Journal of
Marine Science
and Engineering
Article
Fatigue Analysis of the Oil Offloading Lines in FPSO System
under Wave and Current Loads
Xu Zhang 1,2 , Wenchi Ni 1,2, *






Citation: Zhang, X.; Ni, W.; Sun, L.
Fatigue Analysis of the Oil
Offloading Lines in FPSO System
under Wave and Current Loads. J.
Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225. https://
doi.org/10.3390/jmse10020225
Academic Editors: Dejan Brkić
and José A.F.O. Correia
Received: 24 November 2021
Accepted: 1 February 2022
Published: 8 February 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10020225
and Liping Sun 3
1 School of Marine Engineering and Technology, Sun Yat Sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China;
zhangxsysu@gmail.com
2 Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory Zhuhai, Zhuhai 519082, China
3 Deepwater Engineering Research Center, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin 150001, China;
sunlpheu@gmail.com
* Correspondence: niwch@mail.sysu.edu.cn
Abstract: In this paper, fatigue analysis of oil offloading lines (OOLs) in the floating production
storage and offloading (FPSO) catenary anchor leg mooring (CALM) buoy offloading system under
wave and current loads in the West Africa Sea area is carried out by the numerical simulation
method. The hydrodynamic coupling response is calculated, and fatigue damage is analyzed. Firstly,
the numerical model is verified by comparison with the experimental results. Then, according to the
environmental statistics in West Africa, the influence of various parameters on the fatigue damage of
OOLs is analyzed, including tension characteristics, wave parameters, and structural parameters.
Additionally, the effect of current load is studied. Results show that accumulated fatigue damage
mainly occurs near the CALM buoy and is mainly caused by the 0◦ wind wave. Appropriately
reducing the cover length of buoyancy material and increasing the wall thickness can reduce fatigue
damage. Moreover, the effect of the shuttle tanker can increase the fatigue damage of the OOL near
the CALM buoy by about 1.5 times, and the effect of vortex-induced vibration can increase the fatigue
damage of the OOL in the middle part by up to 5–10 times.
Keywords: oil offloading line (OOL); wave load; vortex-induced vibration; floating production
storage and offloading (FPSO); fatigue; simulations
1. Introduction
The sea conditions in West Africa are mild all year round, and the combination of
floating production storage and offloading (FPSO) + oil offloading lines (OOLs) + catenary
anchor leg mooring (CALM) buoy + shuttle tanker has been widely used for deep-water oil
transportation in this sea area [1,2]. In this combination, OOLs are important structures for
oil transportation, with a span of more than 2000 m, and their safety is of great concern [3].
This paper will study the fatigue characteristics and parameter sensitivity of the OOL
according to the environmental statistics in the West Africa Sea area.
Many studies have been published on the fatigue damage of marine pipelines. Liu et al. [4]
studied the coupling effect of direct waves and currents in the context of fatigue damage
assessment and proposed a first-order correction factor involving the ratio of current and
wave velocities to evaluate the environmental load coupling effect. Arzaghi et al. [5]
proposed a probabilistic method to simulate the pitting and corrosion fatigue degradation
process of submarine pipelines by using a dynamic Bayesian network to model the time
property and growth rate of change. Zhang et al. [6] established a numerical model for
the fatigue behavior of multiple coplanar cracks in offshore pipelines under cyclic tensile
loading and studied the important parameters that affect fatigue crack growth. Al-Janabi
et al. [7] carried out model experiments to study the influence of different parameters on
fatigue damage near the touchdown zone of a steel catenary riser at the seabed.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/jmse
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225 2 of 18

Although these studies mainly focused on the fundamental fatigue characteristics

of materials or numerical models on fatigue behavior, most of them are mechanism stud-
ies, so the research objects are mostly simple and typical pipeline structures. However,
for practical OOL structures in FPSO offloading systems, related fatigue analysis and design
optimization research are insufficient. Chaudhury [8] proposed a “U”-type oil pipeline and
made a comparative analysis of the “U”-type oil pipeline and the “W”-type oil pipeline, in-
cluding strength characteristics, fatigue characteristics, economic advantages, etc. Through
this research, it was found that the “U”-type oil pipeline is superior to the “W”-type oil
pipeline in fatigue behavior. Odru et al. [9] analyzed the fatigue characteristics of oil
pipelines based on the spectrum analysis method. The results show that the fatigue damage
of the pipeline mainly occurs near the buoy. It is difficult for a 22-inch steel pipeline to meet
the fatigue requirements, so a buoy submerged in the water is recommended to reduce the
wave effect. However, in this analysis, only the first-order wave force is considered. Based
on their experience in engineering design in West Africa, Montbarbon et al. [10] proposed
that increasing the effective tension of the oil pipeline is conducive to the improvement of
its fatigue life. They also proposed that the fatigue characteristics of the oil pipeline should
be considered in the case of shuttle tanker operation. Drumond et al. [11] conducted a lit-
erature review on failure events experienced by the industry concerning pipelines, risers,
and umbilical cables and described their causes, consequences, and severity. He et al. [12]
analyzed the effect of pan length on the fatigue life of submarine pipelines, finding that
increasing the gap between the suspended pipeline and the seabed is beneficial to enhance
the fatigue life of the suspended pipeline.
Due to the fatigue failure of oil pipelines, many accidents such as crude oil leakage
have occurred, resulting in serious economic losses and environmental pollution [13,14].
Therefore, it is of great importance to improve the fatigue design knowledge of oil pipelines.
However, as can be seen from the above overview, research on the fatigue characteristics of
oil offloading lines in the FPSO CALM buoy offloading system is insufficient. Although
current studies have paid attention to the effects of pipeline layout and buoy position on
fatigue damage, the influence of factors such as motion and tension distribution, wave
type, wave direction, coverage length of buoyancy material, outer diameter, wall thickness,
shuttle tanker, and current loads on OOL fatigue damage is still not fully studied. Therefore,
the purpose of this paper is to comprehensively analyze the influence of the above factors
on OOL fatigue damage and provide suggestions for relevant design.
The outline of the rest of this paper is as follows: In Section 2, the methodology for
numerical modeling and fatigue calculation is described. In Section 3, the verification
of the numerical model is introduced. In Section 4, the calculation results are analyzed,
specifically the influence of different parameters on OOL fatigue damage. Section 5 presents
the conclusions.

2. Numerical Model of the Offloading System

In this paper, a numerical model of the FPSO CALM buoy offloading system is es-
tablished according to the principal dimensions of the research object in the experimental
investigation previously conducted by the authors’ team [15]. Firstly, the response am-
plification operator (RAO), additional mass, and radiation damping of the structures are
obtained by the frequency domain analysis using AQWA software (ANSYS, Inc., Canons-
burg, PA, USA), and on this basis, the dynamic behavior of the structures are studied using
Orcaflex software (Orcina Ltd., Ulverston, Cumbria, UK). Additional damping equal to
5–10% of the critical damping value is added to each degree of freedom of the structures,
the specific value of which is determined by comparison with the corresponding free atten-
uation experimental results, as well as the RAO experimental results, in typical wave angles.
Then, the hydrodynamic responses of the structures are calculated, and the accuracy of the
numerical model is verified by comparison with the corresponding experimental results.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 19

