

coast of India from the time long before the rise of Islam. As early as th e

year 26 B.C.merchants, journeying between India and Italy; passed through

Egypt, doing land voyages over that country.1 This tradition of commercial
intercourse was continued among the merchants of these countries till the
Islam rose in Arabia. With the rise of Islam, the Persian and Arab Muslim
merchants entered into the inheritance of their predecessors. The commerce
of the Arabian Sea, which before the arrival of the Portuguese in the
fifteenth century was in the hands of the Arabs, was one of the principal
causes of the Muslim immigration on the coast of Malabar. The Arab traders
who came in India had established very good and cordial relations with the
people of the country. "They intermarried with the local women and
established themselves on the coast of Western India,"2 The descendants of
those Arab merchants had built up a prosperous trade between India and the
Western world. The 'Nawait' community of the Konkan and the ’Labbais’ of
the east Tamil coast are also the descendants of Arab merchants who had
established themselves in those parts of the country long before the Muslim
conquest of India.3 These Arab merchants used to load up vessels with
spices, incense, ivory, sandal and great quantities of cotton and silk, so
much in demand in the western world.4 The influence of these trading Arabs
who had settled in Indian soil, was very effective specially upon the people
of the lower castes who entered their services. Masudi, the famous historian
of the ninth century who travelled in western India, mentions that the Raja

1. K.S.Lai, Early Muslim in India, New Delhi, 1984, p-l.

2. Yusuf Husain, Glimpses o f Medieval Indian Culture. Bombay. 1962, p-l 1.
3. Ibid, p - l2
4. Ib id , p - l 2
 3

of Balhara, the Vallabhi ruler of western India, showed a great respect for
Islam and protected the interests of Muslims in his realm. 5 Masudi further
says that in all parts of Gujarat the Muslims had built splendid mosques
where they said their five times daily prayers. This tolerance towards the
Muslims may probably have been due to the fact that they contributed a
great deal to the prosperity and development of the country, they had
adopted as their own homeland. This received due recognition in the
conciliatory attitude of the political authority towards them.6 In the twelfth
century A.D., the Arab traders and preachers were making conversions on
the western and eastern coasts of India. 7

During that period, besides the traders, some other people also
used to travel each others countries on some special occasions. The
seventeenth century historian Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah Ferishta says
that even before the advent of Islam, Indian Brahmans used to go by sea
to Ka'aba to worship the idols there, and there was constant movement of
people between Ceylon and the countries of what is now called west Asia.8
It is seen that Indian culture and religion made their way into the ancient
Arab lands since very early times before the advent of Islam. The eastern
region of the Muslim empire that is - Khorasan, Afghanistan, Seistan and
Baluchistan were Hindu or Buddhist till they merged into the fold of
Muhammadanism.9 Their relationship with India seems to have been continued

5. Ibid, p-I2 .

6. Ibid, p .p -12,13 .

7. Ibid, p -13 .

8. K.S.Lal, Early Muslim in India. New Delhi, 1984, p-13 .

9. Tara Chand , Influnee o f Islam on Indian Culture, Allahabad, 1941 .p.66 and Dr.Mohini
Kuntar Saikia, Assam Muslim Relation and its Cultural Significance. Golaghat. 1978. p-2
 4

even after the rise of Islam there. The lands of the early Muslim Caliphate
were said to have been the meeting grounds of Eastern and Western thoughts

and culture, including those o f the Hindus and the Buddhists, and many
Indians were employed in the financial and in other departments o f the early
Ummayad reigns at Basra.10 It is also said that the Muslims translated the
Buddhist works in the second century o f Hegira.*11 Thus the relation between

the Arabs and Indians was very cordial and even after the annexation of
Sindh to the Muslim empire in 712 A.D. there was no change in the attitude

of the Arabs towards Indian culture and religion. It rather seems that after
this event the Arabs utilized better scope to learn more about Indian thought,

culture, science etc. Some o f the accounts compiled in the period from the

ninth to the eleventh century by several Arabic and Persian scholars like Al-
Jahiz, Yaqubi, Al-Idrisi and Al-Bimni, reveal how Hindu religion and culture

were honoured in the Arab land in the said period. Like their counterparts

in south India, the Arab Muslim settlers in Sindh took keen interest in Indian

religion, culture and science. It has been said that Indian Medicine ,

Mathematics , Astronomy, Folk-lore, Religion etc. revealed new sources of

knowledge to them.12 The Arabs were impressed and influenced by those

Indian sciences and cultures to such an extent that they carried all these

branches of knowledge not only to the Middle East, but also to the whole

of Europe.

