CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The current state of international relations can be characterized by a high degree of global

interconnection. This shift in international affairs has been driven by several factors:

technological advancements in information and communications, increased movement of people,

dominance of the free trade economy, transnational crime and security threats and the growing

concern over the global environment. These changes in the international sphere have called for a

more open, cooperative and technologically-based approach to the way state affairs are

conducted (Shaun, 2003).

The idea that looking within states to understand interactions between states is certainly not new,

decades ago, according to Rosenau (1969) who argued that studies of international politics would

be advanced by examining more closely the linkage between domestic political systems and their

implications for international affairs. One can find such a perspective in Thucydides, and it is

emphasized by Russell & Wright (1933) in one of the first modern, analytic treatments of

international relations. As they argued in 1933, “Students of international relations are concerned

with the description, prediction, and control of the external behavior of states, particularly of

their more violent types of behavior such as intervention, hostilities, and war. It is clear that mere

description of a diplomatic or military event has little meaning by itself and that such an event

can neither be predicted nor controlled unless account is taken of the circumstances which

preceded it within [emphasis added] each of the states involved” (Russell & Wright 1933).

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Diplomacy has been one of the few areas of statecraft which faces contradictory changes due to

these shifts. In the contemporary world, diplomacy is no longer solely the business of nation-

state governments and has expanded to include interactions with civil society, corporate leaders,

academics, celebrities and other influential entities. Consequently, the work of ministries of

foreign affairs stands in the centre of controversies between secrecy and openness, exclusion and

inclusion, domestic and international. ‘New age’ diplomacy has emerged as a multifunctional

gate or an ‘agent of comprehension’ (Jan, 2007) between the domestic and international spheres.

However, most foreign policy practitioners are still hesitant to transition into the realm of public

affairs, to incorporate business approaches into their work and ultimately to act as ‘managers of

globalisation’ (Ernst, 2011).

The challenge to diplomacy for numerous Western countries has become domestic in nature.

Although serious tensions exist concerning the global institutional architecture, these do not

constitute the existential threat of the 1930s. Unlike in that earlier era, there has been no outright

abandonment of international organizations (IOs), as punctuated by the failure of the League of

Nations (Thakur, 2013). Rather than disappearing, IOs have proliferated, albeit with a bias

towards informal self-selected forums including the G20 and the Financial Stability Board. Nor

does the world’s geo-political environment include a cluster of totalitarian states bent on

territorial expansion by military means. In many ways, liberal internationalism continues to hold

sway, at least as judged by the degree of complex interdependence. Instead of the hold of

autarchy (with large national champions having exclusive authority in zones of control), it is the

image of hyper-globalization that defines the 21 st century. The aspect of diplomacy that appears

to remain quite stable is how diplomatic corps in both small and large capitals tend to merge into

collective entities. This indicates that there are perhaps some common rules and regulations that,

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when put together, constitute something of a diplomatic culture. Based on diplomacy’s apparent

ability to manage international change, could the contemporary rules and conventions guiding

diplomacy provide the structural framework needed to help maintain international stability and

peace (Kolodziej, 2000).

Massive corporations are not the only victors from this situation, since large NGOs (Oxfam,

MSF) and philanthropic bodies (The Gates Foundation) have benefited as well. Moreover,

reflecting this kind of pluralism, it is no longer a hegemonic or unipolar era. Rather there is

ample space particularly for big state actors beyond the West (above all the BRICS, including

China, India, Brazil, and South Africa as well as Russia) and outside the traditional

establishment of the G7/8 to exert influence. Indeed, at the recent 2018 BRICS summit in

Johannesburg, the BRICS positioned themselves as defenders of the multilateral economic order

(Putnam, 1988).

At the core of the current dilemma is not whether diplomacy (and diplomats situated in foreign

ministries) is in the process of disappearing on the global stage but rather that these forms of

institution and machinery are contested and stigmatized domestically by populist forces. Akin to

the challenge confronting other institutions, diplomacy is viewed as being a constraining

instrument, part of a self-serving and controlling establishment. Whereas nationalists

differentiate horizontally between those in and outside (the other) the nation state, populists

differentiate on a down/up basis with antagonism between the elite and ‘the people’ as underdog

(Kolodziej, 2000).

Diplomacy is an essential tool for the effective management of international relations. It is a

means of conducting negotiations, building relationships, and resolving disputes between states.

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It is the art of managing international relations, negotiating agreements, and representing the

interests of one's country in dealings with other nations. Diplomacy is vital to the peaceful

resolution of conflicts, the promotion of economic development, and the establishment of

international cooperation (Melissen, 2005). Diplomacy is a fundamental tool for promoting

national interests and achieving foreign policy objectives. However, domestic challenges can

often undermine the effectiveness of diplomacy, thereby hindering the achievement of foreign

policy goals.

Nigeria is one of the most populous countries in Africa and is a major player in the continent's

political and economic landscape. Nigeria's foreign policy is guided by the principle of

promoting regional and global peace and security, fostering economic development, and

advancing the interests of the African continent. Nigeria has been active in international affairs,

playing a significant role in peacekeeping missions and regional organizations such as the

African Union (AU) and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).

However, Nigeria's foreign policy has been constrained by domestic challenges, including

political instability, ethnic and religious tensions, corruption, and poor governance (Acharya,

2014).

This research aims to examine the domestic challenges to diplomacy in Nigeria and their impact

on the country's foreign policy objectives. By exploring these issues, this study will provide

insights into the complex interplay between domestic and foreign policy in Nigeria and other

developing countries.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

Nigeria's diplomatic engagements have been hindered by several domestic challenges. These

challenges have contributed to a decline in the country's international reputation and influence.

Although global political and social systems are forever changing, the relevance and importance

of diplomacy as a tool of international relations remains as pressing as ever. Ministries of foreign

affairs (MFAs) and their professionally trained diplomats remain highly significant actors in the

conduct of international affairs, despite fundamental changes to the Westphalian state system.

The institution of diplomacy has indeed shown remarkable resilience and an ability to adapt to

change rather than withering away as some observers have suggested. Although it has changed

shape to accommodate new actors, concerns and technology, the basic element of diplomacy

remains the same, namely the resolution of international conflicts in a peaceful manner by means

of communication, negotiation and information-gathering. The effectiveness of diplomacy is

often dependent on the domestic situation of a country. Domestic challenges such as political

instability, ethnic and religious tensions, corruption, and poor governance can undermine a

country's ability to conduct effective diplomacy. In the case of Nigeria, these domestic

challenges have had a significant impact on the country's foreign policy objectives.

Despite Nigeria's significant role in regional and global affairs, the country has been plagued by

domestic challenges that have affected its foreign policy agenda. The country's political

instability, ethnic and religious tensions, and corruption have all contributed to a challenging

diplomatic environment. Little attention has been given to examining the impact of domestic

challenges on diplomacy in Nigeria. Therefore, this study seeks to fill this gap by providing a

comprehensive analysis of the domestic challenges to diplomacy in Nigeria.

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1.3 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide this study:

i. What are the domestic challenges to diplomacy in Nigeria?

ii. How have these domestic challenges impacted Nigeria's foreign policy objectives?

iii. What measures can be taken to address the domestic challenges to diplomacy in Nigeria

and enhance the country's foreign policy effectiveness?

1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The main objectives of this study are as follows:

i. To identify the domestic challenges to diplomacy in Nigeria

ii. To examine the impact of these challenges on Nigeria's foreign policy objectives

iii. To suggest measures that can be taken to address the domestic challenges to diplomacy in

Nigeria and enhance the country's foreign policy effectiveness.

1.5 Assumptions of the Study

The following assumptions will guide this study:

i. Diplomacy is an essential tool for promoting Nigeria’s national interests and achieving its

foreign policy objectives.

ii. Domestic challenges in Nigeria can undermine the effectiveness of diplomacy and impact

a country's foreign policy objectives.

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1.6 Significance of the Study

This study is significant in several ways. First, it will provide insights into the complex interplay

between domestic and foreign policy in Nigeria and other developing countries. Second, it will

contribute to the existing literature on diplomacy and foreign policy by exploring the impact of

domestic challenges on a country's diplomatic efforts. Third, it will help policymakers and

diplomats to understand the factors that affect their ability to engage in effective diplomacy; also

it will provide policymakers and practitioners with recommendations for addressing the domestic

challenges to diplomacy in Nigeria and enhancing the country's foreign policy effectiveness. It

will contribute to improving Nigeria's international reputation and influence by providing

recommendations on how to address the domestic challenges to diplomacy.

1.7 Scope and Limitations of the Study

This study focuses on the domestic challenges to diplomacy in Nigeria. The study will use a case

study approach to examine these challenges and their impact on Nigeria's diplomatic relations.

The study will also provide recommendations on how to address these challenges. The study is

limited in part to the information available from books, journals, books and internet resources.

Just like any other research, ranging from unavailability of needed accurate materials on the

topic under study, inability to get data, financial constraint will be faced by the researcher, in

getting relevant materials. Also, time factor pose another constraint since having to shuttle

between writing of the research and also engaging in other academic work making it uneasy for

the researcher. Despite the limitation, the researcher will use the available materials judiciously

is arrived at a logical conclusion.

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1.8 Clarification of Key Terms

Diplomacy: Diplomacy refers to the art and practice of conducting negotiations between nations.

Diplomacy is essential to the management of international relations, as it allows countries to

engage in peaceful dialogue and negotiate solutions to conflicts without resorting to war.