calculated, and the accuracy of the numerical model is verified by comparison with the
calculated,
corresponding and experimental
the accuracy of the numerical model is verified by comparison with the
results.
calculated, andexperimental
corresponding the accuracyresults.
of the numerical model is verified by comparison with the
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225 corresponding experimental results. 3 of 18
2.1. Principal Dimensions of the Numerical Model
2.1. Principal Dimensions of the Numerical Model
The schematic
2.1. Principal diagram
Dimensions ofNumerical
of the the numerical Modelmodel is shown in Figure 1, and the top view
The
of the schematic
system diagram
is shown of the 2.
in Figure numerical modelcondition,
In the ballast is shown in theFigure
FPSO1,andandshuttle
the toptanker
view
of The schematic
thePrincipal
system is shown diagram of
inofFigure the numerical
2. Inunder
theModel model
ballast is shown in Figure 1, and the top view
2.1.
will have Dimensions
a larger motion the Numerical
amplitude wavecondition,
load and thehaveFPSO and shuttle
a greater impacttanker
on the
of
willthe system
have is
a larger shown
motionin Figure
amplitude 2. In the ballast condition, the FPSO and shuttle tanker
OOL’s Thefatigue
schematicdamage. Therefore,
diagram inunder
of the numerical wave
the fatigue
model load and have
analysis
is shown a greater
ofinthis paper,
Figure impact
1, andthethe
FPSOonview
top the
and
will have
OOL’s a larger
fatigue motion
damage. amplitude
Therefore, in under
the wave analysis
fatigue load andofhave thisapaper,
greatertheimpact
FPSO onand
the
of the system
shuttle tankerisare shown
bothin in
Figure
ballast2. In the ballast For
conditions. condition, the dimensions
principal FPSO and shuttle tanker
and related
OOL’s
shuttle fatigue
tanker damage.
aremotion Therefore,
both inamplitude
ballast in the fatigue
conditions. For analysis of
principal this paper,
dimensions the FPSO
and relatedand
will have
parameters a larger
of the model, refer to the under
modelwave load
experiment andpreviously
have a greater impact
conducted on the
by
shuttle tanker
parameters of thearemodel,
both in ballast conditions. For principal dimensions and related
OOL’s fatigue
authors’ team damage.
[15]. Therefore, in the fatigue analysis of this paper, the FPSO andby
refer to the model experiment previously conducted the
shuttle
parameters
authors’ team of the
[15]. model, refer to the model experiment previously conducted by the
tanker are both in ballast conditions. For principal dimensions and related parameters of
authors’ team [15].
the model, refer to the model experiment previously conducted by the authors’ team [15].

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the numerical model of the FPSO CALM buoy offloading system.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the numerical model of the FPSO CALM buoy offloading system.
Figure 1. Schematic
Figure 1. Schematic diagram
diagram of
of the
the numerical
numerical model
model of
of the
the FPSO
FPSO CALM
CALM buoy
buoy offloading
offloadingsystem.
system.

Figure 2. Top view of the FPSO CALM buoy offloading system.

Figure
Figure2.2.Top
Topview
viewof
ofthe
the FPSO
FPSO CALM
CALM buoy
buoy offloading
offloading system.
system.
Figure 2. Top view of the FPSO CALM buoy offloading system.
The fatigue analysis in this paper mainly focuses on the OOLs, the specific
The fatigue
The fatigue analysis
analysisin thisthis
paper mainly focuses on the OOLs, thetheOOLs,
specificthe
parameters
parameters of which are asinfollows:paper
The OOL mainly focuses
consists of twoon20-inch (508 mm) specific
diameter
The are
of which
parameters fatigue
of as
which analysis
follows:
are The
as inOOL
thisconsists
follows: paper
The OOL mainly
of two focuses
20-inch
consists of on
(508
two mm)the diameter
20-inch OOLs,
(508 mm) the
steelspecific
pipes,
diameter
steel pipes, the material of which is Det Norske Veritas (DNV) E460 steel. Buoyancy
parameters
the
steelmaterial ofof
pipes,arethe which
which are
is
material inas
Detfollows:
oftheNorske
which The OOL
Veritas
is Det consists
(DNV)
Norske of
E460
Veritastwo 20-inch
steel.
(DNV) (508
Buoyancy mm) diameter
materials
E460a steel. Buoyancyare
materials assembled middle of each pipeline to make it form “W” shape after
steel pipes,
assembled
materials in the
the material
middle
are assembled ofof which
each
in theas is
pipeline
middle Det
to Norske
make it Veritas
form a “W”(DNV)
shape E460
aftersteel.
being Buoyancy
subjected
being subjected to buoyancy, shownofineach pipeline
Figure 3. to make it form a “W” shape after
materials
to buoyancy,
being areas
subjected assembled
shown
to inin
buoyancy, theasmiddle
Figure 3.
shown of
in each
Figure pipeline
3. to make it form a “W” shape after
being subjected to buoyancy, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of the oil offloading lines.

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of the oil offloading lines.
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of the oil offloading lines.
In3.the
Figure spatial arrangement,
Schematic diagram of the the two oil pipelines
oil offloading lines. are distributed up and down. The up-
per OOL is shorter (2140 m) and is connected to the portside of the FPSO and CALM buoy.
The lower OOL is longer (2220 m) and is connected to the starboard side of the FPSO and
CALM buoy. The detailed attributes of each segment (as shown in Figure 3) of the OOLs
are shown in Table 1.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19

In the spatial arrangement, the two oil pipelines are distributed up and down. The
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225 4 of 18
upper OOL is shorter (2140 m) and is connected to the portside of the FPSO and CALM
buoy. The lower OOL is longer (2220 m) and is connected to the starboard side of the FPSO
and CALM buoy. The detailed attributes of each segment (as shown in Figure 3) of the
Table Detailed
OOLs1.are shownattributes
in Tableof1.the OOLs.
Outer Diameter Inner Diameter Length Dry Weight Wet Weight Tensile Rigidity
Segments Table 1. Detailed attributes of the OOLs.
(m) (m) (m) (t/m) (t/m) (kN/m2 )
1 and 3 Outer
0.508diameter Inner0.471
diameter Length
860 Dry
0.2206 weight Wet weight
0.01285 Tensile
5.96 × 10rigidity
6
Segments
(m) (m) (m) (t/m) (t/m) (kN/m 2)
2 1 1.000 0.471 420 0.460 −0.345 5.96 × 106
① and ③ 0.508 0.471 860 0.2206 0.01285 5.96E6
5②1 1.000
1.000 0.471
0.471 360
420 0.460
0.460 −0.345−0.345 106
5.96 ×5.96E6
4 and ⑤6 1.000
0.508 0.471 360
930 0.460
0.2206 0.01285−0.345 106
5.96 ×5.96E6
④ and ⑥ 0.508 1 0.471 930 0.2206 0.01285 5.96E6
The buoyancy material is a hollow semi-cylinder with an inner diameter of 508 mm and an outer diameter of
1The buoyancy material is a hollow semi-cylinder with an inner diameter of 508 mm and an outer diameter of 1000 mm, and its
1000 mm, and its density is 0.4 MT/m3 .
density is 0.4 MT/m3.
The numerical model of the buoy is established by combining the Morison element
with the disc element, and the OOLs are connected to the buoy at the top. The numerical
model of the buoy and corresponding mooring lines and OOLs is shown in Figure 4, the
detail of which has been introduced in the authors’ previous work [16]. The other end of
the OOLs is connected to the FPSO (see Table 2 for the specific coordinates of the OOL
connecting points on the FPSO and buoy).