Sufism as well as Islamic mission made its appearance in India

quite early. With the pious mission of the true faith of Islam, numerous Sufi

10. Dr. Mohini Kumar Saikia. Assam M uslim Relation and its Cultural Significance. Golaghat.
1978, p.p-2-3.
11. Ibid p-3. and Tara Chand. Influence o f Islam on Indian Culture. Allahabad-1941. p-10.
12. Dr. M.K. Saikia. Assam Muslim Relations and its Cultural Signifiance. p-4 and S.Abid Hus>.ain.
The National Culture o f India, p-49.
 5

saints and preachers o f Arabia, Syria, Samarqand and Bukhara came to

India in the early period o f M uslim rule in India from 1000 to 1150 A D.

Shaikh Ismail o f Bukhara, w ell-versed in theology and learning and a man

o f polished manners came to India and settled at Lahore in about 1005

A .D .13 Likewise, Hazrat Shaikh Abdullah, a sufi o f Yemen, came to India

and preached Islam in Gujarat and Bombay. Another Shaikh Hussain

Zanjani came to India from Azarbaijan and settled at Lahore.14

After the conquest o f northern India by the Muslims, various

/

sufi orders were established in the country. In particular, the Chishti and the

Suhrawardy orders took root in different parts o f India and there developed

extensive activities o f these two orders. M oreover, other famous orders like

Qadiri and Naqshbandi were also represented and functioned more or less

on the same lin es.15

(a) The Chishti order o f sufism , founded by Khawjah

Abdal Chishti (d. 966 A .D .) w a s introduced in India by Khawjah

Muinuddin Chishti (d. 1236 A .D .), the d iscip le o f Khawjah U sm an

Haruni (d -1220 A .D .). Born in S eistan in 1143 A .D . ; he cam e to India

a little before the invasion o f Shihabuddin M uhammad Ghori , in the

last part o f tw elfth century A .D . and acquired great renow ned and

w as given the title o f Sultanul H ind , the spiritual king o f In d ia.16

13. Md. Yahya Tamizi, Sufi Movement in Eastern India, Delhi, 1992, p-28.

14. Ibid- p-29.

15. Yusuf Husain, Glimpses o f Medieval Indian Cultu'c, Bombay. 1962. p-36.

16. Ibid, p - 3 6 .
 6

Khawjah Muinuddin Chishti arrived in India in 1190 A.D. and

first proceeded to Lahore which was a centre of Islamic learning since the
time of Mahmud Ghazni.17 In Lahore he spent some time in meditation at
the tomb of Data Ganj Bakhsh, who was one of the early sufis that settled
in India. From Lahore, he went to Delhi and then to Ajmer, where he spent
the rest of his life. After the death of Khawjah Muinuddin in 1234 A.D.,
his numerous disciples continued his apostolic work at Ajmer and other
parts of India. The Chishti order played an important role in Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, the whole of Bengal including present Bangladesh and Assam. The
greatest sufi of this order, Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia (1236-1325 A.D.),
generally known as Mahbub-i-Ilahi (the beloved of God), represents a great
spiritual force in the history of Muslim India. His personality and the
breadth of his religious outlook assured the popularity of the Chishti order
in India. His disciples spread all over the country.