Diplomats typically represent their countries in foreign affairs, and their role is to promote their

country's interests while maintaining positive relations with other nations. Diplomatic efforts can

take many forms, including diplomatic missions, international agreements, treaties, and summits.

Domestic challenges: Domestic challenges are issues or problems that arise within a country's

borders and affect its ability to pursue its foreign policy objectives. These challenges can include

economic, political, social, and environmental issues, such as poverty, corruption, ethnic and

religious tensions, political instability, natural disasters, and environmental degradation.

Domestic challenges can have a significant impact on a country's foreign policy and can limit its

ability to engage effectively in international affairs.

Foreign policy: Foreign policy refers to a government's strategy for dealing with other nations.

Foreign policy typically focuses on promoting national interests and securing the country's

position in the international community. Foreign policy can include a range of activities, such as

diplomatic efforts, military alliances, trade agreements, and humanitarian aid. Foreign policy can

be influenced by a range of factors, including national security concerns, economic interests,

cultural values, and geopolitical considerations.

National interest: National interest refers to the goals and objectives that a country seeks to

achieve in its foreign policy. National interest typically focuses on promoting economic

prosperity, national security, and global influence. The pursuit of national interest can involve a

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range of activities, such as promoting trade, developing alliances, and engaging in military

interventions. The concept of national interest is often controversial, as it can be interpreted in

different ways and can sometimes lead to policies that are perceived as being detrimental to other

nations or the global community.

1.9 Organization of Chapters

Chapter one consist of introduction and a background of the study, statement of research

problem, research questions, objectives of the study, assumption of the study, significance of the

study, scope and limitation, definition of key terms and organization of chapters. Chapter two

will consist of literature review of related works thematically presented and theoretical

framework. Chapter three will consist of methodology, methods of data collection and analysis.

Chapter four will consist of data presentation and analysis. The last which is chapter five will

consist of summary, conclusion and recommendations.

Note:

This chapter is more than just an introduction; it's a request to join us on a quest for

understanding. It opens the door to the complexities and nuances of Nigeria's diplomacy,

presenting a backdrop against which we'll unravel the challenges that have sculpted the nation's

foreign relations. Our study delves into Nigeria's unique diplomatic landscape, one shaped by

political ebbs and flows, diverse cultures, economic intricacies, and the persistent specter of

security concerns. The chapter serves as a guiding light into the chapters that follow, igniting

your curiosity, and inspiring you to delve deeper into the pages of our study.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Introduction

Diplomacy is an essential aspect of international relations that involves the management of

communication and negotiation between countries. Domestic challenges can have a significant

impact on a country's ability to engage in effective diplomacy, particularly in the African context

where the challenges are often complex and multifaceted. Nigeria, as a major player in African

diplomacy, has faced several domestic challenges over the years that have had significant

implications for its diplomatic relations with other countries. Therefore, this literature review

will examine the domestic challenges to diplomacy in Nigeria, using a case study approach to

explore the strategies employed by Nigerian leaders in addressing these challenges. Specifically,

the review will focus on the post-colonial era, where Nigeria has had to grapple with issues such

as political instability, ethnic tensions, economic challenges, and security threats. By analyzing

the existing literature on this topic, this review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the

domestic challenges faced by Nigeria in its diplomatic relations and to identify key strategies that

can be employed to address these challenges. Ultimately, this review seeks to contribute to the

understanding of the complexities of diplomacy in Nigeria and to inform future research on this

important topic.

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2.2 Diplomacy

Diplomacy is a very important concept in the study of international relations. It consists of the

techniques and procedures for conducting relations among states. Certainly, diplomacy remains

the only normal means for conducting international relations and the opposite is war. It embraces

a multitude of interests, from the simplest matter of details in the relations between two states to

vital issues of war and peace. When it breaks down, the danger of war or at least a major crisis is

looming. Indeed, diplomacy is that great engine used by civilised states for maintaining peace.

Diplomacy has no universally acceptable definition. However, the following will suffice. The

Oxford English Dictionary conceives diplomacy as (Suto, (n.d) :

a) The management of international relations by negotiation;

b) The method by which these relations are adjusted and managed by ambassadors and

envoys;

c) The business or art of the diplomatist;

d) Skill or address in the conduct of international intercourse or negotiations.

Sir Ernest Satow defines diplomacy as the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of

official relations between the governments of independent states… the conduct of business

between states by peaceful means (Rana, 2004).

2.2.1 Origins and Development of Diplomacy

The endemic nature of conflict in the international system makes it imperative for states and

other international actors to device ways of ameliorating its consequences, reducing its intensity

and finding ways to bring the belligerents to a state of peace. These measures come under the

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rubric, conflict resolution mechanisms. Outside the use of force, diplomacy offers the best

mechanism for ameliorating conflict in the international system (Agbu, 2006).

To be sure, diplomacy in one form or the other has been in practice ever since human beings

organised themselves into separate and distinct socio-political units. These social units had to

interact, establish contact, seek or exchange information, collaborate or resolve disputes among

themselves. They had to employ messengers to facilitate communication. In recognition of the

strategic nature of their functions, messengers became accredited and were treated as sacred and

inviolate. They carried emblems of authority from their sovereigns or communities and were

received and treated with elaborate ceremonial (Ademola, 2013).

These processes led to the evolution of diplomacy, which refers to the practices and institutions

through which interacting actors conduct their relations. As a paradigm, diplomacy operates

within the realm of international relations and foreign policy. Diplomacy lubricates the

international system and can be use to advance the interest of all actors, state and non-state.

Although diplomacy often seeks to preserve the peace and employs negotiation as its chief

instrument, sometimes actors find it necessary and expedient to employ coercion, threats and

intimidatory tactics to compel their adversaries to follow a particular line of action. However,

irrespective of the method employed negotiation or coercion diplomacy’s success and

effectiveness depends on a number of variables, the most important being the relative power of

the actors involved (Adeyemo, 2013).

Historically, the earliest records of interstate diplomacy date from 2850 BCE. These are records

of treaties between Mesopotamian city-states. For much of this period, Akkadian, the Babylonian

language, served as the language of international diplomacy in the Middle East until Aramaic

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replaced it much later. Ancient Egyptian diplomatic records date back to the 14thcentury BCE.

In Biblical lore, the Apostle Paul described himself as an ambassador in the second letter to the

Church of Corinth. The term ambassador is derived from Medieval Latin, ambactiare, meaning,

"to go on a mission. The word gained currency in Italy in the late 20 th century and by the 15th

century had become the common title for the envoys of secular rulers. The papacy continued to

use the term legates and nuncios for its own diplomatic emissaries (Kerr & Wiseman, 2001).

Modern diplomacy began in Renaissance Italy. Commercial success made it imperative for the

Italian city-states to devote attention to establishing and maintaining diplomatic contact with

other states in order to minimise risk and enhance prosperity. Venice pioneered the process of

giving written instructions to envoys and maintaining an archive of diplomatic correspondence.

Other Italian city-states copied the practice, and by the late 15th century, resident embassies had

become the norm throughout Italy. From there the practice spread to France and Spain until it

covered Europe. From Europe, the practice spread throughout the world. Undoubtedly, the

diplomacy of the courts entered its golden age in the 18th century. The game came to be played

according to well-understood rules, with a great deal of glitter on the surface but with much

incompetence and intrigue beneath. Diplomats represented their sovereigns, and often were

merely the willing tools in the great contests for empire and for European supremacy, which

dominated that century. Strong rulers like Peter the Great of Russia and Frederick the Great of

Prussia used diplomacy and force, as the occasion seemed to demand, to achieve their ends

(Brian, 2015).

As diplomacy became less formal and restricted, its rules became more standardised and more

generally accepted. The Congress of Vienna made particularly important contributions in this

respect. To place diplomacy on a more systematic and formal basis, the Congress laid down

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certain rules of procedure that regulate diplomatic practices until date. These rules were

embodied in the Reglement of March 19, 1815, and in regulations of the Congress of Aix-Ia-

Chapelle in 1818. The diplomatic hierarchy thus established consisted of four ranks or classes of

representatives (Berridge, 2010):

a) Ambassadors, papal legates, and papal nuncios;

b) Envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary;

c) Ministers resident, later merged with the second rank: and

d) Charges d'affaires.

The question of precedence in a particular country was resolved by providing that the order of

priority within each- rank should be based on the length of service in that country rather than on

the more subjective basis of the relative importance of the sovereign or country, the diplomat

represented. The ambassador who was senior in terms of length of service in a country should be

doyen or dean of the diplomatic corps in that country. Since the papacy, as a general practice,

changed its representatives less frequently than most states, many of the deans at foreign capitals

were papal representatives. The Vienna conventions of 1961 and1963, constituted an effort to

state the commonly accepted rules regarding the status of diplomatic officials (Berridge, 1995).

2.2.2. Types of Diplomacy

Democratic Diplomacy

By the early 20th century, the term democratic diplomacy had become part of the diplomatic

vocabulary. It seemed to symbolise a new order in international affairs one in which

governments were fast losing their aristocratic leanings and their aloofness, and peoples were

speaking to peoples through democratic representatives and informal channels. In effect, the new

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order was not as different from the old as it seemed in the atmosphere of hope that ushered in the

20th century. While diplomacy remained a rather esoteric profession, carried on by men of

wealth and influence and power, it was conducted with the assistance of a growing number of

career officers, the elite guard of diplomacy, whose standards of competence and training were

being steadily raised. However, experience in democratic diplomacy has been disappointing.