Figure 4.
Figure Numerical model
4. Numerical model of
of the
the buoy
buoy and
and the
the corresponding
corresponding mooring
mooring lines
lines and
and OOLs.
OOLs.
Table 2. Coordinates of the OOL connecting points on FPSO and buoy.
Table 2. Coordinates of the OOL connecting points on FPSO and buoy.
FPSO (Relative to the Center of Buoy (Relative to the Center of
FPSO (Relative to the center of Buoy (Relative to the center of
OOL Underside) Underside)
OOL underside) underside)
X
X (m) (m) Y (m)
Y (m) ZZ (m)
(m) X (m)
X (m) YY(m)
(m) Z (m)
Z (m)
Port side
Port side 147.5
147.5 27.1
27.1 33.3
33.3 −2.118
−2.118 1.4
1.4 00
Starboard
Starboardside
side 145.4
145.4 −29.1
−29.1 33.3
33.3 −2.118
−2.118 −1.4
−1.4 00

2.2. Model of Loads

2.2. Model of Loads
In the numerical model, the FPSO and buoy are rigid bodies, and their motion
In the numerical model, the FPSO and buoy are rigid bodies, and their motion equa-
equations
tions can becanderived
be derived
fromfrom Newton's
Newton’s secondsecond
law.law.
The The
loadsloads applied
applied to structures
to the the structures
are
are calculated and taken into the motion equations to solve the six-degrees-of-freedom
calculated and taken into the motion equations to solve the six-degrees-of-freedom motion
motion of theand
of the FPSO FPSO andRefer
buoy. buoy. toRefer to Reference
Reference [17] for [17] for details.
details. The loadsThetoloads to be calculated
be calculated mainly
mainly include the wave load (both the first-order wave force and the second-order
include the wave load (both the first-order wave force and the second-order wave force), wave
force), current load, and the mooring line and
current load, and the mooring line and OOL’s force. OOL’s force.

2.2.1. Mooring Line and OOL’s Force

In this paper, the lumped mass model is adopted for mooring lines and OOLs.
The schematic diagram of the line segments is shown in Figure 5. The line element supports
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225 2.2.1. Mooring Line and OOL’s Force 5 of 18
In this paper, the lumped mass model is adopted for mooring lines and OOLs. The
schematic diagram of the line segments is shown in Figure 5. The line element supports
thethe
flexibility of of
flexibility thethe
line to to
line have axial
have displacement,
axial torsion,
displacement, tension,
torsion, and
tension, bending.
and More
bending. More
details can be found in the authors’ previous work [16].
details can be found in the authors’ previous work [16].

Figure
Figure 5. Schematic
5. Schematic diagram
diagram of line
of line segments
segments in lumped
in lumped mass
mass model.
model.

2.2.2. Wave Load

2.2.2. Wave Load
For the FPSO and shuttle tanker, wave loads are calculated based on potential flow
For the FPSO and shuttle tanker, wave loads are calculated based on potential flow
theory [18], and for the CALM buoy and OOLs, wave loads are calculated by slender-body
theory [18], and for the CALM buoy and OOLs, wave loads are calculated by slender-
expressions based on Morrison equations.
body expressions based on Morrison equations.
2.2.3. Current Load
2.2.3. Current Load
The current force and moment can be denoted as follows:
The current force and moment can be denoted as follows:
1 2
Fxc = Cxc ( ϕcR )ρc VcR TL (1)
2
1
Fxc = Cxc (ϕcR ) ρcVcRTL
2
(1)
21 2
Fyc = Cyc ( ϕcR )ρc VcR TL (2)
2
1
Fyc = 1C yc (ϕcR ) ρcVcRTL
2
(2)
Mxyc = 2 Cxyc ( ϕcR )ρc VcR 2
TL2 (3)
2
1
where Fxc , Fyc . and Mxyc are longitudinal
M xyc = Cxyc fluid
(ϕcR ) ρforce,
2
cVcRTL
2lateral fluid force, and yaw fluid
(3)
2
torque. Cxc , Cyc , and Cxyc are longitudinal fluid force coefficient, transverse fluid force
coefficient, and yaw fluid torque coefficient. ρc is the density of seawater (kg/m3 ), T is the
where Fxc, draft,
average Fyc. and andMVxyccR are longitudinal
is the fluid The
relative velocity. force, lateral fluid
coefficients can force, and yawbased
be determined fluidon
torque. C , C , and C are longitudinal
Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) [19].
xc yc xyc fluid force coefficient, transverse fluid force
coefficient, and yaw fluid torque coefficient. ρc is the density of seawater (kg/m3), T is the
2.3. Method
average draft, of and Fatigue
VcR is Analysis
the relative velocity. The coefficients can be determined based on
Oil Companies
Based onInternational
the hydrodynamicMarinecoupling
Forum (OCIMF)
calculation[19].
results of the system, the S-N curve
method, which is widely adopted at present [20,21], is used to analyze the fatigue charac-
2.3.teristics
Methodof of the
Fatigue Analysis
OOLs. According to the requirements of DNV-RP-C203 specification [22],
theBased
DNV-E curve is used
on the hydrodynamic for fatigue calculation
coupling in this
calculation paper.
results The
of the parameters
system, of curve
the S-N the S-N
curve used
method, whichareis shownwidelyinadopted
Table 3. atBased on the
present above
[20,21], is method,
used to the fatigue
analyze thedamage
fatigue of
the OOL is calculated by Orcaflex software. The S-N curve method
characteristics of the OOLs. According to the requirements of DNV-RP-C203 specification used in this paper is
described as follows:
[22], the DNV-E curve is used for fatigue calculation in this paper. The parameters of the
S-N curve used are shown in Table 3. Based on the above method, the fatigue damage of
Table 3. Details of the DNV-E curve.
the OOL is calculated by Orcaflex software. The S-N curve method used in this paper is
described as follows: N < 106 N > 106
Type of S-N Curve SCF
A m A m
Table 3. Details of the DNV-E curve.
DNV-E 1.13 4.0738 × 1011 3 2.2387 × 1015 5
N < 106 N > 106
Type of S-N curve SCF
A m A m
2.3.1. Calculation of Time-Domain Fatigue Stress 11
DNV-E 1.13 4.0738×10 3 2.2387×1015 5
According to the established hydrodynamic numerical simulation model of the FPSO oil
transportation system, the time-domain curve of fatigue stress of the OOL is calculated.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225 6 of 18

Assuming that the oil pipeline is isotropic, the fatigue stress can be obtained by the
following formula:

T

σ = σA + σM = + Cr Mx sin θ − My cos θ /Ixy (4)
A
where A is the effective area of the section, Ixy is the second-order stress moment, σA is
the axial stress, σM is the bending stress, T is axial tension, Cr is the bending moment load
factor, and Mx and My are the bending moments.

2.3.2. Rain-Flow Counting Method

After obtaining the time-domain calculation results of OOL fatigue stress in the
irregular wave, the average stress, stress amplitude, and stress cycle times of each node of
the oil pipeline are obtained by the rain-flow counting method.

2.3.3. Stress Correction

The stress obtained by the rain-flow counting method is corrected as follows:

Se = Sr /(1 − Sm /SMTS) 0 <Sm < SMTS

(5)
S e = Sr −SMTS < Sm < 0

where Sr is the actual stress, Sm is the average stress, and SMTS is the ultimate tensile
strength of the material.
The stress concentration factor and wall thickness correction factor are used to consider
the influence of welding. The specific formula is:
!k
t f at
S = Se ·SCF · (6)
tre f

where Se is the nominal stress amplitude, SCF is the stress concentration factor, and
(tfat / tref )k is the thickness correction factor, which is applicable to the case that the actual
wall thickness tfat exceeds the reference thickness tref = 25 mm.

2.3.4. Calculation of Fatigue Damage by S-N Curve

The fatigue damage is calculated according to the following formula:

log N = log a − m log(S) (7)

where N is the number of stress cycles, S is the stress amplitude, and a and m are
material coefficients.

2.3.5. Calculation of Accumulated Fatigue Damage

In this paper, the alternating load of variable amplitude needs to be considered in the
fatigue analysis. Therefore, Miner’s linear accumulation criterion is used to calculate the
fatigue damage accumulation results under variable amplitude stress cycle. The expression
of Miner’s linear accumulation criterion is as follows:
n(S )
DA = ∑ N (Sii ) (8)
i

where n(Si ) is the actual number of stress cycles with amplitude Si , and N(Si ) is the total
number of stress cycles in the case of fatigue failure of the structure under this stress cycle.

