DC Motors Lecture Notes

U.O.
Th - College of Engineering DC Motors Prepared by Mustafa Al Ghezi

EEE Dept. 2 ndyear
D.C MOTOR
COURSE CONTENT
DC MOTOR
- Explain Principle of working of a DC motor.
- Explain concept of development of torque & back EMF in DC motor
including simple problems.
- Derive equation relating to back EMF, Current, Speed and Torque
equation
- Classify DC motors & explain characteristics, application.
- State & explain three point & four point stator/static of DC motor by
solid State converter.
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U.O.Th - College of Engineering DC Motors Prepared by Mustafa Al Ghezi
EEE Dept. 2 ndyear
- Explain Speed of DC motor by field control and armature control
method.
- Explain power stages of DC motor & derive Efficiency of a DC motor.
Principle of Operation:
DC motor operates on the principle that when a current carrying conductor
is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force given by F =
BIL newton. Where ‘B’ = flux density in wb, ‘I’ is the current and ‘L’ is the
length of the conductor. The direction of force can be found by Fleming’s
left hand rule. From the point of construction, there is no difference
between a DC generator and DC motor. Figure below shows a multipolar
DC motor. Armature conductors are carrying current downwards under
North Pole and upwards under South Pole. When the field coils are
excited, with current carrying armature conductors, a force is experienced
by each armature conductor whose direction can be found by Fleming’s left
hand rule. This is shown by arrows on top of the conductors. The collective
force produces a driving torque which sets the armature into rotation. The
function of a commutator in DC motor is to provide a continuous and
unidirectional torque.
In DC generator the work done in overcoming the magnetic drag is
converted into electrical energy. Conversion of energy from electrical form
to mechanical form by a DC motor takes place by the work done in