In a brilliant chapter in his Diplomacy, Nicolson calls attention to some of the evils of

democratic diplomacy. The first and most potent source of danger, he declares, is their

responsibility of the sovereign people. The second is ignorance, arising not so much from a lack

of facts as from the failure of the ordinary citizen to apply to the general theory of foreign affairs

that thought and intelligence which he devotes to domestic matters. In other words, foreign

affairs are too foreign to the citizens of a state, and their implications are difficult to grapple.

Coercive Diplomacy

Coercive diplomacy employs threat or limited force to persuade an opponent to call off or undo

an encroachment. It emphasises the use of threats and the exemplary use of limited force to

persuade an opponent to back down. In fact, the strategy of coercive diplomacy calls for using

just enough force to demonstrate resolution to protect one's interests and to emphasise the

credibility of one's determination to use more force if necessary. In coercive diplomacy, one

gives the opponent an opportunity to stop or back off before employing force or escalating its

use, as the British did in the early stages of the Falklands dispute in 1982. Coercive diplomacy

encapsulates the instruments of bargaining and negotiation.

Coercive diplomacy offers the possibility of achieving one’s objective economically, with little

bloodshed, fewer political and psychological costs, and often with much less risk of escalation

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than does traditional military strategy. For this reason, it is often a beguiling strategy. Leaders of

militarily powerful countries are tempted to believe that they can with little risk to themselves,

intimidate weaker opponents to give up their gains and objectives. If the opponent refuses to be

threatened and, in effect calls the bluff of the coercing power, the latter must then decide whether

to back off or to escalate the use of force. For instance, Lyndon Johnson, in his unsuccessful use

of air power against Hanoi in 1965 decided to back off.

Essentially, it is pertinent to identify the conditions necessary for successful employment of this

strategy, since in their absence even a superpower will flounder in attempt to intimidate a weak

opponent and find itself drawn into a costly or prolonged conflict. Three principal conditions are

important for the success of coercive diplomacy:

a) The coercing power must create in the opponent’s mind a sens of urgency for compliance

with its demand.

b) A belief that the coercing power is more highly motivated to achieve its stated demand

than the opponent is to oppose it.

c) The threat to escalate conflict if the opponent fails to meet the demand.

Generally, what one demands of the opponent can affect the balance of motivation. If one

demands a great deal, the opponent’s motivation not to comply will likely be very high. The

essentials and drawbacks of the strategy of coercive diplomacy have long been established.

Although its use in the European balance-of-power era was evidently not systematically

articulated, it was part of the conventional wisdom of statesmen in the business of statecraft and

diplomacy.

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Indeed, coercive diplomacy bears a close resemblance to the ultimata that were often employed

in the conduct of European diplomacy. A full-blown ultimatum has three components: a specific,

clear demand on the opponent; time limit for compliance; and a threat of punishment for

noncompliance. These conditions are both credible and sufficiently potent to impress upon the

opponent that compliance, is preferable. There are several variants of coercive diplomacy. In

addition to the full- ultimatum version of the strategy already mentioned, there is the try-and-see

approach. In this variant of the strategy, only the first element of an ultimatum, a specific and

clear demand, is conveyed and the coercing power does not announce a time limit or attempt to

create a strong sense of urgency for compliance.

The successful use of coercive diplomacy by President Kennedy in the Cuban missile crisis

of1962 enabled him to strike a deal with Nikita Khrushchev to remove his missiles from Cuba. It

is on record that Kennedy and Khrushchev did negotiate and agree upon a quid pro quo, which

ended the missile crisis, Khrushchev agreeing to remove the missiles and bombers in return for

Kennedy’s pledge not to invade Cuba. Therefore, Coercive diplomacy is best conceived as a

flexible strategy in which what the stick cannot achieve alone, one can possibly obtain by adding

a carrot.

Gunboat Diplomacy

The use of gunboat diplomacy in IR has become a common phenomenon since the early

20thcentury. In fact, the 20th century introduced new and disturbing problems into international

relations. The emergence of European states with ruthless and insatiable thirst for territorial

expansion and colonies in Africa, Asia and South America brought in the new concept of

gunboat diplomacy. They presented a fundamental challenge to human freedoms everywhere by

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their subordination of the individual to the collective will determined by a few men at the top.

They had worldwide propaganda to disguise or hide aggressive policies, and by their

contemptuous power projection beyond their shores to acquire more territories.

Quite often, the colonising powers browbeat the native rulers in Africa and Asia into signing

bogus treaties. The British clearly demonstrated the art of gunboat diplomacy in a disputed

succession in Lagos in 1851. In a brazen demonstration of naval power, the British deposed

Kosoko and installed Akintoye to the Lagos throne. Thereafter, a succession of British officials

employed gunboat diplomacy in former Northern and Southern Nigeria to reduce African

resistance to a barest minimum. By 1914, Britain had succeeded in making herself the new

paramount ruler over Nigeria. This explains why T.N. Tamuno posits that; British rule in Nigeria

was in the final analysis buttressed by force or the threat of using it. In fact, with gunboat

diplomacy, these maritime powers utilised modem techniques of military, political, and

psychological power to expand their dominions, gain control of other states, and subverted other

regimes (Moor & Wesseling, 1989).

Generally, they invoked strange doctrines of racial superiority, materialism, and militarism in

furtherance of their ends. They used diplomacy as an instrument of national policy, but in doing

so, they degraded its language and its practice. Diplomats became agents of conquest, double-

dealing, and espionage, whose business was not to work for peaceful international relations but

to provoke dissension rather than understanding - to make the leaders and peoples of other

nations weak, blind, and divided in the face of the growing colonial menace. The era of gunboat

diplomacy, speaking softly and carrying a big stick, seems decidedly outdated and increasingly

inconceivable in the practical relations of the international system in the 21st century.

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Today, diplomatic relation is the hallmark of international relations. Without the value of

diplomacy in world politics, the present world system (without World Government) would have

been too chaotic, jungle-like and anarchical for the survival of human civilization. Every issue

begs diplomacy.

Every relation invites diplomacy. The making of either war or peace relies on diplomacy (Eze,

2011:136). Diplomacy is about tact and strategy in the handling of international relations. It is a

means of achieving foreign policy goals of a sovereign state by peaceful means through

negotiation. It can also be seen as the conduct of relations between states and other entities with

standing in world politics, by official agents and by peaceful means. Diplomacy ensures that

peace reigns among the sovereign states. The central goal of diplomacy is the attainment of

peaceful co - existence in the world. Diplomacy can be described as an art of communication.

Through diplomacy, the gathering and passing of information from one country to other

countries has been enhanced. And this helps to create awareness of the economic potentials of

one's country thereby attracting investors to her.

2.3 Overview of Nigeria's diplomacy

Nigeria's diplomacy has undergone significant transformations over the years, from its early days

as a British colony to its emergence as a major regional power in Africa. This section provides an

overview of Nigeria's diplomatic history, highlighting some of the key developments, challenges,

and achievements that have shaped the country's foreign policy.

According to Olusakin, (2019) during the colonial period, Nigeria's foreign relations were largely

managed by the British colonial authorities. After gaining independence in 1960, Nigeria

established its own foreign policy, which was initially focused on promoting African unity and

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supporting the decolonization process on the continent. Nigeria played a key role in the

formation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963, which later became the African

Union (AU).

In the 1970s and 1980s, Nigeria's foreign policy shifted towards non-alignment and a more

assertive stance on regional and global issues. This period was marked by Nigeria's leading role

in the struggle against apartheid in South Africa and its involvement in peacekeeping operations

in Liberia and Sierra Leone. However, Nigeria's diplomatic influence was also weakened by

domestic challenges, including political instability, corruption, and economic decline. In the

1990s and 2000s, Nigeria's foreign policy underwent further changes, with a greater focus on

economic diplomacy and regional integration. Nigeria became a member of the Economic

Community of West African States (ECOWAS) in 1975 and played a key role in the

establishment of the West African Monetary Zone and the African Union's New Partnership for

Africa's Development (NEPAD) program (Alabi, 2015).

More recently, Nigeria has faced a range of new diplomatic challenges, including the rise of

Boko Haram insurgency in the northeast, the separatist movement in the southeast, and the

growing tensions between farmers and herders in the Middle Belt region. Nigeria has also been

affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, which has disrupted global trade and travel and forced the

government to adopt new measures to manage its international relations.

Nigeria's diplomacy has been shaped by a combination of historical, geopolitical, economic, and

domestic factors. In the early years of independence, Nigeria's foreign policy was marked by a

strong commitment to promoting African unity and solidarity, as well as supporting the

decolonization process across the continent. Nigeria played a key role in the formation of the

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Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963, which later became the African Union (AU)

(CFR, 2021).

According to Maitama (2015) despite these challenges, Nigeria remains a key player in African

diplomacy, due to its large population, abundant natural resources, and strategic location in West

Africa. Nigeria has continued to participate actively in multilateral organizations such as the

United Nations, the African Union, and ECOWAS, and has played a key role in regional peace

and security initiatives. Nigeria's foreign policy has also been influenced by its relationship with

key partners such as the United States, China, and the European Union. Nigeria has sought to

balance its engagement with these global powers, while also promoting its own interests and

priorities.

Despite these challenges, Nigeria has continued to play an important role in regional and global

affairs, through its participation in multilateral organizations such as the United Nations and its

efforts to promote peace and security in the region. With its large population, abundant natural

resources, and strategic location in West Africa, Nigeria is poised to remain a key player in

African diplomacy for the foreseeable future.