2.4. Environment Condition

The working location of the oil offloading system studied in this paper is the sea
area of West Africa. In this sea area, the wave condition is relatively mild, the main
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225 7 of 18

wave component is the swell with a long period, and there are wind waves in some parts.
Specifically, the wave components in West Africa can be divided into main swell, secondary
swell, and wind wave. The Joint North Sea Wave Atmosphere Program (JONSWAP)
spectrum [23] is used to simulate the individual action of swell, and the Ochi Hubble
spectrum [24] is used to simulate the joint action of wind wave and swell. For the single
wind wave condition, the wind wave component in the Ochi Hubble spectrum is used for
the numerical simulation. The wave angle is considered as a fixed value in this paper.
The working area of the offloading system analyzed in this paper is a certain sea area
with a depth of 1500 m in West Africa, and the considered wave distribution is identified
according to the observation statistics of the joint wave distribution in West Africa. Three
wave conditions need to be considered in this paper: main swell, secondary swell, and wind
wave. Their significant wave height (Hs )—average period (Tp ) distribution characteristics
are shown in Tables 4–6.
Table 4. Wave height-period distribution of the main swell in West Africa.

Hs (m) Exposure Time (hour)

0.625 713.1 832.2 843.6 632.5 249.7 155 113.9 30.7 30.7
0.875 290.8 516 641.2 924.2 418.7 144.5 80.6 66.6 30.7
1.375 41.2 116.5 213.7 402.1 391.6 305.7 155.9 70.1 42
2 0 0 2.6 16.6 47.3 80.6 121.8 28.9 7.9
Tp (s) 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5 17.5 18.5

Table 5. Wave height-period distribution of the secondary swell in West Africa.

Hs (m) Exposure Time (hour)

0.375 290.8 918.9 810.3 562.4 392.4 296.1 489.7 93.3 453.8 399.5 127 109.5 42 8.8
0.625 139.3 477.4 501.9 404.7 381.1 229.5 266.3 199.7 114.8 108.6 96.4 72.7 18.4 0
0.875 6.1 6.1 78.8 54.3 66.6 72.7 12.3 24.5 42 24.5 35.9 12.3 0 0
1.25 0 0 0 0 6.1 0 0 0 6.1 6.1 0 0 0 0
Tp (s) 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5 17.5 18.5 19.5 20.5

Table 6. Wave height-period distribution of the wind wave in West Africa.

Hs (m) Exposure Time (hour)

0.375 28 318 1064.3 862 283.8
0.85 137.5 823.4 2586.8 1081 311.9
1.5 0 42 679.8 402.1 34.2
1.625 0 0 33.3 35.9 16.6
2 0 0 0 16.6 2.6
Tp (s) 3.5 4.5 6.5 6.5 7.5

3. Verification of Numerical Model

In order to verify the accuracy of the numerical model, the results of the numerical
simulation are compared with the results of the previous experimental investigation con-
ducted by the authors’ team [15]. Numerical simulation results of CALM buoy motion
and portside OOL top tension are compared with the experimental results, including the
time-domain curves and frequency domain analysis. The environment condition is the
combined action of swell and wind wave, where Hs (swell) = 2.6 m, Tp (swell) = 15.9 s;
Hs (wind wave) = 2.05 m, and Tp (wind wave) = 6.7 s. The wave direction is 0◦ (as shown
in Figure 1).
 J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225 8 of 18

The numerical and experimental results of surge, heave, and pitch motions of the
CALM Thebuoy,
numerical
as wellandas experimental
the top tension results
(in the of experiment,
surge, heave,a andforcepitch
sensormotions of the
is set at
CALM
connectionbuoy, as
between well as the top tension (in the experiment, a force sensor is set at the
The numerical andOOL and buoy,results
experimental and theofforce measured
surge, heave, andby the force
pitch sensor is
motions ofthe
thetop
connection
tension), between OOL and buoy, and the in force measured by the forceAssensor is the
in top
CALM buoy,ofasthe portside
well as the OOL are shown
top tension (in the Figures 6–9, respectively.
experiment, a force sensor isshown
set at the the
connection between OOL and buoy, and the force measured by the force sensor is the the
tension),
figures, of
the the portside
numerical OOL
simulationare shown
results in
of Figures
the CALM6–9, respectively.
buoy’s motion As shown
and OOL’s in top
figures,
toptension
tension),the
are numerical
ofgenerally insimulation
the portside good are results
OOLagreementshownwith of
in the theCALM
Figures 6–9,buoy’s
experimental motion
values,As
respectively. and
except OOL’s
shown thatintop
the
tension
thenumerical are generally
figures, theresults in
of pitch
numerical good agreement
motion amplitude
simulation with
results of the the
of CALM experimental
the CALMbuoy’sbuoy values,
in Figure
motion except that
top the
8 are slightly
and OOL’s
numerical
largerare
tension than results of pitch
the experimental
generally motion amplitude
results. This
in good agreement withshouldof the CALM buoy
be due to thevalues,
the experimental in Figure
ignorance 8 are
of a that
except slightly
partthe
of the
larger
fluid than
viscous the experimental
damping in theresults. This
hydrodynamic should be due
calculation to the
method
numerical results of pitch motion amplitude of the CALM buoy in Figure 8 are slightly ignorance
based onof a
the part of the
potential
fluid
flow viscous
theory damping
used in this in the
paper. hydrodynamic calculation method
larger than the experimental results. This should be due to the ignorance of a part of the based on the potential
flow
fluid theory
viscous used in this
damping in thepaper.
hydrodynamic calculation method based on the potential
flow theory used in this paper.

(a) Time-domain response diagram (b) Frequency response diagram

(a) Time-domain response diagram (b) Frequency response diagram
Figure 6. Surge motion of the CALM buoy.
Figure
Figure 6. Surge
6. Surge motion
motion of the
of the CALMCALM buoy.
buoy.

(a) Time-domain response diagram (b) Frequency response diagram

(a) Time-domain response diagram (b) Frequency response diagram
Figure 7. Heave motion of the CALM buoy.
Figure 7. Heave motion of the CALM buoy.
Figure 7. Heave motion of the CALM buoy.
Considering that the stress of the OOL is the most important factor affecting its fatigue
damage, the numerical simulation results of the OOLp top tension are compared with
the experimental results in detail, as shown in Table 7. It can be seen that the numerical
simulation errors of maximum value, average value, and standard deviation are very small,
all less than 5.7%. Only the error of the minimum value is relatively large, reaching 17.1%.
Considering that the error of the minimum value is not that relevant because, for design
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225 9 of 18
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19

purposes, the minimum top tension is not that important, the overall calculation error is
within the acceptable range, proving that the numerical simulation model is reliable.

(a) Time-domain response diagram (b) Frequency response diagram

(a) Time-domain response diagram (b) Frequency response diagram
Figure 8. Pitch motion of the CALM buoy.
Figure
Figure 8. Pitch
8. Pitch motion
motion ofCALM
of the the CALM
buoy.buoy.