overcoming the opposition which is called the ‘back emf’.
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Fleming’s left hand rule:
 Used to determine the direction of force acting on a current carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field.
 The middle finger , the fore finger and thumb of the left hand are
kept at right angles to one another.
 The middle finger represent the direction of current
 The fore finger represent the direction of magnetic field
 The thumb will indicate the direction of force acting on the conductor
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The Advantages
 The greatest advantage of DC motors may be speed control. Since
speed is directly proportional to armature voltage and inversely
proportional to the magnetic flux produced by the poles, adjusting
the armature voltage and/or the field current will change the rotor
speed.
 Today, adjustable frequency drives can provide precise speed control
for AC motors, but they do so at the expense of power quality, as the
solid-state switching devices in the drives produce a rich harmonic
spectrum. The DC motor has no adverse effects on power quality.
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The drawbacks
 Power supply, initial cost, and maintenance requirements are the
negatives associated with DC motors
 Rectification must be provided for any DC motors supplied from the
grid. It can also cause power quality problems.
 The construction of a DC motor is considerably more complicated
and expensive than that of an AC motor, primarily due to the
commutator, brushes, and armature windings. An induction motor
requires no commutator or brushes, and most use cast squirrel-cage
rotor bars instead of true windings — two huge simplifications.
Back EMF and its Significance:
What is back emf ?
When the armature of a DC motor rotates under the influence of the
driving torque, the armature conductors move through the magnetic field
and hence emf is induced in them as in a generator. The induced emf acts
in opposite direction to the applied voltage V (Lenz’s law) and is known
as Back EMF or Counter EMF (Eb).
The equation for back emf in a DC motor is given below,
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The back emf Eb = (PΦZN/60 A) is always less than the applied voltage V,
although this difference is small when the motor is running under normal
conditions :
How Back EMF Occur in DC Motor ?
Consider a shunt wound DC motor :
Therefore, driving torque acts on the armature which begins to rotate. As
the armature rotates, back emf Eb is induced which opposes the applied
voltage V. The applied voltage V has to force current through the armature
against the back emf Eb. The electric work done in overcoming and
causing the current to flow against Eb is converted into mechanical energy
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developed in the armature. It follows, therefore, that energy conversion in
a dc motor is only possible due to the production of back emf Eb.
Net voltage across armature circuit = V – Eb
If Ra is the armature circuit resistance, then, Ia = (V – Eb)/Ra
Since V and Ra are usually fixed, the value of Eb will determine the current
drawn by the motor. If the speed of the motor is high, then back e.m.f. Eb (=
PφZN/60 A) is large and hence the motor will draw less armature current
and vice-versa.
The significance of Back EMF:
The presence of back emf makes the d.c. motor a self-regulating machine
i.e., it makes the motor to draw as much armature current as is just
sufficient to develop the torque required by the load. Armature current
(Ia),
When the motor is running on no load, small torque is required to overcome
the friction and windage losses. Therefore, the armature current Ia is small
and the back emf is nearly equal to the applied voltage. If the motor is
suddenly loaded, the first effect is to cause the armature to slow down.
Therefore, the speed at which the armature conductors move through the
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field is reduced and hence the back emf Eb falls. The decreased back emf
allows a larger current to flow through the armature and larger current
means increased driving torque. Thus, the driving torque increases as the
motor slows down. The motor will stop slowing down when the armature
current is just sufficient to produce the increased torque required by the
load. If the load on the motor is decreased, the driving torque is momentarily
in excess of the requirement so that armature is accelerated. As the
armature speed increases, the back emf Eb also increases and causes the
armature current Ia to decrease. The motor will stop accelerating when the
armature current is just sufficient to produce the reduced torque required
by the load. Therefore, the back emf in a DC motor regulates the flow of
armature current i.e., it automatically changes the armature current to meet
the load requirement.
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Torque Equation
When armature conductors of a DC motor carry current in the presence of
stator field flux, a mechanical torque is developed between the armature
and the stator. Torque is given by the product of the force and the radius at
which this force acts.
Armature torque of a Motor (Ta)
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The power developed in the armature can be given as
The mechanical power developed in the armature is converted from the
electrical power, Therefore, mechanical power = electrical power That
means, Ta × 2πN/60 = Eb.Ia
The above equation shows the relationship between armature torque, back
emf, flux and speed of a DC motor.
We know, Eb = PΦNZ / 60A Therefore, Ta × 2πN/60 = (PΦNZ / 60A) × Ia
Rearranging the above equation,
The term (PZ / 2πA) is practically constant for a DC machine. Thus,
armature torque is directly proportional to the product of the flux and the
armature current i.e. Ta ∝ Φ.Ia .
A- In case of DC series motor ф is directly promotional to Ia, therefore
Ta ∝ Ia2 .
B- For shunt motor, ф is practically constant, hence Ta ∝ Ia .
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Shaft Torque (Tsh)
Due to iron and friction losses in a dc machine, the total developed
armature torque is not available at the shaft of the machine. Some torque is
lost, and therefore, shaft torque is always less than the armature torque.
Shaft torque of a DC motor is given as,
The difference Ta – Tsh is known as lost torque.
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Major Types Of DC Motors :
 Permanent magnet dc motor
 Separately excited dc motor
 Self excited dc motor
 Series dc motor
 Shunt dc motor
 Compound dc motor
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A- Permanent magnet dc motor (PMDC Motor) :
What is a Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC Motor)?
In a DC motor, an armature rotates inside a magnetic field. The basic
working principle of a DC motor is based on the fact that whenever a
current carrying conductor is placed inside a magnetic field, there will be
mechanical force experienced by that conductor.
All kinds of DC motors work under this principle. Hence for constructing a
DC motor, it is essential to establish a magnetic field. The magnetic field is
established by using a magnet. You can use different types of magnets – it
may be an electromagnet or it can be a permanent magnet.
A Permanent Magnet DC motor (PMDC motor) is a type of DC motor that
uses a permanent magnet to create the magnetic field required for the
operation of a DC motor.
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They are commonly used as a starter motor in automobiles, windshield
wipers, washers, blowers used in heaters and air conditioners, to raise and
lower windows – and they are extensively used in toys.
As the magnetic field strength of a permanent magnet is fixed it cannot be
controlled externally, field control of this type of DC motor cannot be
possible.
Thus permanent magnet DC motor is used where there is no need to
control the speed of the motor (which is usually done by controlling the
magnetic field). Small fractional and sub-fractional KW motors are often
constructed using a permanent magnet.
Advantages of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