Nigeria's diplomacy has undergone significant transformations over the years, reflecting the

country's changing domestic and international environment. While facing new challenges and

opportunities, Nigeria remains a key player in African diplomacy and has the potential to

continue shaping the future of the continent.

2.4 Domestic Challenges to Diplomacy in Nigeria

Domestic challenges to diplomacy in Nigeria have been a persistent obstacle to the country's

foreign policy objectives. These challenges have ranged from political instability, corruption,

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ethnic and religious conflicts, to economic decline. Since gaining independence in 1960, Nigeria

has faced a range of domestic challenges that have had a significant impact on its diplomacy.

This literature review focuses on the post-colonial era and examines how Nigerian leaders have

grappled with issues such as political instability, ethnic tensions, economic challenges, and

security threats in their foreign policy strategies (Osaghae & Rotimi, 2005).

Political instability has been a persistent challenge to Nigeria's diplomacy. Since independence,

Nigeria has experienced numerous military coups and political crises, which have often led to the

disruption of diplomatic ties and the suspension of foreign aid. In response, Nigerian leaders

have employed various strategies to address political instability, including promoting democracy

and good governance, strengthening institutions, and engaging in dialogue and negotiation with

domestic and international stakeholders (Tella, 2019).

A study by Chukwuma & Edomobi (2016) examines the impact of political instability on

Nigeria's diplomacy in the post-colonial era. The authors highlight the role of Nigerian leaders in

promoting democratic governance and improving institutions as key strategies in addressing

political instability. The study also emphasizes the importance of regional cooperation and

collaboration in promoting stability in Nigeria's foreign policy.

Ethnic tensions and conflicts have also posed significant challenges to Nigeria's diplomacy.

Nigeria is home to over 250 ethnic groups, and ethnic tensions have often led to violence and

instability. Nigerian leaders have employed various strategies to address ethnic tensions,

including promoting dialogue and negotiation, implementing inclusive policies, and deploying

peacekeeping forces.

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A study by Ojukwu & Agbaeze (2017) examines Nigeria's approach to managing ethnic tensions

in its foreign policy. The authors highlight the role of dialogue and negotiation in addressing

ethnic conflicts, and note the importance of inclusive policies and community engagement in

promoting peace and stability. The study also emphasizes the need for sustained efforts to

address the root causes of ethnic tensions, including inequality and marginalization.

Economic challenges have also posed significant obstacles to Nigeria's diplomacy. The country

has faced numerous economic crises, including inflation, debt, and unemployment. Nigerian

leaders have employed various strategies to address these challenges, including promoting

economic reforms, attracting foreign investment, and diversifying the economy.

A study by Odubogun & Olayinka (2018) examines Nigeria's economic diplomacy in the post-

colonial era. The authors highlight the role of economic reforms and diversification in addressing

economic challenges, and note the importance of international cooperation and partnerships in

promoting economic growth and development. The study also emphasizes the need for sustained

efforts to address structural constraints and promote inclusive economic growth.

Finally, security threats have posed significant challenges to Nigeria's diplomacy. The country

has faced numerous security threats, including terrorism, insurgency, and violent extremism.

Nigerian leaders have employed various strategies to address these threats, including deploying

security forces, promoting regional cooperation, and engaging in dialogue and negotiation with

domestic and international stakeholders. A study by Onuoha & Abubakar (2019) examines

Nigeria's approach to managing security threats in its foreign policy. The authors highlight the

role of regional cooperation and collaboration in addressing security threats, and note the

importance of dialogue and negotiation in promoting peace and stability. The study also

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emphasizes the need for sustained efforts to address the root causes of insecurity, including

poverty, inequality, and marginalization.

One significant domestic challenge to Nigeria's diplomacy has been political instability. Nigeria

has experienced numerous military coups and political crises since gaining independence in

1960. These events have had a significant impact on Nigeria's foreign relations, as they have

often led to the disruption of diplomatic ties and the suspension of foreign aid. In response,

Nigerian leaders have employed a range of strategies to address political instability and maintain

their diplomatic relations. A case study by Adekeye & Okeke (2019) examines the role of

President Muhammadu Buhari in promoting political stability and improving Nigeria's image

abroad. The study highlights Buhari's anti-corruption campaign and his efforts to improve

governance and promote transparency as key strategies in addressing political instability. The

authors note that Buhari's efforts have led to improved relations with international partners such

as the United States and the United Kingdom, and have helped to attract foreign investment to

Nigeria. Another key domestic challenge to Nigeria's diplomacy has been corruption. Corruption

has been identified as a significant obstacle to Nigeria's foreign policy objectives, as it has

undermined the country's credibility and damaged its international image. Nigerian leaders have

employed various strategies to address corruption, including legal reforms, anti-corruption

agencies, and international cooperation.

A study by Ayoade & Olaniyan (2016) examines Nigeria's efforts to combat corruption in its

foreign relations. The authors highlight the role of the Economic and Financial Crimes

Commission (EFCC) in investigating and prosecuting corrupt officials, and note the importance

of international cooperation in addressing corruption in Nigeria's foreign relations. The study

also highlights the need for continued reforms and strengthened institutions to address corruption

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effectively. Ethnic and religious conflicts have also posed significant challenges to Nigeria's

diplomacy. These conflicts have often led to violence and instability, and have strained Nigeria's

relations with neighboring countries and international partners. Nigerian leaders have employed

various strategies to address ethnic and religious conflicts, including dialogue and negotiation,

peacekeeping operations, and community engagement.

A study by Agwu & Igwe (2021) examines Nigeria's approach to managing ethnic and religious

conflicts in its foreign relations. The authors highlight the role of community engagement and

dialogue in addressing conflicts, and note the importance of inclusive and participatory

approaches to conflict resolution. The study also emphasizes the need for sustained efforts to

promote peace and reconciliation in Nigeria's foreign relations.

In conclusion, the literature review highlights the range of domestic challenges to Nigeria's

diplomacy in the post-colonial era, including political instability, ethnic tensions, economic

challenges, and security threats, including political instability, corruption, and ethnic and

religious conflicts. The studies examined in this review demonstrate the various strategies

employed by Nigerian leaders in addressing these challenges, including promoting democratic

governance, strengthening institutions, engaging in dialogue and negotiation, promoting

economic reforms and diversification, deploying security forces, and promoting regional

cooperation and collaboration. The studies also highlight the importance of continued reforms

and strengthened institutions in addressing these challenges effectively.

2.5 Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework that the researcher adopts for the topic under study, "an examination

of domestic challenges to diplomacy: a case study of Nigeria," is the realist theory of

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international relations. Realism emphasizes the importance of power and the struggle for power

in shaping international relations. It posits that states are the primary actors in the international

system and that they are motivated by self-interest in their interactions with other states. Realism

also recognizes that the international system is anarchic, meaning that there is no central

authority to regulate state behavior and ensure peace and security.

Realism is one of the dominant theories of international relations, emphasizing the importance of

power and self-interest in shaping state behavior in the international system. It posits that states

are the primary actors in the international system and that they operate in an anarchic

environment, with no overarching authority to regulate state behavior or ensure peace and

security (Mearsheimer, 2001).

Realism suggests that states are motivated by their own self-interest, which is often defined as

survival, security, and power. This means that states will act in ways that enhance their own

power and security, even if it comes at the expense of other states. Realists argue that the pursuit

of power is an inherent feature of the international system and that states must take into account

the relative power of other states in their foreign policy decisions (Dunne, et al. 2017).

Realism also suggests that states use various means to pursue their interests, including military

force, economic power, and alliances. Military force is often seen as the ultimate form of power,

as it can be used to protect a state's interests and deter potential threats. Economic power, such as

control over resources and markets, can also be used to influence other states. Alliances, on the

other hand, are partnerships between states that can enhance their collective power and security

(Mearsheimer, 2001).

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Realism as a theoretical framework has had many prominent proponents over the years,

including scholars such as Hans Morgenthau (1940s-1960s); Kenneth Waltz 1970s-2000s; and

John Mearsheimer1980s-present. These scholars have contributed to the development of

different strands of realism, such as classical realism, neorealism, and defensive realism.

It's worth noting that these scholars have contributed to different strands of realism, and their

ideas have evolved over time. For example, Morgenthau is often associated with classical

realism, while Waltz is known for his neorealist approach. Mearsheimer's work has focused on

defensive realism, which emphasizes the importance of balancing power to ensure security

(Mearsheimer, 2001).

2.5.1 Critique of Realism Theory

However, realism as a theory also has some limitations and weaknesses. One of the main

criticisms of realism is that it portrays states as being solely motivated by power and self-interest,

ignoring other factors such as ideology, norms, and ethics. Critics argue that states may also be

motivated by moral considerations, such as the promotion of human rights or environmental

protection, and that these considerations can influence their foreign policy decisions.

Another limitation of realism is that it tends to focus on state behavior at the expense of non-state

actors and other factors that shape international relations, such as international organizations and

civil society groups. This can lead to an oversimplified view of the international system and a

failure to account for the complexity of interactions between different actors.

Finally, critics of realism argue that it can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where states act in

ways that exacerbate tensions and conflicts in the international system, rather than promoting

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cooperation and stability. This can lead to a more confrontational and conflict-prone

international system, which may not be in the long-term interests of any state.

2.5.2 Relevance of the Theory to the Study

In the context of Nigeria's diplomacy, the realist theory helps to explain the country's foreign

policy decisions, particularly its pursuit of strategic alliances and partnerships. The theory

suggests that Nigeria, as a state, is motivated by its own self-interest, which is to enhance its

power and security in the international system. This explains why Nigeria has pursued

partnerships with countries like the United States, China, and India, as well as regional

organizations like the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), to advance its

strategic interests.