(a) Time-domain response diagram (b) Frequency response diagram

(a) Time-domain response diagram (b) Frequency response diagram
Figure 9. Top tension of the portside OOL.
Figure 9. Top tension of the portside OOL.
Figure 9. Top tension of the portside OOL.
Consideringofthat
Table 7. Comparison the stress
experimental andofnumerical
the OOL is the most
simulation important
results factor
of OOLp top affecting its
tension.
fatigue damage, thethat
Considering numerical simulation
the stress results
of the OOL of the
is the OOL
most p top tension
important factorareaffecting
compared its
with thedamage,
fatigue experimental results in
the numerical Top
simulationTension
detail, asresults of the Portside
shownofintheTable
OOL7. OOL
It can
p top be seen
tension that the
are compared
numerical simulation errors
with the experimental Numeric of Results
results maximum value,
in detail, as shownaverage
Experimental value,
in Result
Table 7. and standard
It can deviation
Error (%) that the
be seen
are very small,
numerical all less than
simulation errors(kN)
5.7%. Only the error
of maximum value,of (kN)
the minimum
average value,value is relatively
and standard large,
deviation
reaching
are very 17.1%.
Maximum small, Considering
value all that Only
less than 1762
5.7%. the error of the
the error minimum
of1796
the minimum value is not
value is1.8 that relevant
relatively large,
because,
reaching for
Minimum valuedesign
17.1%. purposes,
Considering the
that
435 minimum
the errortop
of tension
the is
minimum
525 not that important,
value is not
17.1 the
that overall
relevant
calculation
because, forerror is within
design the the
purposes, acceptable
minimum range, provingisthat
top tension not the
thatnumerical
important,simulation
the overall
Average value 1077 1077 0
model is reliable.
calculation error is within the acceptable range, proving that the numerical simulation
Standard
model isdeviation
reliable. 250 265 5.7
 Top tension of the portside OOL
Numeric results (kN) Experimental result (kN) Error (%)
Maximum value 1762 1796 1.8
Minimum value 435 525 17.1
Average value 1077 1077 0
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225 10 of 18
Standard deviation 250 265 5.7

4. Fatigue Analysis
4. Fatigue Analysis
In this section, the hydrodynamic and fatigue characteristics of the portside OOL are
In thisfirst,
analyzed section,
and the
thenhydrodynamic
the influence and fatigue
of other characteristics
parameters on theoffatigue
the portside
damageOOL
of are
the
analyzed first,
OOL is analyzed. and then the influence of other parameters on the fatigue damage of the
OOL is analyzed.
4.1. Hydrodynamic and Fatigue Characteristics of the OOL
4.1. Hydrodynamic and Fatigue Characteristics of the OOL
In order to study the relationship between the dynamic responses of motion and
In order to study the relationship between the dynamic responses of motion and
tension
tension of of the
the OOL
OOL andand its
its fatigue
fatigue damage,
damage, thethe coupling
coupling analysis
analysis of
of the
the system
system in in typical
typical
working conditions
working conditions is is carried
carried out.out.The
Thewave
wave condition
condition is the wind
is the wave,
wind wave, Hs =H1.5= m, 1.5Tm,
p =
s
5.5 s, the wave direction is 0°, and
◦ the calculation time
Tp = 5.5 s, the wave direction is 0 , and the calculation time is 2000 h.is 2000 hours.
Figure 10
Figure 10 shows
shows thethe distribution
distribution of of maximum
maximum motion
motion amplitude
amplitude of of the
the portside
portside OOL OOL
and the fatigue damage, where the abscissa represents the
and the fatigue damage, where the abscissa represents the OOL’s segment at the corre- OOL’s segment at the
corresponding coordinate position (from FPSO to CALM). As
sponding coordinate position (from FPSO to CALM). As shown in Figure 10, along the shown in Figure 10, along
the length
length of the
of the OOL, OOL,
therethere
areare
twotwo peaks
peaks of of fatigue
fatigue damage.The
damage. Thefirst
firstpeak
peakisislocated
located in in
the middle
the middle segments
segments of of the
the OOL,
OOL, corresponding
corresponding to to the
the segment
segment covered
covered by by buoyancy
buoyancy
material(as
material (asshown
shownininthe the
redred section
section in Figure
in Figure 3). The
3). The secondsecond
peakpeak
is nearis the
nearCALM
the CALM buoy,
where the fatigue damage is much greater than the rest of the OOL. Moreover, there there
buoy, where the fatigue damage is much greater than the rest of the OOL. Moreover, is no
is no obvious
obvious correlationcorrelation
between the between the distribution
distribution of motion
of motion amplitude and amplitude and the
the distribution of
distribution
fatigue damage.of fatigue
However, damage.
in some However,
locations,insuch
some locations,covered
as segments such aswithsegments
buoyancy covered
ma-
with buoyancy
terial or near thematerial
CALM buoy, or nearthethe CALM
motion buoy, the
amplitude motion due
is smaller amplitude is smaller
to boundary due to
conditions,
boundary
but conditions,
the fatigue damagebut the fatigue
is greater thandamage is greater
the nearby areas. than the nearby areas.

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Motion
Motion amplitude
amplitude and
and fatigue
fatigue damage
damage distribution
distribution along
alongthe
thelength
lengthof
ofOOL.
OOL.

Figure
Figure 11
11 shows
shows the
the distribution
distribution of
of tension
tension (variation
(variation amplitude
amplitude andand the
the maximum
maximum
value)
value) and
and fatigue
fatigue damage
damage along
along the
the length
length ofof the
the OOL.
OOL. AsAs can
can be
be seen
seen from
from the
the figure,
figure,
the distribution of fatigue damage shows a clear positive correlation with the distribution
the distribution of fatigue damage shows a clear positive correlation with the distribution
of
of tension
tension variation amplitude, but
variation amplitude, butthere
thereisisno
noobvious
obviouscorrelation
correlationwith
with the
the distribution
distribution of
of
maximum tension, indicating that the tension variation amplitude is a major factor
maximum tension, indicating that the tension variation amplitude is a major factor for
for
fatigue
fatigue damage. Moreover, the
damage. Moreover, the growth
growth rate
rate of
of fatigue
fatigue damage
damage is is obviously
obviously greater
greater for
for
segments
segments covered with buoyancy
covered with buoyancy material
materialor orlocated
locatednear
nearthe
theCALM
CALMbuoy. buoy.AsAs shown
shown in
in Figure 10, both of these two parts of the OOL are subjected to constrained boundary
conditions, resulting in a small motion amplitude. This indicates that under similar external
force conditions, the constrained boundary conditions may increase the fatigue damage.
It should be noted that the maximum stress of the OOL in this case is about 150 MPa,
which is far lower than the material’s yield limit of 460 MPa.
 Figure 10, both of these two parts of the OOL are subjected to constrained boundary
conditions, resulting in a small motion amplitude. This indicates that under similar
external force conditions, the constrained boundary conditions may increase the fatigue
damage. It should be noted that the maximum stress of the OOL in this case is about 150
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225 11 of 18
MPa, which is far lower than the material’s yield limit of 460 MPa.

(a) Tension variation amplitude (b) Maximum tension

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Tension
Tension and
and fatigue
fatigue damage
damage distribution
distribution along
along the
the length
length of
of OOL.
OOL.

4.2. Influence of Wave Parameters on Fatigue Damage

Damage
In this part, the influences of the type and direction of wave loads on the fatigue
fatigue
damage of the OOL is analyzed.
analyzed.