(b) The Suhrawardy order is also one of the oldest sufi

order that was introduced in India. Shaikh Shahabuddin Suhrawardy
(1145-1234 A.D.), the eminent master of this order, had directed several
of his disciples like Shaikh Bahauddin Zakaria Multani (d.1266 A.D.),
Shaikh Jalaluddin Tabrizi (d.1225 A.D.) and others to proceed to India
in order to launch their propagation programme in different parts of

India. The credit of organising the Suhrawardy order in North-Western

India goes to Shaikh Zakaria who chose Multan as the centre of his
activity and in Eastern India to Shaikh Tabrizi, who did extensive work

17. Ibid, p-37 .

 7
and won reputation in the entire Eastern regions of India including Assam
(c) The Naqshbandi is the another most outstanding sufi order
introduced in India. The Naqshbandis received the patronage of Babur, the
founder of Mughal empire in India, which may have helped the establishment
of the order in India by Muhammad Baqibillah (1563-1603) in the reign of
Akbar.18

(d) Likewise the Qadiriyya order, which was founded in Iraq

by a Hanbali mystic, Abdul Qadir al-Jilani (1077-1166), was first introduced
in India by Muhammad Ghawth, who established a hospice at Uch in 1482
A.D.19 The followers of Qadiriyya order were generally tolerant of the non-
Muslims and this attitude greatly helped them to carry on their missionary
work among the Hindus and other communities of India.

The first martial contact of Islamic world with India started

dates back to the early part of the seventh century A.D., when Harshavardhan
was reigning over Northern India. In 636-37 A.D. during the Caliphate of
Hazarat Umar, only four years after the death of Prophat Muhammad(sm),
the Arab Muslims explored land approaches to India and made many raids
along the borders of Sindh and Baluchistan. They also sent naval expeditions
across the sea to 'Thana' near Bombay, to Broach in Gujarat and to the Gulf
of Debal in Sindh. The first Muslim fleet appeared in Indian waters in 636
A.D. But finally these expeditions were suspended owing to Hazarat Umar's
disapproval . Another attempt was made in 664 A.D. by land through the
Makran coast into western Sindh. The expedition was sent by Khalifa

18. A ziz Ahmad, An Intellectual History o f Islam in India, Chicago. 1969, p.40.

19. Ibid . p-42 .

 8

U t h m a n u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f A b d u l l a h b i n - A m a r . H e f i r s t c o n q u e r e d S e i s t a n

a n d t h e n a d v a n c e d t o w a r d s M a k r a n a n d d e f e a t e d t h e r u l e r o f M a k r a n a n d

S i n d h . I n s p i t e o f t h e s e v i c t o r i e s , i t w a s n o t c o n s i d e r e d s u i t a b l e t o a n n e x S in d h

w i t h M u s l i m r e i g n , b e c a u s e i t w a s r e p o r t e d t o t h e K h a l i f a t h a t i n S i n d h " w a t e r

i s s c a r c e , t h e f r u i t s a r e p o o r , a n d t h e r o b b e r s a r e b o l d ; i f a f e w t r o o p s a r e s e n t ,

t h e y w i l l b e s l a i n , i f m a n y , t h e y w i l l s t a r v e . " 20 E v e n a f t e r t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s , t h e

A r a b s c o n t i n u e d t h e i r a d v a n c e t o w a r d s e a s t a n d t h e y m a d e c o n s t a n t a t t a c k o n

t h e f r o n t i e r s o f S i n d h b o t h b y l a n d a n d s e a . M o r e o v e r , t h e y c o n c e n t r a t e d t h e i r

a t t a c k s o n K i k a n w h i c h w a s a h i l l y r e g i o n r o u n d t h e B o l a n p a s s . A b o u t t h e

m i d d l e o f t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y t h e y h a d o c c u p i e d s o m e p o r t i o n s o f s o u t h e r n

A f g h a n i s t a n . T h e r e a f t e r t h e y m a r c h e d t h r o u g h K i r m a n i n B a l u c h i s t a n a n d A l-

H a r i s , a n A r a b c h i e f t a i n , w o n s o m e s u c c e s s t h e r e i n 6 5 6 A . D . A n o t h e r s u c ­

c e s s f u l a t t e m p t w a s m a d e b y A l - M u h a l l i b , a g e n e r a l o f K h a l i f a M u a w i y a h ,

w h o c o n q u e r e d K a b u l in 6 6 4 A .D . U l t i m a t e l y , t h e A r a b s w e r e a b l e t o c a p t u r e

B a l u c h i s t a n a n d K a b u l i n t h e f i r s t d e c a d e o f t h e 8 t h c e n t u r y A .D . a n d t h i s

o p e n e d t h e w a y f o r t h e f u l l - f l e d g e d c o n q u e s t o f S i n d h . 21

T h e A r a b s w e r e p r o v o k e d t o u n d e r t a k e t h e c o n q u e s t o f S in d h

in 7 1 1 A .D ., b e c a u s e t h e r e d e v e l o p e d a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h s e r v e d a s a n

i m m e d i a t e c a u s e f o r t h e i n v a s i o n . V a r i o u s r e a s o n s h a v e b e e n g i v e n f o r t h a t.