Furthermore, the realist theory can help to explain why Nigeria has struggled to effectively

address domestic challenges to diplomacy, such as political instability, ethnic tensions, economic

challenges, and security threats. Realism posits that states are primarily concerned with their own

security and survival, which often leads to a focus on military power and the use of force to

address threats. This may explain why Nigeria has relied heavily on military solutions to address

domestic challenges, such as its fight against Boko Haram insurgency in the northeast.

Overall, the realist theory provides a useful lens through which to analyze Nigeria's diplomacy

and its response to domestic challenges, highlighting the role of power and self-interest in

shaping state behavior in the international system.

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Note:

The intricate world of diplomacy and its intersection with Nigeria's domestic challenges, I am

reminded of the profound impact that these issues have on a nation's identity, global standing,

and the lives of its citizens.

This literature review takes us on a journey through the complex landscape of Nigeria's

diplomacy, where political instability, ethnic and religious tensions, corruption, economic

vulnerabilities, security threats, and governance issues converge to shape the nation's foreign

relations. Through the pages of this review, we explore not only the challenges but also the

potential solutions and recommendations that can steer Nigeria toward a brighter, more

influential role on the international stage.

Nigeria's story is a reflection of the broader challenges that many nations face as they navigate

the ever-evolving realm of global politics. It serves as a testament to the resilience and

determination of a people striving to overcome internal obstacles while seeking to establish

themselves as key players in regional and international affairs.

As you read through the insights and findings presented here, I hope you gain a deeper

understanding of the complexities involved in balancing domestic priorities with international

responsibilities. Moreover, I hope that this literature review sparks discussions, inspires further

research, and encourages proactive steps toward addressing these challenges not only in Nigeria

but across the globe.

Diplomacy, after all, is more than just negotiations between governments; it's about the

aspirations, values, and hopes of nations and their people. May this review shed light on the path

toward a more stable, prosperous, and harmonious future.

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 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with research methodology; attempt is made to describe the steps, process and

methods used in the conduct of this study. To advance in this actual field of study, research

method will be defined.

A research method has to do with the methods adopted by the researcher to collect data, which is

relevant to the issue or problem under consideration. It is a straight, clear and vivid road which

anyone who takes will not fail to reach his destination (Odo, 1999). It reflects to a large extent

the sense of originality and power of mental enquiry. The researcher made use of secondary

source to obtain data.

3.2. Location of the Study

The study's location is Nigeria, a country located in West Africa along the Atlantic Ocean's Gulf

of Guinea. Its land borders are with Benin to the west, Cameroon and Chad to the east

and Niger to the north. Nigeria's main ethnic groups are Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. Nigeria's

capital is Abuja with a total land area of 356,667 square miles (932,768 sq km), coastline of 530

miles (853 km), and highest point Chappal Waddi at 7953 feet (2419 km) (Achebe, 1983).

Nigeria is a large country that has a varied topography. It is located between Benin and

Cameroon. In the south it has lowlands that climb into hills and plateaus in the central part of the

country. In the southeast there are mountains while the north consists mainly of plains.

Nigeria's climate also varies but the center and the south are tropical due to their locations near

30 | P a g e
the equator, while the north is arid. It is the most populous country in Africa and its economy is

considered one of the fastest growing in the world. Nigeria is known for being the regional

center of West Africa (Achebe, 1983).

3.3 Population of the Study

Population of a study for a research has been variously defined by different scholars and their

definitions pointed toward the same direction. Avwokeni (2006:92) refers to population of a

study as the set of all participants that qualify for a study. While Akinade & Owolabi (2009:72)

defined population as the total set of observations from which a sample is drawn. Adeniyi et al

(2011:49) see it as the total number of large habitations of people in one geographical area,

example the population of a country. In a nutshell, we can agree that population means the whole

body of items, objects, materials or people that fall within the geographical location in which a

researcher intends to investigate for his study.

The Nigerian state is undoubtly the highest population in the African continent and indeed the

eight in the global ranking with an estimated/projected population of over 200 million people in

2016 according to the latest census figures (2006). According to the United Nations Department

of Economic and Social Affairs, the estimated population of Nigeria as of 2020 was

206,139,589.

The population of the study will be categorized into two; the Academicians and the Ministry of

Foreign Affairs. For the academicians, three institutions were selected to get the targeted

population, the institution are; Kaduna State University, Kaduna and Ahmadu Bello University,

Zaria. The reason for choosing this particular population is because these population/persons are

actually needed for the conduct of the research.

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3.4 Sampling Techniques and Sample size

This research adopted the stratified random sampling; this is a method in which the

heterogeneous population is first stratified by dividing it into a set of mutually exclusive or non-

overlapping sub-population or strata and therefore random samples are then selected from each

stratum for detailed study (Popoola, 2011). The research further made used of the heterogeneous

population which consist of different categories of participants or elements that have uncommon

characteristics. Giving the nature of the research topic under study the population is divided in

academics/scholars with knowledge of foreign policy from two institutions; Kaduna State

University, and Ahmadu Bello University. Also, the researcher will employ the accessible

population. This refers to the numbers of the members of a target population which are within

the reach of the researcher, work with and obtain their sample for the study due to the

heterogeneous nature of the population.

For the sample size the data saturation method was used. Saturation is a tool used for ensuring

that adequate and quality data are collected to support the study. Saturation is frequently reported

in qualitative research and may be the gold standard. However, the use of saturation within

methods has varied. Data saturation means after a series of interviews, at a point when you start

receiving repetitive responses from the interviewees, this means you have reach the saturation

because no new ideas or information are forth coming which means you have to stop.

3.5 Method of Data Collection

The most crucial operation in the execution of a research is collection of data because such

information and data are necessary for arriving at the solution of the problem being investigated.

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For the purpose of this research both primary and secondary sources of data were used in order

to make the work more reliable.

The primary data was generated through interactions and conducting of interview. The process of

interaction and interview includes scholars with the knowledge of international relation, foreign

policy and foreign affairs. The stratified random sampling technique was used to get the

respondents.

The secondary source of data will be obtained from the review of related literature. In other

words, the researcher consulted published and unpublished books, journal, workshops,

newspapers, magazines, official documents, internet and the researcher made use of Ahmadu

Bello University (ABU) Library and Kaduna State University (KASU) library.

3.6 Method of Data Analysis

Data analysis in the social science research could either be based on quantitative or qualitative

methods of analysis. Thus, in analyzing the data this was done through the method of

interpreting the result and findings transferring data from its gathering instruments to logical and

valid interpretations. The thematic analysis is a method for identifying, analyzing and reporting

patterns within data, which gives the opportunity of organizing and describing the data in details

(Berger, 2001).

In a nutshell, since the data that will be collected by the researcher are sourced from oral

interviews the thematic analysis will became the best option of analysis. According to Braun and

Clark (2006), thematic analysis involves the searching across a data set-be that a number of

interviews or focus group, or a range of texts to find repeated patterns of meaning. From the

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foregoing the various sources identify above was transcribed and analyzed through the use of

content analysis.

Note:

Chapter Three marks a essential stage in our study of Nigeria's domestic challenges to

diplomacy, as it unveils the intricate methods and approaches that have guided our study. The

methodology is more than just a set of techniques; it's a deliberate and thoughtful journey into

the heart of Nigeria's diplomatic intricacies. We've ventured into getting data from secondary

sources through archival analysis, in an effort to paint a comprehensive picture of the challenges

that have shaped Nigeria's foreign policy.

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENATTION AND AANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with data presentation and analysis on the study. It is a testament to the

fundamental principle that data, in its purest form, holds the potential to illuminate the darkest

corners of inquiry. It signifies the bridge that connects the questions posed in the study's

inception with the answers derived from careful data collection and rigorous analysis. It will

embark on a systematic exploration of the dataset, guided by the research questions and

objectives. This exploration will entail using context analysis, thematic coding, or any other

pertinent analytical techniques necessary to unearth patterns, relationships, and trends inherent in

the data.

4.2 The domestic challenges to diplomacy in Nigeria

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Domestic challenges to diplomacy in Nigeria have played a pivotal role in shaping the country's

foreign relations over the years. These challenges have often been complex and multifaceted,

impacting Nigeria's ability to engage in effective diplomacy with other nations. Nigeria, as the

most populous nation in Africa and a regional powerhouse, has always held a central position in

the international arena. However, it is crucial to understand that the success of Nigeria's

diplomacy on the global stage is inextricably linked to its ability to manage internal challenges

effectively. The management of these domestic issues can either enhance or hinder the country's

image and influence abroad.

According to Obi (2016) Nigeria's history has been marked by periods of political instability and

frequent changes in leadership, primarily due to military coups and political crises. These

episodes of instability have had far-reaching implications for the country's ability to maintain

consistent foreign policies and diplomatic relationships, significantly impacting its role in the

international arena. Nigeria's political landscape was tumultuous during the post-colonial period,

particularly in the 1960s and 1970s. Military coups were a recurring phenomenon during this

time, leading to the overthrow of civilian governments and the rise of military regimes. These

coups were often accompanied by political violence and turmoil, which destabilized the nation's

governance structures (Obi, 2016).

Frequent changes in leadership, often abrupt and unpredictable, translated into inconsistencies in

Nigeria's foreign policy. New leaders sometimes introduced different foreign policy directions,

causing confusion among international partners and creating challenges for maintaining a

coherent diplomatic stance. The political instability and leadership changes eroded Nigeria's

credibility on the international stage. International partners questioned the country's ability to

honor commitments and adhere to agreements due to the volatility of its political landscape.