4.2.1. Influence of
4.2.1. Influence of Wave
Wave Types
Types
As
As mentioned above, the
mentioned above, the wave
wave components
components in in West
West Africa
Africa can
can be
be divided
divided into
into main
main
swell,
swell, secondary swell, and wind wave. In order to analyze the different effects of
secondary swell, and wind wave. In order to analyze the different effects of these
these
three
three wave
waveconditions
conditionsononthethe
fatigue damage
fatigue of theofOOL,
damage the analysis
the OOL, of parameter
the analysis sensitiv-
of parameter
ity
sensitivity of different kinds of wave loads on fatigue damage is carried out. It shouldthat
of different kinds of wave loads on fatigue damage is carried out. It should be noted be
the calculation process is to conduct dynamic analysis under each wave
noted that the calculation process is to conduct dynamic analysis under each wave condition based
on the wave distribution shown in Tables 4–6. Then, according to the specific exposure
condition based on the wave distribution shown in Tables 4–6. Then, according to the
time of each wave condition, the fatigue damage of the OOL under each wave condition is
specific exposure time of each wave condition, the fatigue damage of the OOL under each
accumulated in proportion.
wave condition is accumulated in proportion.
The fatigue damage of the OOL under three different wave conditions is shown in
The fatigue damage of the OOL under three different wave conditions is shown in
Figure 12. It can be found that fatigue damage mainly occurs in the middle parts of the
Figure 12. It can be found that fatigue damage mainly occurs in the middle parts of the
OOL (covered by buoyancy material) and the parts near the CALM buoy. In addition,
OOL (covered by buoyancy material) and the parts near the CALM buoy. In addition, the
the fatigue damage of the former is mainly caused by the swell, and the fatigue damage of
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9, x FOR PEER fatigue
REVIEW damage of the former is mainly caused by the swell, and the fatigue damage12ofofthe 19
the latter is mainly caused by the wind wave. Additionally, the fatigue damage caused by
latter is mainly caused by the wind wave. Additionally, the fatigue damage caused by the
the secondary swell is very small.
secondary swell is very small.

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Fatigue
Fatigue damage
damage of
of OOL
OOL under
under different
differentwave
waveconditions.
conditions.

4.2.2. Influence of Wave Direction

In order to study the influence of wave direction on the fatigue damage of the OOL,
the fatigue damage caused by wave load in different directions in the same period is
calculated as shown in Figure 13, where the type of wave load applied is the wind wave,
and the calculation method is similar to that in Section 4.2.1. As shown in Figure 13, with
the increase in wave direction from 0° to 90°, the fatigue damage of the OOL decreases
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225 12 of 18
Figure 12. Fatigue damage of OOL under different wave conditions.

4.2.2. Influence
4.2.2. Influence of of Wave
WaveDirection
Direction
In order
In order to to study
study the
the influence
influence ofof wave
wave direction
direction on on the
the fatigue
fatigue damage
damage of of the
the OOL,
OOL,
the fatigue damage caused by wave load in different directions
the fatigue damage caused by wave load in different directions in the same period is in the same period is
calculated as shown in Figure 13, where the type
calculated as shown in Figure 13, where the type of wave load of wave load applied is the wind wave,
and the calculation
and calculation method
methodisissimilar
similartotothat
thatin in
Section
Section4.2.1. As shown
4.2.1. in Figure
As shown 13, with
in Figure 13,
the increase
with the increasein wave direction
in wave from
direction from ◦ to
0° 0to 90◦the
90°, , thefatigue
fatiguedamage
damageof ofthe
the OOL decreases
OOL decreases
obviously.The
obviously. Thefatigue
fatiguedamage
damageat ◦ is
at00° is about
about 10 10 times
times that
that at
at 90 ◦ , indicating
90°, indicating that
that the
the surge
surge
motion of
motion of the
the CALM
CALM buoy
buoy caused
caused byby the
the 00°◦ wave
wave loads
loads is
is the
the main
main cause
cause of
of the
the fatigue
fatigue
damage of
damage of the
the OOL.
OOL.

Figure 13.
Figure 13. Fatigue
Fatigue damage
damage of
of OOL
OOL under
under different
differentwave
wavedirections.
directions.

4.3.
4.3. Influence
Influence of
of Structural
Structural Parameters
Parameters of
of the
the OOL
OOL on
on Fatigue
Fatigue Damage
Damage
The
The outer diameter, wall thickness, and coverage area of
outer diameter, wall thickness, and coverage area of buoyancy
buoyancy material
material are
are
important structural parameters of the OOL. This section will analyze the influence
important structural parameters of the OOL. This section will analyze the influence of these
of
three parameters on fatigue damage.
these three parameters on fatigue damage.
4.3.1. Influence of Coverage Length of Buoyancy Material
4.3.1. Influence of Coverage Length of Buoyancy Material
In order to study the influence of coverage length (L) of buoyancy material on the
In order to study the influence of coverage length (L) of buoyancy material on the
fatigue damage of the OOL, three working conditions (L = 380 m, L = 420 m, and L = 460 m)
fatigue damage of the OOL, three working conditions (L = 380 m, L = 420 m, and L = 460
are selected for coupling calculation and fatigue damage analysis. The fatigue damage
m) are selected
calculation for coupling
results are showncalculation
in Figureand
14, fatigue
and thedamage analysis. spatial
corresponding The fatigue damage
distribution
shapes of the OOL with different coverage lengths of buoyancy material are shown in
Figure 15. The wave load used in this calculation is the 0◦ wind wave, with a significant
wave height of 1.5 m and a period of 5.5 s. The calculation time is 2000 h.
Combined with Figures 14 and 15, it can be found that the coverage length of buoyant
material can change the spatial distribution shape of the OOL and then change the mag-
nitude and distribution of tension. With the increase in the coverage length of buoyant
material, the tension of the OOL will decrease, and the curvature of the overall structure
will increase, then the fatigue damage of the structure will increase. Moreover, the variation
in fatigue damage is mainly concentrated in the parts near the CALM buoy. Therefore,
in order to reduce the fatigue damage caused by wave load, it is suggested that on the
premise of meeting the structural strength requirements, the coverage length of buoyancy
material can be reduced appropriately.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225
calculation results are shown in Figure 14, and the corresponding spatial distribution
calculation results are shown in Figure 14, and the corresponding spatial distribution
shapes of the OOL with different coverage lengths of buoyancy material are shown in
shapes of the OOL with different coverage lengths of buoyancy material are shown in
Figure 15. The wave load used in this calculation is the 0° wind wave, with a significant
13 of 18
Figure 15. The wave load used in this calculation is the 0° wind wave, with a significant
wave height of 1.5 m and a period of 5.5 s. The calculation time is 2000 hours.
wave height of 1.5 m and a period of 5.5 s. The calculation time is 2000 hours.

Figure 14. Fatigue damage of OOL with different coverage length of buoyancy material.
Figure 14.
Figure 14. Fatigue damage
damage of
of OOL
OOL with
with different
different coverage
coverage length
length of
of buoyancy
buoyancy material.
material.

Figure 15.
Figure Shapes of
15. Shapes of OOL
OOL with
with different
different coverage
coverage length
length of
of buoyancy
buoyancy material.
material.
Figure 15. Shapes of OOL with different coverage length of buoyancy material.
4.3.2. Influence of Outer Diameter
Combined with Figures 14 and 15, it can be found that the coverage length of buoyant
Combined
In with Figures
order to study 14 andof15,
the influence theit outer
can bediameter
found that theOOL
of the coverage length
on the of buoyant
fatigue damage,
material can change the spatial distribution shape of the OOL and then change the
material
keep the can
wallchange
thicknesstheunchanged
spatial distribution shape of and
in the calculation, the OOL andouter
take the then diameter
change theof
magnitude and distribution of tension. With the increase in the coverage length of
Dmagnitude and distribution of tension. With the increase in the
= 513 mm, D = 508 mm, and D = 503 mm, respectively, for coupling calculationcoverage lengthandof
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9, x FOR PEERbuoyant
REVIEW material, the tension of the OOL will decrease, and the curvature of the overall 14 of 19
buoyantanalysis.
fatigue material,The
the results
tensionare
of the OOLinwill
shown decrease,
Figure 16. Theand the curvature
wave parametersofused
the overall
in the
structure will increase, then the fatigue damage of the structure will increase. Moreover,
structure will
calculation areincrease,
the samethen the fatigue
as those damage
in Section 4.3.1. of the structure will increase. Moreover,
the variation in fatigue damage is mainly concentrated in the parts near the CALM buoy.
the variation in fatigue damage is mainly concentrated in the parts near the CALM buoy.
Therefore, in order to reduce the fatigue damage caused by wave load, it is suggested that
Therefore, in order to reduce the fatigue damage caused by wave load, it is suggested that
on the premise of meeting the structural strength requirements, the coverage length of
on the premise of meeting the structural strength requirements, the coverage length of
buoyancy material can be reduced appropriately.
buoyancy material can be reduced appropriately.
4.3.2. Influence of Outer Diameter
4.3.2. Influence of Outer Diameter
In order to study the influence of the outer diameter of the OOL on the fatigue
In order to study the influence of the outer diameter of the OOL on the fatigue
damage, keep the wall thickness unchanged in the calculation, and take the outer diameter
damage, keep the wall thickness unchanged in the calculation, and take the outer diameter
of D = 513 mm, D = 508 mm, and D = 503 mm, respectively, for coupling calculation and
of D = 513 mm, D = 508 mm, and D = 503 mm, respectively, for coupling calculation and
fatigue analysis. The results are shown in Figure 16. The wave parameters used in the
fatigue analysis. The results are shown in Figure 16. The wave parameters used in the
calculation are the same as those in Section 4.3.1.
calculation are the same as those in Section 4.3.1.