The advantages of a PMDC motor are:
1. For smaller ratings, use of permanent magnets reduces manufacturing
cost.
2. No need of field excitation winding, hence construction is simpler.
3. No need of electrical supply for field excitation, hence PMDC motor is
relatively more efficient.
4. Relatively smaller in size
5. Cheap in cost
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Disadvantages of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

The disadvantages of a PMDC motor are:
1. The armature reaction of DC motor cannot be compensated hence the
magnetic strength of the field may get weak due to the
demagnetizing effect of the armature reaction.
2. There is a chance of getting the poles permanently demagnetized
(partial) due to excessive armature current during the starting,
reversal, and overloading conditions of the motor.
3. The field in the air gap is fixed and limited – it cannot be controlled
externally. This makes it difficult for this type of motor to achieve
efficient speed control of DC motor in this type of motor is difficult.
B- Separately Excited DC Motor:
Like other DC motors, these motors also have both stator and rotor.
Stator refers to the static part of motor, which consists of the field
windings. And the rotor is the moving armature which contains armature
windings or coils. Separately excited dc motor has field coils similar to that
of shunt wound dc motor. The name suggests the construction of this type
of motor. Usually, in other DC motors, the field coil and the armature coil
both are energized from a single source. The field of them does not need
any separate excitation. But, in separately excited DC motor, separate

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supply Provided for excitation of both field coil and armature coil. Figure
below shows the separately excited dc motor.
Here, the field coil is energized from a separate DC voltage source and the
armature coil is also energized from another source. Armature voltage
source may be variable but, independent constant DC voltage is used for
energizing the field coil. So, those coils are electrically isolated from each
other, and this connection is the specialty of this type of DC motor.
Equations Of Voltage, Current and Power
In a separately excited motor, armature and field windings are excited
form two different dc supply voltages.
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Speed control of separately excited DC motor:
Speed of this type of dc shunt motor is controlled by the following
methods:
I. Field control methods: Weakening of field causes increase in speed of
the motor while strengthening the field causes decreases the speed. Speed
adjustment of this type of motor is achieved from the following methods:
II. Field rheostat control: – Here a variable resistance is connected in series
with the field coil. Thus the speed is controlled by means of flux variation.
Reluctance control involving variation of reluctance of magnetic circuit of
motor.
Field voltage control by varying the voltage at field circuit while keeping
armature terminal voltage constant.
III. Armature control methods: Speed adjustment of separately excited DC
motor by armature control may be obtained by any one of the following
methods :
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i. Armature resistance control: – Here, the speed is controlled by varying
the source voltage to armature. Generally, a variable resistance is provided
with the armature to vary the armature resistance.
ii. Armature terminal voltage control involving variation of variation of
voltage in armature circuit.
Applications OF Separately excited DC Motors
Separately excited dc motors have industrial applications. They are often
used as actuators. This type of motors is used in trains and for automatic
traction purposes. For their constant speed characteristics.
C- Self-Excited DC Motor
In Self-Excited DC Motors, the field winding is linked to the armature
winding in series, parallel, partly in series, or partly in parallel.
It is further divided into 3 categories which are :-
 Shunt-wound DC motor
 Series wound DC motor
 Compound wound DC motor
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i- Shunt-wound DC motor
A DC shunt motor (also known as a shunt wound DC motor) is a type of
self-excited DC motor where the field windings are shunted to or are
connected in parallel to the armature winding of the motor. Since they are
connected in parallel, the armature and field windings are exposed to the
same supply voltage. Though there are separate branches for the flow of
armature current and field current – as shown in the figure of below.
DC Shunt Motor Equations:
Let us now consider the voltage and current being supplied from the
electrical terminal to the motor be given by E and Itotal respectively.
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This supply current in case of the shunt wound DC motor is split up into 2
parts. Ia, flowing through the armature winding of resistance Ra and Ish
flowing through the field winding of resistance Rsh. The voltage across both
windings remains the same.
Voltage Equation of Shunt Motor:
Where :
 V is the terminal voltage