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Nigeria's diplomatic relationships with other countries were often affected by these political

shifts. Alliances forged under one leadership might be reevaluated or abandoned by subsequent

leaders, leading to disruptions in diplomatic engagements (Obi, 2016).

Nigeria has not been passive in the face of these challenges. The country has made efforts to

stabilize its political environment and foster democratic governance since the return to civilian

rule in 1999. These efforts have included constitutional reforms, strengthening democratic

institutions, and addressing issues that contribute to political instability (Ojo, 2019).

Nigeria's diverse population is a hallmark of its identity, but it has also been a source of complex

challenges. The country comprises numerous ethnic groups and religious communities, each with

its own cultural and historical identity. However, these diversities have, at times, ignited ethnic

and religious tensions that have spilled over into Nigeria's foreign policy. Ethnic and religious

tensions can influence Nigeria's diplomatic relations, particularly in the West African region. The

government must navigate these complexities when engaging with neighboring countries, as they

may have their own ethnic or religious ties to communities within Nigeria. The involvement of

ethnicity or religion in foreign policy decisions can complicate diplomatic efforts and sometimes

hinder regional cooperation (Osaghae, 2007).

According to Ojo (2015) corruption and weak governance have posed significant hurdles to

Nigeria's diplomatic efforts. The perception of corruption within the Nigerian government has

undermined trust and credibility in international relations. Corruption can taint diplomatic

engagements, eroding the trust of international partners and making it difficult to secure foreign

investments or negotiate international agreements. The perception of corruption can also lead to

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skepticism among foreign governments about Nigeria's ability to fulfill its diplomatic

commitments (Ojo, 2015).

Economic challenges, including fluctuating oil prices and financial mismanagement, have a

direct impact on Nigeria's diplomatic leverage and its ability to fulfill international commitments.

Economic challenges can constrain Nigeria's capacity to invest in its diplomatic relationships.

For instance, when oil prices plummet, Nigeria's revenue declines, limiting its ability to fund

foreign aid programs or participate in international initiatives. Economic instability can also

deter foreign investors and create uncertainty in diplomatic engagements (Akpotor, 2018).

Nigeria faces various security threats, including the Boko Haram insurgency in the northeast and

communal violence in different regions. These security challenges often require significant

diplomatic efforts to seek international assistance and cooperation. Security threats can be a

central concern in Nigeria's diplomatic relations. The government must engage with foreign

partners to address these challenges, seek support, and collaborate on security measures.

Additionally, the response to security threats can impact Nigeria's image on the global stage and

influence its foreign policy decisions (Onuoha, 2017).

Nigeria's human rights record has been a subject of international scrutiny. Allegations of human

rights abuses and violations have led to diplomatic tensions with some countries and

organizations. Human rights concerns can strain diplomatic relations when foreign governments

or international organizations express dissatisfaction with Nigeria's human rights practices. This

can result in sanctions, trade restrictions, or strained diplomatic ties. Managing such concerns is

crucial for Nigeria's reputation and its diplomatic interactions (Amnesty International, 2020).

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According to Ukeje (2013) resource allocation disputes, particularly concerning the distribution

of oil revenues among different regions in Nigeria, have been a recurring challenge for the

country. These disputes are rooted in the nation's complex federal structure, where various

regions have different levels of access to and dependence on valuable natural resources, most

notably, oil. Oil is the lifeblood of Nigeria's economy, accounting for a substantial portion of

government revenue and foreign exchange earnings. However, the geographical distribution of

oil reserves is highly skewed, with the Niger Delta region in the south being the primary

producer. This regional imbalance has led to resource allocation disputes and diplomatic

tensions.

Nigeria operates under a federal system, which grants certain powers to both the central and state

governments. Resource allocation disputes often revolve around the control and sharing of oil

revenue. The central government retains a significant share, leading to debates about the fair

distribution of funds to the states. The Niger Delta region, despite being the primary oil producer,

has historically suffered from environmental degradation, underdevelopment, and poverty. The

resource allocation disputes primarily center on how oil revenue should be shared with this

region to address these issues. The allocation of oil revenue among the federal, state, and local

governments is governed by a revenue sharing formula. This formula has been a subject of

contentious negotiations and sometimes leads to disputes, as regions seek a larger share of the

revenue (Ukeje, 2013).

Resource allocation disputes can spill over into diplomatic negotiations, particularly when they

involve international oil companies or foreign governments with vested interests in Nigeria's oil

sector. These disputes can affect Nigeria's foreign relations in several ways:

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 a) Investor Confidence: Resource allocation disputes can erode investor confidence,

making foreign companies hesitant to invest in Nigeria's oil industry. This, in turn, can

impact diplomatic relations with countries home to these companies.

b) International Agreements: Diplomatic negotiations may be required to resolve resource

allocation disputes that involve international agreements. These negotiations can strain

bilateral relations.

c) Global Energy Markets: Nigeria's oil production and exports have a significant impact

on global energy markets. Any disruptions resulting from resource allocation disputes can

influence international oil prices and market stability, prompting diplomatic

engagements.

Resource allocation disputes in Nigeria, especially those related to oil revenues, are a persistent

challenge with far-reaching implications. These disputes not only affect the country's internal

governance but also have diplomatic ramifications, potentially impacting foreign relations,

investor confidence, and global energy markets.

4.3 Impact of These Challenges on Nigeria's Foreign Policy Objectives

Nigeria's foreign policy objectives are guided by the following principles:

i. The promotion of Africa's unity and economic development

ii. The maintenance of international peace and security

iii. The promotion of Nigeria's national interests

iv. The protection of the rights of Nigerians abroad

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However, a number of challenges have impacted Nigeria's ability to achieve these objectives.

Nigeria's economy is heavily reliant on oil exports, and this has made it vulnerable to

fluctuations in global oil prices. In recent years, Nigeria has also been grappling with high

inflation and unemployment (Akpotor, 2018). Economic challenges have limited Nigeria's ability

to provide financial assistance to other African countries. As an economic powerhouse in the

region, Nigeria's financial support is vital for regional stability and development. However,

economic constraints reduce its capacity to contribute. Economic constraints also affect Nigeria's

ability to participate in international peacekeeping operations. These operations require

significant financial resources for troop deployment and logistical support. Nigeria's reduced

capacity limits its involvement in promoting peace and security beyond its borders (Akpotor,

2018).

Nigeria is facing a number of security challenges, including terrorism, insurgency, and banditry.

Security challenges have diverted resources, both financial and human capital, away from

Nigeria's foreign policy initiatives. Funds and personnel that could have been allocated to

diplomatic efforts are redirected to address internal security threats. The need to address security

challenges within its borders limits Nigeria's ability to project power and influence beyond its

borders. This can hinder Nigeria's engagement in regional and international peacekeeping

operations or crisis mediation (Onuoha, 2017).

Nigeria faces various security threats, such as the Boko Haram insurgency and communal

violence, which require significant diplomatic efforts to seek international assistance and

cooperation. Addressing security threats necessitates diplomatic engagements with international

partners for support and collaboration. Responses to security threats can impact Nigeria's image

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on the global stage, influencing its foreign policy decisions and international partnerships

(Onuoha, 2017).

According to Transparency International (TI) (2021) Nigeria has a long history of political

instability and corruption. Governance challenges, particularly corruption, have eroded Nigeria's

credibility on the international stage. Corruption scandals involving government officials have

raised questions about Nigeria's commitment to ethical governance and rule of law. Governance

challenges make it difficult for Nigeria to build strong partnerships with other countries.

International partners may be wary of engaging with a government perceived as corrupt or

politically unstable, hindering diplomatic efforts (Transparency International, 2021).

Frequent leadership changes can result in abrupt shifts in Nigeria's foreign policy direction. The

transition from one administration to another often brings about changes in foreign policy

priorities, goals, and approaches. This inconsistency can make it challenging to maintain a

coherent and predictable diplomatic stance. Political instability can lead to sudden changes in the

country's foreign policy positions. For example, a government that prioritizes regional

cooperation one year may shift its focus to global alliances in the next. Such abrupt shifts can

confuse international partners and hinder the development of long-term diplomatic relationships

(Obi, 2016). Inconsistent foreign policies can affect Nigeria's ability to effectively engage in

regional and global diplomacy. Its neighbors and international allies may struggle to predict and

respond to Nigeria's actions, which can hinder collaborative efforts on various issues.

According to Obi (2016) Political instability erodes Nigeria's international credibility, raising

doubts about its ability to honor commitments and agreements in the realm of international

diplomacy. Frequent leadership changes may lead international partners to question the

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reliability of Nigeria as a diplomatically or a participant in international agreements. This can

result in skepticism about Nigeria's commitment to fulfilling its obligations. The loss of

international credibility can strain bilateral relations with other nations. Diplomatic negotiations

and agreements become more challenging when Nigeria's partners have reservations about its

ability to follow through on commitments. A nation's soft power, its ability to influence others

through attraction and persuasion, can be significantly impacted by political instability. A

country that cannot project a stable and consistent image may struggle to wield soft power

effectively in international diplomacy (Obi, 2016).

The following are some specific examples of the impact of these challenges on Nigeria's foreign

policy objectives:

a) Promotion of Africa's Unity and Economic Development

Nigeria's economic challenges have limited its ability to provide financial assistance to other

African countries. This has undermined Nigeria's role as a leading donor on the continent.