I n o n e s o u r c e i t i s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e k i n g o f C e y l o n h a d h i m s e l f e m b r a c e d

I s l a m a n d w a s s e n d i n g t r o o p s a n d v a l u a b l e p r e s e n t s t o t h e K h a l i f a a n d t h o s e

w e r e p l u n d e r e d b y p i r a t e s o f t h e c o a s t o f S i n d h . A c c o r d i n g t o a n o t h e r

s o u r c e , th e K h a l i f a h a d s e n t a g e n t s t o I n d i a t o p u r c h a s e f e m a l e s l a v e s a n d

o t h e r c o m m o d i t i e s a n d t h o s e a g e n t s , o n r e a c h i n g D e b a l , t h e p r i n c i p a l

20. Mahajan Vidya Dhar, Muslim Rule in India, New Delhi, 1970.p.l7 .
21. Ibid, p-17 .
 9

sea-port of Dahir, were attacked and plundered by pirates. But the most
probable and reliable report is this : The King of Ceylon had sent to
Hajjaj bin Yusuf Sakafi, the governor of the eastern provinces of the
Khalifa of Damascus, eight vessels filled with presents, Abyssinian slaves,
pilgrims and the orphan daughters of some Muslim merchants who had
died in his dominions; but the vessels were attacked and plundered by
pirates of the coast of Sindh.22 After this incident the Khalifa demanded
compensation from Dahir, the ruler of Sindh. But Dahir replied that the
pirates responsible for the plunder were not under his control and
consequently he was not responsible for the payment of compensation.
This negative reply from Dahir offended the Arab rulers and they
determined to conquer Sindh. With this view, an expedition under the
leadership of Ubaidullah was sent in 711 A.D.; but he was himself de­
feated and killed. Another expedition was sent under Budail or Buddai
but that also failed. Under this circumstances it was decided to send a
third and vigorous expedition under the able leadership of Imaduddin
Muhammad bin Qasim.
But the then reigning Ummayad Khalifa Walid-I (86-96H/705-
715 A.D.), under whom the Khilafat attained the greatest extent of
dominion to which it ever reached, was in doubt about the outcome of the
venture, becouse of the failures of Ubaidullah and #udail before it. He
dreaded the distance, the cost, the loss o f Muhammadan life, as from
Damascus, Sindh lay at a distance of two thousand five hundred kilometres
and from Kufa it is at about the same distance.23 But Hajjaj bin Yusuf was an
22. K.S. Lai. Early Muslims in India, New Delhi, 1984, p-13.
2 3 . Ibid, p . p - 1 3 - 1 4 .
 10

imperialist to the core. He promised to repay to the Khalifa the expenditure

incurred on the enterprise and thus he obtained his (Khalifa’s) reluctant
concurence to the venture and finally sent his seventeen years old nephew and
son-in- law Muhammad bin Qasim to invade Sindh in 712 A. D. At the same
time he sent Kutaiba to the North to spread Islam over the border of Tartary.24

The gallant youth Muhammad bin Qasim advanced with rich

troops towards the lower course of the Indus river through Makran, It was
in the spring of 712 A.D. that he reached the port of Debal and brought it
under his control. From Debal, the Muslim army marched to Al-Nerun
(modem Hyderabad) where Raja Dahir, the king of Sindh was defeated and
killed, and the city was captured by the Arabs. Thereafter, other cities in
Sindh were occupied. After consolidating the Muslim rule in Sindh, the
Muslim army crossed over to the Punjab and conqured Multan in 713 A.D.25
Thus Sindh, Multan and a part of the Punjab were annexed to the
Muslim empire ,26 in the early years of the eighth century during the
reign of Walid-I.