 Eb is the induced back e.m.f
 Ia is the armature current
 Ra is the armature resistance
The Shunt Field Current:
Where:
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 Ish is the shunt field current

 Rsh is the shunt field resistance
Induced Back EMF:
The armature induced voltage Eb is proportional to the speed & it is given by:
Where :
 Kf is a constant based on machine construction
 Φ is the magnetic flux
 ω is the angular speed
Maximum Power Condition:
The output mechanical power is of shunt dc motor is maximum when the
back e.m.f. produced is equal to the half of its terminal voltage i.e.
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Torque & Speed:
Where :
 N = speed of the motor in RPM
 P = No of poles
 Z = number of armature conductors
 A = number of armature parallel path
Speed Regulation:
It is a term expressed in percentage that shows the change of motor speed
when the load is changed.
Where:
 Nnl = No load speed of the motor
 Nfl = Full load speed of the motor
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Input & Output Power:
Where :
 V = terminal voltage
 Ia = armature current
 T = torque of the motor
 ω = speed of the motor
Thus we put this value of armature current Ia to get general voltage equation
of a DC shunt motor.
Now in general practice, when the motor is in its running condition, and the
supply voltage is constant and the shunt field current given by,
i.e. field flux Φ is proportional to filed current Ish , Thus the field flux remains
more or less constant, and for this reason, a shunt wound DC motor is called
a constant flux motor.
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Construction of a Shunt Wound DC Motor :
The construction of a dc shunt motor is pretty similar to other types of DC
motor, Just that there is one distinguishable feature in its designing which can
be explained by taking into consideration, the torque generated by the motor.
To produce high torque :-
1. The armature winding must be exposed to an amount of current that’s
much higher than the field windings current, as the torque is
proportional to the armature current.
2. The field winding must be wound with many turns to increase the flux
linkage, as flux linkage between the field and armature winding is also
proportional to the torque.
Keeping these two above mentioned criterion in mind a DC shunt
motor has been designed in a way, that the field winding possess much
higher number of turns to increase net flux linkage and are lesser in
diameter of conductor to increase resistance (reduce current flow)
compared to the armature winding of the DC motor. And this is how a
shunt wound DC motor is visibly distinguishable in static condition
from the DC series motor (having thicker field coils) of the self excited type
motor’s category.
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Self-Speed Regulation of a Shunt Wound DC Motor

A very important and interesting fact about the DC shunt motor, is in its
ability to self-regulate its speed on the application of the load to the shaft of
the rotor terminals. This essentially means that on switching the motor
running condition from no load to loaded, surprisingly there is no
considerable change in speed of running, as would be expected in the absence
of any speed regulating modifications from outside. Let us see how?
Let us do a step-wise analysis to understand it better.
1. Initially considering the motor to be running under no load or lightly
loaded condition at a speed of N rpm.
2. On adding a load to the shaft, the motor does slow down initially,
but this is where the concept of self regulation comes into the picture.
3. At the very onset of load introduction to a shunt wound DC motor,
the speed definitely reduces, and along with speed also reduces
the back emf, Eb. Since Eb ∝ N, given by :
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4. This reduction in the counter emf or the back emf Eb results in the
increase of the net voltage. As net voltage Enet = E − Eb. Since supply
voltage E remains constant.
5. As a result of this increased amount of net voltage, the armature
current increases and consequently the torque increases.
Since, Ia ∝ Τ given by :
The change in armature current and torque on supplying load is graphically
shown below.
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6. This increase in the amount of torque increases the speed and thus
compensating for the speed loss on loading. Thus the final speed
characteristic of a DC shunt motor, looks like.
From there we can well understand this special ability of the shunt
wound DC motor to regulate its speed by itself on loading and thus its
rightly called the constant flux or constant speed motor. Because of which
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it finds wide spread industrial application where ever constant speed
operation is required.
Characteristics of DC shunt motor:
A- Armature torque Ta & Armature current Ia characteristics:
For a shunt motor flux can be assumed practically constant (through at
heavy loads, ф decreases somewhat due to increased armature reaction),
hence Ta ∝ Ia Therefore electrical characteristic is shown below, is
practically a straight line through the origin. Shaft torque is shown as
dotted line.
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B- Speed N & Armature current Ia characteristics:
As flux ɸ is assumed to be constant, we can say N ∝ Eb. But, as back
emf is also almost constant, the speed should remain constant. But
practically, ɸ as well as Eb decreases with increase in load. Back emf Eb
decreases slightly more than ɸ, therefore, the speed decreases slightly.
Generally, the speed decreases only by 5 to 15% of full load speed.
Therefore, a shunt motor can be assumed as a constant speed motor. In
speed vs. armature current characteristic in the following figure, the
straight horizontal line represents the ideal characteristic and the actual
characteristic is shown by the dotted line.
Speed vs armature current characteristics of DC shunt motor
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C- Speed N & Armature torque Ta characteristics:
From Ta ,Ia and Na , Ia with increase with torque the speed of DC shunt
motor decreases. The nature of the characteristics is drooping in nature
shown in figure as given below.
Application of DC shunt motor