Its impact on Foreign Policy is:

i. Reduced Financial Assistance: Nigeria has historically played a pivotal role in promoting

Africa's unity and economic development by providing financial assistance to other

African countries. However, economic challenges have limited its capacity to offer

substantial aid and support (Akpotor, 2018).

ii. Diminished Leadership Role: Nigeria's reduced ability to provide financial assistance has

diminished its leadership role in African diplomacy and economic cooperation efforts.

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 This, in turn, has impacted its influence and ability to shape regional policies (Akpotor,

2018).

b) Maintenance of International Peace and Security:

Nigeria's security challenges have made it difficult for it to participate in international

peacekeeping operations. In recent years, Nigeria has had to withdraw troops from peacekeeping

missions in other African countries in order to focus on its own security challenges (Adebajo,

2003).

Impact on Foreign Policy:

i. Reduced Participation: Nigeria's security challenges have led to a reduction in its

participation in international peacekeeping missions. This limits its contribution to global

peace and security efforts and impacts its reputation as a responsible international actor.

ii. Resource Diversion: The need to address internal security threats diverts resources and

attention away from international peacekeeping efforts. This can strain Nigeria's

relationships with international partners who rely on its contributions to peacekeeping

missions.

c) Promotion of Nigeria's National Interests:

Nigeria's governance challenges have undermined its credibility on the international stage and

have made it difficult for it to build partnerships with other countries. This has made it more

difficult for Nigeria to promote its national interests on the global stage (Obi, 2002).

Impact on Foreign Policy:

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Credibility Issues: Governance challenges, particularly corruption and political instability, have

eroded Nigeria's credibility as a reliable partner in international negotiations and agreements

(Transparency International, 2021).

Limited Diplomatic Leverage: Difficulty in building strong partnerships with other countries

limits Nigeria's diplomatic leverage when advocating for its national interests. Negotiating

favorable trade agreements, attracting foreign investment, and securing support for its initiatives

become more challenging.

d) Protection of the Rights of Nigerians Abroad:

Nigeria's governance challenges have made it difficult for it to protect the rights of Nigerians

abroad. For example, in recent years, there have been reports of Nigerians being abused and

exploited in other countries. However, the Nigerian government has been unable to do much to

help these Nigerians due to its own governance challenges (Oke, 2013).

Impact on Foreign Policy:

Limited Consular Assistance: Nigeria's governance issues have strained its ability to provide

effective consular assistance to Nigerians facing challenges abroad. This includes cases of abuse,

exploitation, or legal issues.

Diminished International Advocacy: The inability to protect the rights of Nigerians abroad

impacts Nigeria's ability to advocate for its citizens on the global stage. It may lead to strained

diplomatic relations when issues related to the welfare of Nigerians abroad arise.

In conclusion, Nigeria's economic, security, and governance challenges have multifaceted

impacts on its foreign policy objectives. These challenges affect its role as a regional leader, its

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capacity to contribute to international peace and security, its ability to promote national interests,

and its capability to protect the rights of its citizens abroad.

4.4 Measures to Address the Domestic Challenges to Diplomacy in Nigeria

Addressing the domestic challenges to diplomacy in Nigeria requires a comprehensive approach

that spans governance, security, and economic policies. Here are measures that can be taken:

a) Strengthening Governance and Combating Corruption:

Nigeria's governance challenges and corruption issues significantly impact its diplomacy.

Nigeria needs to improve its governance by reducing corruption and political instability. This

would enhance Nigeria's credibility on the international stage and would make it easier for it to

build partnerships with other countries.

i. Enhanced Anti-Corruption Measures: Nigeria needs to reduce corruption by

strengthening its anti-corruption institutions and prosecuting corrupt officials. Nigeria

should strengthen its anti-corruption institutions and initiatives, such as the Economic and

Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) and the Independent Corrupt Practices and Other

Related Offences Commission (ICPC). Effective implementation of these measures can

help restore credibility (Transparency International, 2021).

ii. Good Governance Practices: Promoting transparency, accountability, and good

governance practices within the government is crucial. Implementing measures to reduce

political instability and promote the rule of law will enhance Nigeria's reputation on the

international stage (Transparency International, 2021).

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 iii. Improve political stability: Nigeria needs to improve its political stability by

strengthening its democratic institutions and reducing electoral violence.

iv. Promote human rights: Nigeria needs to promote human rights by protecting the rights of

its citizens and by holding its security forces accountable for abuses.

b) Economic Diversification and Stability:

Nigeria's overreliance on oil exports has left it vulnerable to economic fluctuations. Nigeria

needs to diversify its economy and reduce its reliance on oil exports. This would make the

economy more resilient to fluctuations in global oil prices and would generate more resources for

the government to invest in foreign policy and other areas.

i. Invest in infrastructure: Nigeria needs to invest in infrastructure, such as roads, railways,

and power plants. This would make it easier to transport goods and people, which would

boost economic activity.

ii. Promote agriculture: Agriculture is a major sector of the Nigerian economy, but it is still

underdeveloped. The government can promote agriculture by providing farmers with

access to credit and improved seeds and fertilizers.

iii. Support small businesses: Small businesses are the backbone of the Nigerian economy.

The government can support small businesses by providing them with access to finance

and training.

iv. Economic Diversification: Nigeria should actively diversify its economy away from oil

by promoting other sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing, and technology. This

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 diversification can reduce dependence on oil revenues and improve economic stability

(World Bank, 2019).

v. Fiscal Responsibility: Implementing fiscal policies that promote responsible management

of resources, including saving during periods of high oil prices, can help stabilize the

economy and provide more resources for diplomacy (World Bank, 2019).

c) Security Sector Reforms:

Nigeria's security challenges affect its ability to project power and participate in international

peacekeeping missions. Nigeria needs to address its security challenges, such as terrorism,

insurgency, and banditry. This would allow the government to focus more on foreign policy and

would make it easier for Nigeria to project power beyond its borders.

i. Investment in Security: Nigeria should invest in its security sector, enhancing its capacity

to address domestic security threats efficiently. This will free up resources for

international engagements and enhance its reputation as a security contributor (Onuoha,

2017).

ii. Regional Cooperation: Collaborating with neighboring countries and international

partners on regional security initiatives can help address shared security challenges more

effectively and reduce the burden on Nigeria's resources (Onuoha, 2017).

iii. Increase military spending: Nigeria needs to increase its military spending in order to

better equip and train its security forces.

iv. Improve intelligence gathering: Nigeria needs to improve its intelligence gathering

capabilities in order to better anticipate and respond to security threats.

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 v. Address the root causes of insecurity: Nigeria also needs to address the root causes of

insecurity, such as poverty and unemployment. This would require investing in

education, healthcare, and job creation.

By implementing these measures, Nigeria can address its domestic challenges to diplomacy and

enhance its standing in international relations. These efforts will contribute to stability, regional

cooperation, and the advancement of its foreign policy objectives.

Note:

This chapter ushers us into the realm of data, analysis, and interpretation an essential phase in

our effort to unravel the intricate web of Nigeria's domestic challenges to diplomacy. It's here

that we dive deep into the empirical evidence and meticulously dissect the numbers, narratives,

and insights that illuminate the landscape of our study. This chapter is the peak of rigorous

research, countless hours of data collection, and the dedication of our research team. It brings to

life the voices, experiences, and perspectives of those at the heart of our investigation, giving

context to the complex tapestry of Nigeria's diplomatic landscape. Content analysis, thematic

breakdowns, and interpretive frameworks serve as tools to peel back the layers of Nigeria's

diplomacy, revealing the trends, challenges, and opportunities that have influenced the nation's

international engagements.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with the summary of the study, conclusion and recommendations. It serves as

the end of our investigation into the domestic challenges to diplomacy in Nigeria. In this final

chapter, we present a summary of our findings, offer conclusions drawn from the study, and

provide recommendations for addressing these challenges. We also highlight potential future

directions for research in this critical area of study.

5.2 Summary of the Study

The analysis of the domestic challenges to diplomacy in Nigeria has uncovered a complex and

interconnected web of issues that exert significant influence over the nation's foreign policy

objectives. At the core of these challenges lies a recurrent theme of political instability,

characterized by frequent changes in leadership. This instability has produced notable

49 | P a g e
inconsistencies in Nigeria's foreign policy direction, eroding its international credibility over

time. The global community has witnessed shifts in Nigeria's diplomatic stance as new leaders

assume power, creating uncertainty among its international partners.

In addition to political instability, Nigeria grapples with persistent ethnic and religious tensions

that occasionally spill over into its foreign policy. These tensions are not confined within the

nation's borders but often extend their influence into diplomatic relations both regionally and on

the global stage, managing the delicate balance of interests among various ethnic and religious

groups while pursuing foreign policy goals presents a formidable challenge.

Corruption and governance issues further compound the complexities of Nigeria's diplomacy.

The perception of corruption within the Nigerian government has eroded trust and credibility in

international relations. Foreign partners and organizations scrutinize Nigeria's governance

practices, leading to skepticism about its commitment to ethical governance and rule of law.

These challenges have hindered Nigeria's diplomatic engagements and its ability to build trust-

based partnerships on the international scene.

Economic challenges, driven primarily by the nation's heavy reliance on oil exports, have

imposed constraints on Nigeria's diplomatic capabilities. The volatility of global oil prices has

left Nigeria vulnerable to economic fluctuations. In recent years, high inflation and

unemployment have added to the economic challenges, limiting the country's capacity to provide

financial assistance to other African nations and participate effectively in international

peacekeeping missions. This financial strain impedes Nigeria's ability to contribute to regional

stability and security.