Though the conquest of Sindh by Muhammad bin Qasim, failed

to establish a Muslim empire in India, yet it had some permanent effect on
- the Indian social and political lives. It cannot be denied that the Arab
conquest of Sindh sowed the seeds of Islam in India. As a result, a large
number of persons in Sindh were converted to Islam.27 Besides this, many

24. Ibid, p -1 4 .
25. Masudul Hasan, History o f Islam, Vol-I, Delhi, 1995, p-169.
26. K.AIi, A study o f Islamic History, Delhi. 1980, p-179.

27. Mahajan Vtdya Dhar; Muslim Rule in India. New Delhi, 1970. p-24.
 11

Arabs had settled in Sindh and married Indian women.28 After a l l , the footings
got by Islam in Sindh proved to be permanent. These Muslim settlers in South

India received fair treatment from the Hindu rulers and their subjects.

The accounts made by the early Arab travellers and geographers

who visited India with different views, such as M erchant Sulaiman ( who
came to India in 851 A.D.), Al-Masudi (- in 915 A.D.), Al-Istakhri (- in 951
A.D.), Ibn-Haukal (-in 976 A.D.); all speak about the generous treatment to
the peaceful Muslims accorded by Indian rulers.29 Dr. Ram Gopal Misra

states that- "There is evidence to prove that large Muslim colonies were
established in the South and West coast parts of India in the 9th and 1Oth

centuries A.D."30 He also quotes that- "Masudi who came to India in 915

A.D., writes that the peace of the Muslims was not disturbed in India and

that Islam flourished and it had large mosques".31 This proves that Muslims
were granted freedom of faith and worship. They had complete liberty to

propagate Islam and construct mosques. In these mosques they summoned

their congregations by the usual mode o f proclaiming the times of prayer.32

They even entered into the missionary efforts for the propagation of the

religion and to convert people to their faith. In this regard even the then
Hindu rulers helped the Muslim missionaries . It was also natural that under

such conditions some Hindus were become attracted by the simple formula

28. Yusuf Husain, Glimpses o f Medieval Indian Culture, Bombay, 1962, p-H .

29. Dr. Ram Gopal Misra, Indian Resistance to Early Muslim Invaders upto 1206 A.D. Meerut.

1992, p.p-7-8.
30. Ibid p-8 .
31. Ibid p-8.
32. K.S. Lai, Early M uslims in India , N ew D elhi, 1984, p-5 .
of faith and democratic theories of social life of Islam and consequently they
embraced the religion.33

On the other hand (even after the conquest) the Hindus in Sindh
received just and fair treatment from the Arabs. Muhammad bin Qasim
protected their temples and allowed religious freedom to all. He is also said
to have retained even the Hindu officials of Dahir's regime.34 Moreover the
Hindus were also taken into civil and military servies. He (i.e. Muhammad
Qasim) then called a conference of all the Brahmans in the town, and
addressed them as follows: "In the reign of Dahir, you held responsible
posts, and you must be knowing all the people of the city as well as of the
country all around. You must inform which of them are noteworthy and
celebrated and deserve kindness and patronage at our hands; so that we may
show proper favour to them, and make grants to them. As I have come to
entertain a good opinion of you, and have full trust in your faithfullness and
sincerity, I confirm you in your posts. The management of all the affairs of
state, and its administration, I leave in your able hands, and this (right) I
grant (also) to your children and descendants hereditarily, and you need fear
no alteration or cancellation of the order thus issued. " 35 Furthermore, Hindu
women were married to Muslims. Lands were restored to some of the native
chiefs without forcing them to become Muslims. 36 Muhammad bin Qasim
passed the following orders: "Deal honestly between the people and the
Sultan, and if distribution is required, make it with equity, and fix the
revenue according to the ability' to pay. Be in concord among yourselves and
33. Mohini Kr. Saikia, Assam Muslim Relation and its Cultural Significance, G olaghat, 1978, p-2