Figure16.
Figure 16. Fatigue
Fatigue damage
damageof
ofOOL
OOLwith
withdifferent
differentouter
outerdiameters.
diameters.

As
As shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 16,
16, with
with the
the increase
increase in
inthe
theouter
outerdiameter
diameter of
of the
the OOL
OOL (the
(the wall
wall
thickness remains unchanged), the fatigue damage of the pipeline shows
thickness remains unchanged), the fatigue damage of the pipeline shows an increasing an increasing
trend
trend under
under the the same
same wave
wave conditions.
conditions. The
The variation
variation in in fatigue
fatigue damage
damage caused
caused by
by the
the
change
changeininouter
outerdiameter is mainly
diameter concentrated
is mainly in thein
concentrated areathenear thenear
area CALM thebuoy,
CALMhowever,
buoy,
ithowever,
is not very
it isobvious.
not very obvious.

4.3.3. Influence of Wall Thickness

In this part, the effect of wall thickness (WT) on fatigue damage is studied. Keep the
outer diameter unchanged in the calculation, and take the wall thickness of WT = 17 mm,
 Figure 16. Fatigue damage of OOL with different outer diameters.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225
As shown in Figure 16, with the increase in the outer diameter of the OOL (the wall
thickness remains unchanged), the fatigue damage of the pipeline shows an increasing
trend under the same wave conditions. The variation in fatigue damage caused by the
change in outer diameter is mainly concentrated in the area near the CALM 14 buoy,
of 18
however, it is not very obvious.

4.3.3. Influence
4.3.3. Influence ofof Wall
Wall Thickness
Thickness
In this
In this part,
part, the
the effect
effect of
of wall
wall thickness
thickness (WT)
(WT) onon fatigue
fatigue damage
damage is is studied.
studied. Keep
Keep the
the
outer diameter unchanged in the calculation, and take the wall thickness of WT
outer diameter unchanged in the calculation, and take the wall thickness of WT = 17 mm, = 17 mm,
WT =
WT = 18
18 mm,
mm, and
and WTWT ==21
21mm,
mm,respectively,
respectively, for
for coupling
coupling calculation
calculation and
and fatigue
fatigue analysis.
analysis.
results are
The results are shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 17.
17.

different wall
Figure 17. Fatigue damage of OOL with different wall thickness.
thickness.

As shown in Figure 17, with the increase in the wall thickness of the OOL (the outer
diameter
diameter remains
remainsunchanged),
unchanged),the thefatigue
fatiguedamage
damage of of
thethe
pipeline
pipelinewillwill
be reduced, andand
be reduced, the
variation in fatigue
the variation damage
in fatigue caused
damage by theby
caused change in wallinthickness
the change is mainly
wall thickness is concen-
mainly
trated in the area
concentrated near
in the areathe CALM
near buoy. In
the CALM addition,
buoy. compared
In addition, with the
compared effect
with the of outer
effect of
diameter (as shown in Figure 16), the effect of wall thickness on fatigue damage
outer diameter (as shown in Figure 16), the effect of wall thickness on fatigue damage is is much
more
muchsignificant.
more significant.
Considering that the increase in wall thickness will also increase the weight of the
OOL and then change its spatial distribution shape, now, the influence of wall thickness
(as shown in Figure 17) and the influence of outer diameter (as shown in Figure 16) are
compared. When the wall thickness increases from 17 mm to 18 mm, the total weight
increases about 5%, and the fatigue damage can be reduced by up to 40%. When the outer
diameter increases from 503 mm to 513 mm, the total weight increases about 2%, and the
fatigue damage of the OOL shows an increasing trend rather than decreasing. It can be
inferred that for the FPSO OOL, the influence of wall thickness itself on fatigue damage
is much more significant than that of weight and spatial distribution shape variation in
the OOL caused by the change in wall thickness. Therefore, in order to reduce the fatigue
damage caused by the wave load, it is feasible to increase the wall thickness properly.

4.4. Influence of the Shuttle Tanker

During the service period of the offloading system, about 20–40% of the time, it is
moored by the shuttle tanker for oil transportation [25]. In order to study the effect of the
shuttle tanker on fatigue damage of the OOL, coupling calculation and fatigue analysis of
two conditions (with shuttle tanker and without shuttle tanker) are carried out, and the
results are shown in Figure 18. The schematic of the shuttle can be seen in Figure 2, and the
wave parameters used in the calculation are the same as those in Section 4.3.1.
 During the service period of the offloading system, about 20–40% of the time, it is
moored by the shuttle tanker for oil transportation [25]. In order to study the effect of the
shuttle tanker on fatigue damage of the OOL, coupling calculation and fatigue analysis of
two conditions (with shuttle tanker and without shuttle tanker) are carried out, and the
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225
results are shown in Figure 18. The schematic of the shuttle can be seen in Figure 15 2,ofand
18

the wave parameters used in the calculation are the same as those in Section 4.3.1.

Figure18.
Figure 18.Influence
Influenceof
ofshuttle
shuttletanker
tankeron
onfatigue
fatiguedamage
damageof
ofOOL.
OOL.

As
Asshown
shownin inFigure
Figure18,
18,although
althoughshuttle
shuttletankers
tankers are
arenot
notdirectly
directlyinincontact
contactwith
withthe
the
OOL,
OOL,by byinfluencing
influencingthe
themotion
motionstate
state of
of the
the CALM
CALM buoy,
buoy,the
thefatigue
fatiguedamage
damageof ofthe
theOOL
OOL
will
willincrease
increaseto
toabout
about1.5
1.5times.
times.The
Theobject
objectofofinfluence
influenceisismainly
mainlythethepart
partof
ofthe
theOOL
OOLnear
near
the CALM buoy, and the influence on other parts can be basically
the CALM buoy, and the influence on other parts can be basically ignored.ignored.

4.5.
4.5. Influence
Influenceofofthe
theFlow-Induced
Flow-InducedVibration
Vibration
Vortex-induced vibration is
Vortex-induced vibration is alsoalso one one
of theofimportant factorsfactors
the important leadingleading
to fatigue
todamage
fatigue
of offshore pipelines [26]. In this part, the effect of vortex-induced vibration
damage of offshore pipelines [26]. In this part, the effect of vortex-induced vibration on the fatigue
on
damage
the fatigueof the OOL of
damage will
thebeOOL
studied.
will beIn studied.
this case,Inthe
thiscurrent load
case, the is applied.
current load isThe flow
applied.
velocity is in the form of shear flow, and the parameters are defined according to the
The flow velocity is in the form of shear flow, and the parameters are defined according
frequently occurring sea conditions in West Africa, as shown in Figure 19. The vortex
to the frequently occurring sea conditions in West Africa, as shown in Figure 19. The
force is calculated by the vortex tracking model based on the software Orcaflex, in which
vortex force is calculated by the vortex tracking model based on the software Orcaflex,
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW in
16 of 19
the value of the lift coefficient (Cl) adopts the table of the lift coefficient compiled by
which the value of the lift coefficient (Cl) adopts the table of the lift coefficient compiled
Norberg [27].
by Norberg [27].