The characteristics of a DC shunt motor give it a very good speed
regulation, and it is classified as a constant speed motor, even though the
speed does slightly decrease as load is increased. Shunt wound motors are
used in industrial and automotive applications where precise control of
speed and torque are required.
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Example1. A 250 volt DC shunt motor has armature resistance of 0.25 ohm on
load it takes an armature current of 50A and runs at 750rpm. If the flux of the
motor is reduced by 10% without changing the load torque, find the new speed of
the motor.
Solution:
Given data V = 250 Ra = 0.25
Example 2. A 230-V d.c. shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.5 Ω and field
resistance of 115 Ω. At no load, the speed is 1200 r.p.m. and the armature current 2.5
A. On application of rated load, the speed drops to 1120 r.p.m. Determine the line
current and power input when the motor delivers rated load.
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Solution:
Example 3. A dc motor takes an armature current of 110A at 480 V. The armature

circuit resistance is 0.2 ohm. The machine has 6 poles and the armature is lap
connected with 864 conductors. The flux per pole is 0.05 Wb . Calculate (i) the speed
and (ii) gross torque developed by the armature?
Solution:
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Example 6: A 240 V, shunt DC motor takes an armature current of 20 A when

running at 960 rpm. The armature resistance is 0.2 Ω. Determine the no load speed if
the no load armature current is 1 A.
Solution:
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Home work problems
1)
2)
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ii- DC Series Motor
In this motor, field, as well as stator windings, are coupled in series by each
other. Accordingly the armature and field current are equivalent.
In a series motor electric power is supplied between one end of the series
field windings and one end of the armature. When voltage is applied,
current flows from power supply terminals through the series winding and
armature winding. The large conductors present in the armature and field
windings provide the only resistance to the flow of this current. Since these
conductors are so large, their resistance is very low. This causes the motor
to draw a large amount of current from the power supply. When the large
current begins to flow through the field and armature windings, the coils
reach saturation that results in the production of the strongest magnetic
field possible.
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The strength of these magnetic fields provides the armature shafts with the
greatest amount of torque possible. The large torque causes the armature to
begin to spin with the maximum amount of power and the armature starts
to rotate.
Voltage Equation Of Series Motor:
Speed of Series Motor:
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Input & Output Power

The input power of a series motor is given by:
Electrical Efficiency:
ηe = Converted power in armature / Input electrical Power
Mechanical Efficiency:
ηm = Converted power in armature / output mechanical power
Overall Efficiency:
η = Output mechanical Power / Input electrical Power
η = (Input Power – Total losses) / Input Power
Where :
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 Pout is the useful output power