34. Ibid, p-10 .

35. Dr. S.M. Yusuf, Studies in Islamic History and Culture, Delhi, 1986, p-75 .

36. Mahajan Vidya Dhar, Muslim Rule in India. New Delhi. 1970 . p-21.
 13

oppose not each other , so that the country may not be distressed “ ,7 Then
Muhammad bin Qasim spoke words o f comfort to everyone of them sepa­
rately, and told them all: "Be of good cheer, and do not entertain any anxiety,

or fear o f (arbitrary) punishment on my part. I am not going to compel you to

pass a bond or written docum ent; but be paying regularly, o f your own ac­

cord, the tribute fixed on you. I shall try to show you favour and disregard
your little failings. If any of you has any request to make, let him make it

openly, that I may hear it and give a proper reply to it, and gratify the wishes of
each ."38 Moreover, even Hajjaj bin Yusuf changed his mind and issued instruc­
tion: "As they have made submission and have agreed to pay taxes to the Ca­

liph, nothing more can be properly required from them. They have been taken

under our protection and we cannot, in any way, stretch our hands upon their

lives or property. Permission is given to them to worship their gods. Nobody

must be forbidden or prevented from following his own religion. They may
live in their houses in whatever manner they like . " 39 This moderate attitude

towards the Hindu subjects brought success to the Muslims.

Thus the political activities o f the Muslims in India, particularly

on Sindh, remained for about three centuries. During this period many Arab

Muslims came and settled in Sindh, where the actual administration was largely

left by its Muslim governors to the Hindu officials .40 In this way the Arab

conquest of Sindh provided the Hindus and Muslims with better scope for

mutual understanding of each others culture and knowledge .41 Abul Hasan Ali

37. Ibid, p-21,

38. Dr. S.M. Yusuf, Studies in Islamic History and Culture, Delhi. 1986, p-76.

39. Mahajan Vidya Dhar, Muslim Rule in India, New Delhi, 1970. p -2 1.

40. Mohini Kr. Saikia, Assam Muslim Relations and its Cultural Significance, p-10.

41. Mahajan Vidya Dhar, Muslim Rule in India. New Delhi, 1970. p-23.

T a i(3 C C 7
 14

Nadwi has rightly observed : “ Many progressive features in the socio-cultural

structure of the different Indian communities, like respect for women and their
rights, can be traced to the influence exercised upon them by Islam through
various channels ”.42

In short, Arab Muslims had settled down on India's western

coast between the seventh and ninth centuries and were mutually treated
with regard and religious tolerance by each other.43 The maritime commerce
of the Arabs, which also started during this time with India, continued to
flourish and with it many Arab Muslims entered and settled along the
western coast of India.44 In the 8th century, some Arab traders landed on
the west coast, in south India. The Muslims found the west coast favourable
for their purpose. As Ram Gopal refers- " They traded in spices, ivory and
gems, among other things, and acquired in course of time the sole monopoly
of India's foreign trade. The kings of the south Indian territories were deeply
interested in the export trade, for they levied a tax on every sale
Consequently, the Arab traders were more influential and respected in the
country than their Indian counterparts".45 Then the Arab traders grew rich
and lived there in great comfort. By the tenth century Muslim dealers in
linen and spices dominated the southern trade from India to Spain through
Alexandria and Indians were found in Alexandria in large numbers.46 “In
the eleventh and twelfth centuries Muslim merchants were found both on the
western and eastern coasts of India . Some had settled permanently in

42. Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi, Islam and the World, Lucknow, 1967, p-89.

43. K.S.Lal, Early Muslim in India, p-5.

44. Mohini Kr. Saikia, Assam Muslims Relations and its Cultural Significance. P -1.

45. Ram Gopal, Indian Muslims - A political Histroy (1 8 5 8 -1947), Bombay, 1964, p -1.

46. K.S.Lal, Early Muslim in India, p-1.

 15

Indian port-towns, others visited them on business off and on. 47 During this
period Muslim merchants were masters of land and sea routes both in the East
and the West without any competitors from European countries except some
Jews who also were engaged in commercial activities. In the East they moved
between the Islamic countries of West-Asia, India, South-East Asia and China,
and exchanged goods between them. In India, some of them landed on the
western coast called Konkan, others eastward of Cape Comorin.48