Figure 19. Velocity distribution defined

defined in
in numerical
numerical simulation.
simulation.

In order
In order to
to study
study the
the effect
effect of
of vortex-induced
vortex-induced vibration
vibration onon fatigue
fatigue damage,
damage, the
the fatigue
fatigue
damage of the OOL considering vortex-induced vibration (Cl = Cl (Re))
damage of the OOL considering vortex-induced vibration (Cl = Cl (Re)) and not and not considering
vortex-induced vibration (Cl =vibration
considering vortex-induced 0) are calculated.
(Cl = 0) Theare fatigue damage
calculated. Thedistribution of the
fatigue damage
OOL when the
distribution current
of the OOLdirection 45◦ is shown
when theiscurrent in Figure
direction 20.shown in Figure 20.
is 45° is
 Figure 19. Velocity distribution defined in numerical simulation.

In order to study the effect of vortex-induced vibration on fatigue damage, the fatigue
damage of the OOL considering vortex-induced vibration (Cl = Cl (Re)) and not
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225 16 of 18
considering vortex-induced vibration (Cl = 0) are calculated. The fatigue damage
distribution of the OOL when the current direction is 45° is shown in Figure 20.

Figure20.
Figure 20.Fatigue
Fatiguedamage
damagedistribution
distributionof
ofOOL
OOLunder
undercurrent
currentloads
loads(45 ◦ ).
(45°).

AsAsshown
shownin inFigure
Figure20,20,under
underthe theaction
actionofofcurrent
currentloads,
loads,the
thefatigue
fatiguedamage
damageof ofthethe
OOL
OOL mainly occurs near the CALM buoy. Although the fatigue damage curve haslocal
mainly occurs near the CALM buoy. Although the fatigue damage curve has local
maximum
maximumvalues values near
nearthe
theFPSO
FPSOand andthe thesegment
segmentcovered
coveredby bybuoyancy
buoyancymaterial,
material, ititisisfar
far
less
lessthan
thanthethefatigue
fatiguedamage
damagenearnearthe the CALM
CALM buoy. In In
buoy. addition,
addition,thethe
vortex force
vortex caused
force caused by
vortex-induced
by vortex-induced vibration has increased
vibration has increased the fatigue damage
the fatigue in theinmiddle
damage part ofpart
the middle the of
OOL the
by nearly 5–10 times, but it has little influence on the fatigue damage
OOL by nearly 5–10 times, but it has little influence on the fatigue damage of the parts of the parts near the
CALM
near the buoy.
CALM buoy.
The
Thefatigue
fatigue damage
damage distribution
distribution of of the
the OOL
OOL when
whenthe thecurrent
currentload
loaddirection
directionisis90° 90◦is
isshown
shown in in Figure
Figure 21.21. Comparing
Comparing Figures Figures 20 21,
20 and and 21, it
it can becan
foundbe that
found thethat the damage
fatigue fatigue
damage distribution along the OOL is different under different flow
distribution along the OOL is different under different flow load directions, but load directions, but the the
vortex-induced
vortex-inducedvibration
vibrationcan
canstill
stillincrease
increase the
thefatigue
fatiguedamage
damage of of
thethe
OOLOOL by by
5–10 times
5–10 times in
the middle part. Meanwhile, the fatigue damage of the parts of the OOL near the CALM
in the middle part. Meanwhile, the fatigue damage of the parts of the OOL near the CALM
buoy is still much larger than other parts, and the effect of vortex-induced vibration is very
buoy is still much larger than other parts, and the effect of vortex-induced vibration
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9, x FOR PEERsmall
REVIEW 17 of 19 is
in this part. In addition, in the parts near the CALM buoy, the fatigue damage caused
very ◦small in this part. In addition, in the parts near the ◦CALM buoy, the fatigue damage
by 90 current load is slightly less than that caused by 45 current load.
caused by 90° current load is slightly less than that caused by 45° current load.

Figure21.
Figure 21.Fatigue
Fatiguedamage
damagedistribution
distributionof
ofOOL
OOLunder
undercurrent
currentloads
loads(90 ◦ ).
(90°).

According
Accordingto tothe
theabove
aboveanalysis,
analysis,ititcan
canbe
beconcluded
concludedthat
thatthe
thefatigue
fatiguedamage
damagecaused
caused
by
bycurrent
currentload
loadtotothe
theOOL
OOL is is
mainly concentrated
mainly concentrated in the part
in the near
part the the
near CALMCALMbuoy, and and
buoy, the
flow load along the axial direction of the OOL can cause slightly larger fatigue
the flow load along the axial direction of the OOL can cause slightly larger fatigue damage.
damage. In addition, the effect of vortex-induced vibration is mainly concentrated in the
middle part of the OOL, which can increase its fatigue damage by 5–10 times.

5. Conclusions
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225 17 of 18

In addition, the effect of vortex-induced vibration is mainly concentrated in the middle

part of the OOL, which can increase its fatigue damage by 5–10 times.

5. Conclusions
In this paper, fatigue analysis of oil offloading lines in the FPSO CALM buoy offload-
ing system under wave and current loads in West Africa is carried out. The following
conclusions can be drawn:
• The accumulated fatigue damage to the OOL is the largest near the area connecting
the CALM buoy. Additionally, the section covered by buoyancy material has local
maximum accumulated fatigue damage.
• Tension variation amplitude is a major factor for fatigue damage. Additionally, con-
strained boundary conditions may increase fatigue damage.
• 0◦ waves cause greater fatigue damage. The fatigue damage of the OOL near the
CALM buoy is mainly caused by the wind wave, and the fatigue damage of sections
covered by buoyancy material is mainly caused by the swell.
• Appropriately reducing the cover length of buoyancy material and increasing the wall
thickness can reduce fatigue damage. The outer diameter (with thickness unchanged)
has little effect on the fatigue damage of the OOL.
• The effect of the shuttle tanker can increase the fatigue damage of the OOL near the
CALM buoy by about 1.5 times, and the effect of vortex-induced vibration is mainly
concentrated in the middle part of the OOL, which can increase fatigue damage by
5–10 times.
The present study reveals the influence of various factors on the oil offloading line’s
fatigue damage, such as motion and tension distribution, wave type, wave direction, cover-
age length of buoyancy material, outer diameter, wall thickness, shuttle tanker, and current
loads, which can provide guidance for the fatigue design and optimization of pipeline
layout and parameters in the FPSO oil offloading system. Moreover, the conclusions of this
work can also serve as a reference for similar fatigue design in marine renewable energy
technologies [28] or other offshore engineering cases, such as risers, mooring lines, and
offshore cables.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, W.N. and X.Z.; methodology, W.N.; software, X.Z.; vali-
dation, X.Z.; formal analysis, L.S.; investigation, W.N.; resources, L.S.; data curation, L.S.; writing—
original draft preparation, W.N.; writing—review and editing, X.Z.; visualization, X.Z.; supervision,
L.S.; project administration, L.S.; funding acquisition, W.N. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China, Grant Number
52001112.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

OOL Oil offloading line

FPSO Floating production storage and offloading
CALM Catenary anchor leg mooring
RAO Response amplification operator
Hs Significant wave height
Tp Wave period
L Length
D Diameter
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 225 18 of 18

WT Wall thickness
Cl Lift coefficient
Re Reynolds number

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