 Pa is the armature copper loss
 Pf is the field copper loss
 Pk is the constant losses that contains core losses & mechanical losses
Characteristics of DC series motor
A- Armature torque & armature current characteristics

We know that Ta ∝ ф Ia. In case of DC series motor as field windings also
carry the armature current ф ∝ Ia , T ∝Ia 2 .
At light loads, Ia and hence ф is small. But as Ia increases Ta increases as
the square of the current up-to saturation. After saturation ф becomes
constant, the characteristic becomes a straight line as shown in Figure
below. Therefore a series motor develops a torque proportional to the
square of the armature current. This characteristic is suited where huge
starting torque is required for accelerating heavy masses.
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B- Speed & armature current characteristics
N b/
In DC series motor Ia 
Therefore N a
If Ia increases, speed decreases. This characteristic is shown in figure
below. Therefore the speed is inversely proportional to armature current Ia.
When load is heavy Ia ia heavy thus speed is low. When load is low Ia is
low thus speed becomes dangerously high. Hence series motor should
never start without load on it.
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C- Speed & armature torque characteristics
From Ta, Ia and Na ,Ia characteristics Speed is inversely proportional to
torque. The characteristic is shown in figure as given below.
Applications of DC series motor
For a given input current, the starting torque developed by a DC
series motor is greater than that developed by a shunt motor. Hence series
motors are used where huge starting torques are necessary. Ex. Cranes,
hoists, electric traction etc. The DC series motor responds by decreasing its
speed for the increased in load. The current drawn by the DC series motor
for the given increase in load is lesser than DC shunt motor. The drop in
speed with increased load is much more prominent in series motor than
that in a shunt motor. Hence series motor is not suitable for applications
requiring a constant speed.
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Example 7:
Solution:
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Example 8:
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Solution:
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iii- DC Compound motor
A compound wound DC motor (also known as a DC compound motor) is
a type of self-excited motor, and is made up of both series the field coils S1
S2 and shunt field coils F1 F2 connected to the armature winding as shown
in the figure below.
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Both the field coils provide for the required amount of magnetic flux, that
links with the armature coil and brings about the torque necessary to facilitate
rotation at the desired speed. As we can understand, a compound wound DC
motor is basically formed by the amalgamation of a shunt wound DC motor
and series wound DC motor to achieve the better off properties of both these
types. Like a shunt wound DC motor is bestowed with an extremely efficient
speed regulation characteristic, whereas the DC series motor has high starting
torque.
Types of Compound Wound DC Motor
The compound wound DC motor can further be subdivided into 2 major
types on the basis of its field winding connection with respect to the armature
winding, and they are:
Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Motor

In case of long shunt compound wound DC motor, the shunt field winding is
connected in parallel across the series combination of both the armature and
series field coil, as shown in the diagram below.
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Voltage and Current Equation of Long Shunt Compound Wound DC

Motor
Let E and Itotal be the total supply voltage and current supplied to the input
terminals of the motor. And Ia, Ise , Ish be the values of current flowing
through armature resistance Ra, series winding resistance Rse and shunt
winding resistance Rsh respectively.
Now we know in shunt motor,
And in series motor
Therefore, the current equation of a compound wound DC motor is given by
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And its voltage equation is,
Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Motor
In case of short shunt compound wound DC motor, the shunt field winding is
connected in parallel across the armature winding only. And series field coil is
exposed to the entire supply current, before being split up into armature and
shunt field current as shown in the diagram below.
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Voltage and Current Equation of Short Shunt Compound Wound DC

Motor
Here also let, E and Itotal be the total supply voltage and current supplied to
the input terminals of the motor. And Ia, Ise, Ish be the values of current
flowing through armature resistance Ra, series winding resistance Rse and
shunt winding resistance Rsh respectively.
But from the diagram above we can see,
Since the entire supply current flows through the series field winding.
And like in the case of a DC shunt motor,
Equation (2) and (3) gives the current equation of a short shunt compound
wound DC motor.
Now for equating the voltage equation, we apply Kirchoff’s law to the circuit
and get,
But since
Thus the final voltage equation can be written as,
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Apart from the above mentioned classification, a compound wound DC
motor can further be sub divided into 2 types depending upon excitation or
the nature of compounding. i.e.
Cumulative Compounding of DC Motor