After examining the views of different scholars about the first

settlements of Arab Muslims in India, Dr. Tara Chand rightly observes "the
Musalmans made their advent in south India on the western coast as early
as the eighth century if not earlier, and in the tenth century on the eastern
coast; that they soon spread over the whole coast and in a comparatively
short time acquired great influence both in politics and in society........ on
the one side their leaders became ministers, admirals, ambassadors and
farmers of revenue and on the other they made many converts, propagated
their religious ideas, established mosques and erected tombs which became
centres of activities of their saints and missionaries.”49

The background of the early Muslim settlers in northern India

was different. They came as invaders, or with invaders, in recurring
segments of immigration.50 In the Punjab Muslims were found as a local
community only after the invasion of Turkish conqueror Sultan Mahmud of
Ghazni in the eleventh century A.D. During the years from 1000 to 1026

47. Ibid-p-l.
48. Ibid-p.p-1,2.
49. Tara Chand, Influence o f Islam on Indian Culture; p-43.; Ibid. P.8.; and Mohini Kr.
Saikia, Assam Muslim Relations and its Cultural Significance p-1.
50. K..S. Lai, Early Muslim in India, p-6 .
 16

A.D. Mahmud invaded India no fewer than 17 times. In course of these inva­
sions many Muslims, who came with the soldiers, permanently remained in
the various parts o f northern India. Similar case also happened during the in­

vasions of Shihabuddin Muhammad Ghori or Muhammad of Ghor. During the

years 1175-1179 A.D. he occupied Uch, Sindh, Multan and Peshawar and
made an unsuccessful attempt to sack Gujarat. In 1192 A.D. he defeated and
killed the Rajput prince Prithviraj Chauhan in the second battle of Tarain and

conquered his territory.51 The fall of Prithviraj and the dissensions among the
Rajput princes made it easy for Muhammad Ghori to conquer the whole re­

gion from the Punjab to Varanasi within a short period of time. Muhammad
then left Qutubuddin Aibak in India as his Viceroy. By the close of the thir-
' teenth century the Mahammadans established their authority over Bihar and

Bengal.52
Thus in between the eleventh and late twelfth century, there sprang

up many Muslim settlements in all over the northern India, although in small

numbers. Examining all these facts regarding the living of early Muslim set­

tlers and their activities in India, K.S.Lal has been found to have mentioned
"the early settlers lived in small pockets scattered in many parts of the country

like - Sindh,Gujarat, the Malabar and Coromandel coasts as well as in Kash­

mir and the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Their major activities were trade

and commerce." 53 Moreover, after the rise o f the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 A.D.

the Muslim invaders began to settle permanently in the midst of a vastly numer­
ous Hindu population. Their number was increased continuously by immigration

from across the north-western frontier o f the country, by conversions and by

51. Mohini Kr. Saikia, Assam Muslim Relations and its Cultural Significance p-13.

52. Ibid-p-13.

53. K.S. Lai. Early Muslim in India, p-9.

 17

birth. While an insignificant number of people could have been proselytized

due to courtly or official influence, the vast masses of Muslims of Indian

origin had accepted Islam voluntarily. This produced immense changes in
India. It is reported that there remained a constant contact, commercial and

cultural, between these Muslims and the indigenous Hindus . It was through

such contacts that these two communities came closer and this led to the de­
velopment of mutual understanding and toleration.

From the discussion made above, it becom es clear that in the

fields o f social and religious thoughts, a process o f give and take had been

continuing between Hindus and Muslims since long before the rise of the

Muhammadan empire o f India. "In philosophical and religious thoughts," as

Dr. Radhakrishnan observes, "there were a number o f schools, both among

Hindu and Muslim thinkers..........................some borrowed elements from

one another, but others tried to find a synthesis between the two."54 Dr. Tara

Chand has also justly observed that "in the give and take o f culture between

the Muslims and Indians it is difficult to assess accurately the share of

each."55

In conclusion, it may be said that by the close o f the thirteenth

century, Muslims had firmly settled down in India. It has been estimated that

there were more or less a million Muslims in 1290 or 1300 A.D. These

comprised early traders and merchants, those who cam e with invaders and

made India their home, like soldiers of fortune, slaves, scholars, administrators

and sufis and indigenous people converted to Islam.56

54. Mohini Kr. Saikia, Assam Muslim Relation and its Cultural Significance, p-18.

55. Ibid, p-18.

56. K.S. Lai, Early Muslim in India, p-113.