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Security threats represent another critical dimension of Nigeria's domestic challenges. The

country faces various security threats, including terrorism, insurgency, and communal violence.

These challenges demand significant diplomatic efforts to seek international assistance and

cooperation. The diversion of resources from diplomacy to address internal security concerns has

left Nigeria with limited capacity to project power beyond its borders, affecting its role in

regional and global security efforts.

Lastly, governance issues, exemplified by corruption and political instability, have significantly

eroded Nigeria's credibility on the international stage. The country's reputation as a reliable

partner has been marred by allegations of corruption scandals involving government officials and

a history of political instability. This credibility deficit hampers Nigeria's ability to build strong

partnerships with other countries and international organizations. Furthermore, the governance

challenges have hindered the protection of the rights of Nigerians abroad, limiting the

government's capacity to assist its citizens facing various challenges in foreign nations. In

conclusion, Nigeria's diplomacy is confronted by a multitude of intertwined domestic challenges

that span the political, ethnic, economic, security, and governance spheres. Addressing these

challenges is paramount to enhancing Nigeria's diplomatic efficacy and preserving its role as a

regional and global actor. Tackling these issues requires a comprehensive and multidimensional

approach that combines political reforms, economic diversification, enhanced security measures,

and strengthened governance practices. Such measures are essential for Nigeria to navigate the

intricate landscape of international diplomacy successfully and advance its national interests on

the global stage.

5.3 Conclusion

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The examination of Nigeria's domestic challenges and their far-reaching impact on its diplomacy

and international relations leads us to a pivotal conclusion. Nigeria, as a nation, stands at a

crossroads where its ability to effectively engage with the global community and project its

influence is significantly influenced by its domestic dynamics.

The interconnected challenges that we have explored in-depth; political instability, ethnic and

religious tensions, corruption, economic vulnerabilities, security threats, and governance issues

—have collectively posed formidable obstacles to Nigeria's diplomatic endeavors. These

challenges have not only hindered its capacity to project power effectively but have also impeded

its capacity to forge robust and trust-based partnerships with other nations.

Political instability, characterized by the recurrent changes in leadership, has created

inconsistencies in Nigeria's foreign policy direction, diminishing its international credibility over

time. Ethnic and religious tensions, which often transcend borders, have at times disrupted

diplomatic relations both regionally and globally, adding another layer of complexity to its

international engagement.

Corruption and weak governance have corroded trust in Nigeria's international relations,

affecting its credibility and the ability to foster cooperative diplomatic relationships. Economic

challenges, exacerbated by its reliance on oil exports, have curtailed Nigeria's ability to provide

financial support to other African nations and engage actively in international peacekeeping

efforts.

Security threats, ranging from terrorism to insurgency, have diverted resources and attention

from diplomatic pursuits and hampered Nigeria's projection of power and influence beyond its

borders. Additionally, governance issues, including corruption and political instability, have

52 | P a g e
eroded Nigeria's standing on the international stage, making it a challenge to build and sustain

meaningful partnerships with other countries and international organizations. This credibility

deficit has also limited Nigeria's ability to protect the rights of its citizens abroad effectively.

In light of these intricate challenges, addressing them becomes not just a strategic imperative but

a moral responsibility for Nigeria. The nation's potential to play a pivotal role in regional

stability, economic cooperation, and international peace hinges on its ability to overcome these

domestic obstacles.

In the face of these challenges, Nigeria must embark on a multifaceted and concerted effort to

strengthen its governance structures, combat corruption, diversify its economy, bolster its

security apparatus, and invest in diplomatic training and capacity building. These measures are

critical for Nigeria to enhance its diplomatic efficacy, rebuild its international credibility, and

play a more influential role on the global stage.

In the broader context, Nigeria's journey to address its domestic challenges offers valuable

lessons to nations grappling with similar issues. The complexities and interconnections within

Nigeria's challenges underscore the need for a holistic and sustained approach to addressing

domestic issues while engaging constructively in international diplomacy.

Ultimately, Nigeria's quest to overcome its domestic challenges in the sphere of diplomacy

serves not only its national interests but also contributes to regional stability and the broader

global community. It is a journey that requires diligence, resilience, and collaboration both

within the nation and with international partners, as Nigeria seeks to secure its rightful place as a

leading player in the complex arena of international relations.

5.4 Recommendations

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Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are put forth if only the

government of Nigeria which implements:

1. Strengthen Anti-Corruption Efforts:

a. Bolster anti-corruption institutions and initiatives: Nigeria should reinforce the existing anti-

corruption institutions such as the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) and the

Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Commission (ICPC). This includes

providing them with the necessary resources, legal authority, and independence to effectively

investigate and prosecute cases of corruption. Additionally, ensuring that anti-corruption

initiatives are adequately funded and supported is vital to their success.

b. Promote transparency and accountability: To enhance Nigeria's international credibility, there

is a pressing need to promote transparency and accountability in government operations. This

entails implementing measures such as open government policies, public disclosure of financial

transactions, and whistleblower protection. Moreover, encouraging a culture of accountability

from the top levels of government down to local authorities can help rebuild trust in Nigeria's

governance.

2. Promote Economic Diversification:

a. Actively diversify the economy: Reducing Nigeria's reliance on oil exports requires a

deliberate effort to diversify the economy. This can be achieved by actively investing in sectors

with growth potential, such as agriculture, manufacturing, and technology. These sectors not

only offer economic stability but also create jobs and reduce vulnerability to global oil price

fluctuations.

54 | P a g e
b. Implement fiscal policies: Responsible resource management is crucial. Implementing fiscal

policies that promote saving during periods of high oil prices and investment in infrastructure

and human capital development can contribute to long-term economic stability. This includes

creating a sovereign wealth fund to save excess oil revenues for future generations and economic

shocks.

3. Invest in Security Sector Reforms:

a. Invest in security: Adequate investment in the security sector is essential to address domestic

security threats efficiently. This includes modernizing equipment, improving training, and

enhancing the intelligence capabilities of security forces. Allocating sufficient resources to

security can free up resources for international diplomacy while simultaneously strengthening

Nigeria's ability to tackle security challenges.

b. Collaborate with regional and international partners: Collaborating with neighboring countries

and international partners on security initiatives is crucial for addressing shared security

challenges more effectively. Initiatives like joint military exercises, intelligence sharing, and

coordinated efforts to combat terrorism can help alleviate security pressures and create a safer

environment for diplomatic engagement.

4. Enhance Diplomatic Training:

a. Invest in diplomatic training: Diplomats play a pivotal role in representing Nigeria's interests

abroad. Investing in their training and capacity building is essential. Diplomatic academies and

55 | P a g e
institutions should offer specialized courses in international relations, negotiation skills, conflict

resolution, and cultural diplomacy. This will equip diplomats with the skills needed to navigate

complex diplomatic challenges effectively and advocate for Nigeria's interests.

5. Engage in Multilateral Diplomacy:

a. Actively participate in regional and international organizations: Nigeria should actively engage

in regional and international organizations to address common challenges and build partnerships.

These platforms provide opportunities to collaborate on issues such as peacekeeping, trade, and

development. Active participation enhances Nigeria's influence on global affairs and allows it to

contribute to solutions for regional and global problems.

6. Promote Public Diplomacy:

a. Launch public diplomacy campaigns: To improve Nigeria's image abroad, public diplomacy

campaigns should be launched. These campaigns can highlight Nigeria's rich culture,

achievements, and potential as a reliable partner. They can include cultural exchange programs,

educational initiatives, and digital media campaigns that showcase the nation's diverse heritage

and contributions to various fields.

Incorporating these recommendations into Nigeria's foreign policy strategy can help the country

overcome its domestic challenges and enhance its diplomatic efficacy. The successful

implementation of these measures not only strengthens Nigeria's position on the global stage but

also contributes to regional stability and development, fostering stronger relationships with

international partners and improving the overall well-being of its citizens.

5.5 Future Directions for Research

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As we conclude this study, it is important to recognize that the challenges faced by Nigeria in the

realm of diplomacy are dynamic and evolving. Future research could delve deeper into specific

aspects of these challenges, such as the impact of gender dynamics in diplomacy, the role of civil

society organizations in shaping foreign policy, or the examination of soft power strategies to

enhance Nigeria's influence on the global stage. Additionally, a comparative analysis with other

African nations facing similar challenges could provide valuable insights into effective strategies

for diplomatic success in the face of domestic hurdles.

In conclusion, Nigeria's diplomacy is at a crossroads, influenced by a complex interplay of

domestic challenges. By addressing these challenges and implementing the recommended

measures, Nigeria can strengthen its diplomatic capacity and further its role as a regional and

global leader in promoting peace, stability, and prosperity.

Note:

Chapter Five is both the conclusion and the bridge a juncture where the insights and revelations

of the research through Nigeria's domestic challenges to diplomacy converge and point towards

the path forward. In these pages, we not only summarize our findings but also present a roadmap

for action and a call for reflection. This chapter isn't just about conclusions; it's about the

implications of our study on Nigeria's diplomatic landscape. It's an opportunity to consider the

significance of our findings, to weigh the impact of domestic challenges on international

relations, and to envision a future where Nigeria stands on a stronger footing in the global arena.

The study has revealed that Nigeria's diplomacy is a multifaceted tapestry, intricately woven with

threads of political instability, ethnic tensions, corruption, economic vulnerabilities, security

57 | P a g e
threats, and governance issues. These challenges are not insurmountable; rather, they are

opportunities for growth, reform, and transformation.

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