A compound wound DC motor is said to be cumulatively compounded when
the shunt field flux produced by the shunt winding assists or enhances the
effect of main field flux, produced by the series winding.
Differential Compounding of DC Motor

Similarly a compound wound DC motor is said to be deferentially
compounded when the flux due to the shunt field winding diminishes the
effect of the main series winding. This particular trait is not really desirable,
and hence does not find much of a practical application.
The net flux produced in this case is lesser than the original flux and hence
does not find much of a practical application.
The compounding characteristic of the self excited DC motor is shown in the
figure below.
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Characteristics of DC compound motor
There are two different types of compound motors in common use,
they are the cumulative compound motor and the differential compound
motor. In the cumulative compound motor, the field produced by the series
winding aids the field produced by the shunt winding. The speed of this
motor falls more rapidly with increasing current than does that of the
shunt motor because the field increases. In the differential compound
motor, the flux from the series winding opposes the flux from the shunt
winding. The field flux, therefore, decreases with increasing load current.
Because the flux decreases, the speed may increases with increasing load.
Depending on the ratio of the series-to-shunt field ampere-turns, the motor
speed may increases very rapidly.
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characteristics of dc compound motor
Application of DC compound motor
Cumulative compound wound motors are virtually suitable for almost all
applications like business machines, machine tools, agitators and mixers etc.
Compound motors are used to drive loads such as shears, presses and
reciprocating machines.
Differential compound motors are seldom used in practice (because of rising
speed characteristics).
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Starting of DC Motor
The current drawn by the armature is given by
At starting, as N=0 so Eb = 0 thus
Armature resistance will be very low. Therefore, the current drawn by the
motor will be very high. In order to limit this high current, a starting
resistance is connected in series with the armature. The starting resistance
will be excluded from the circuit after the motor attains its rated speed.
From there on back emf limits the current drawn by the motor.
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Three Point Starter
The arrangement is shown in the figure below shows a three point starter
for shunt motor.
It consists of resistances arranged in steps, R1 to R5 connected in series
with the armature of the shunt motor. Field winding is connected across
the supply through a protective device called ‘NO – Volt Coil’. Another
protection given to the motor in this starter is ‘over load release coil’. To
start the motor the starter handle is moved from OFF position to Run
position gradually against the tension of a hinged spring. An iron piece is
attached to the starter handle which is kept hold by the No-volt coil at Run
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position. The function of No volt coil is to get de-energized and release the
handle when there is failure or disconnection or a break in the field circuit
so that on restoration of supply, armature of the motor will not be
connected across the lines without starter resistance. If the motor is over
loaded beyond a certain predetermined value, then the electromagnet of
overload release will exert a force enough to attract the lever which short
circuits the electromagnet of No volt coil. Short circuiting of No volt coil
results in de-energisation of it and hence the starter handle will be released
and return to its off position due to the tension of the spring.
If it is desire to control the speed of the motor in addition, then a field
rheostat is connected in the field circuit. The motor speed can be increased
by weakening the flux (N фBut there is one difficulty for control speed
with this arrangement. If too much resistance is cut in by the field rheostat,
then field current is reduced too much so that it is enable to create enough
electromagnetic pull to overcome the spring tension. Hence the arm is
pulled back to OFF position. It is this undesirable feature of a three-point
starter which makes it unsuitable for use with variable-sped motor. This
can be overcome with four-point starter.
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Four Point Starter

One important change is the No Volt Coil has been taken out of the shunt
field and has been connected directly across the line through a Protecting
resistance ‘R’. When the arm touches stud one. The current divides into
three paths, 1. Through the starter resistance and the armature, 2. Through
shunt field and the field rheostat and 3.Through No-volt Coil and the
protecting resistance ‘R’. With this arrangement, any change of current in
shunt field circuit does not affect the current passing though the NO-volt
coil because, the two circuits are independent of each other. Thus the
starter handle will not be released to its off position due to changes in the
field current which may happen when the field resistance is varied. Fig
given below shows internal view of 4-point starter.
Internal view of four point starter
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Speed Control of DC Motors
Speed control theory:
Speed of a DC motor can be controlled in a wide range.
The speed equation shows that speed can be controlled by :
1.Variation of field current which varies the flux/pole and is known as field
control.
2. Variation of armature resistance known as armature voltage control.
3. Variation of terminal voltage ‘V’ known as Ward Leonard method.
A- Speed control of Shunt motor:
1. Flux control method: It is already explained above that the speed of a dc
motor is inversely proportional to the flux per pole. Thus by decreasing the
flux, speed can be increased and vice versa.
To control the flux, a rheostat is added in series with the field winding, as
shown in the circuit diagram. Adding more resistance in series with the field
winding will increase the speed as it decreases the flux. In shunt motors, as
field current is relatively very small, Ish2R loss is small. Therefore, this
method is quite efficient. Though speed can be increased above the rated
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value by reducing flux with this method, it puts a limit to maximum speed as
weakening of field flux beyond a limit will adversely affect the commutation.
2. Armature control method: Speed of a dc motor is directly proportional to
the back emf Eb and Eb = V - IaRa. That means, when supply voltage V and
the armature resistance Ra are kept constant, then the speed is directly
proportional to armature current Ia. Thus, if we add resistance in series with
the armature, Ia decreases and, hence, the speed also decreases. Greater the
resistance in series with the armature, greater the decrease in speed.
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B- Speed control of dc series motor
1. Flux control method:
a. Field diverters: variable resistance is connected parallel to the series field
as shown in fig (a). This variable resistor is called as a diverter, as the desired
amount of current can be diverted through this resistor and, hence, current
through field coil can be decreased. Thus, flux can be decreased to the
desired amount and speed can be increased.
b. Armature diverter: Diverter is connected across the armature as shown in
fig (b). For a given constant load torque, if armature current is reduced then
the flux must increase, as Ta ∝ Ø Ia This will result in an increase in current
taken from the supply and hence flux Ø will increase and subsequently
speed of the motor will decrease.
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c. Tapped field control: As shown in fig (c) field coil is tapped dividing
number of turns. Thus we can select different value of Ø by selecting
different number of turns.
d. Paralleling field coils: In this method, several speeds can be obtained by
regrouping coils as shown in fig (d).
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2. Variable Resistance in series with Motor:
By increasing the resistance in series with the armature as shown in figure
given below the voltage applied across the armature terminals can be
decreased.
With reduced voltage across the armature, the speed is reduced. However, it
will be noted that since full motor current passes through this resistance,
there is a considerable loss of power in it.
C- Speed Control of a DC Compound Motor
Speed is controlled by variable resistors in the shunt field and armature
circuit. The series winding may be arranged that it aids the shunt field
(cumulative compound) or opposes it (differential compound).
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Cumulatively compounded motors are similar in characteristics to series
motors, while differential compounded motors are similar to shunt motors as
shown in the figure below:
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Losses and Efficiency of DC Machines
Efficiency of a DC motor:
Various losses occurring in a DC machine are listed below- Total losses can be
broadly divided into two types.
1) Constant losses
2) Variable losses
These losses can be further divided as :

1) Constant losses :
i) Core loss or iron loss
 Hysteresis loss
 Eddy current loss
ii) Mechanical loss
 Windage loss
 Friction loss – brush friction loss and Bearing friction loss.
2) Variable losses :
i) copper loss (I2 r)
 Armature copper loss
 Field copper loss
 Brush contact loss
ii) Stray load loss
 Copper stray load loss
 Core stray load loss
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Core loss or iron loss occurs in the armature core is due to the rotation of armature
core in the magnetic flux produced by the field system. Iron loss consists of a)
Hysteresis loss and b) Eddy current loss.
Power Stages of DC Motor:
Power flow in a DC generator is shown in figure
Power flow in a DC motor
Overall or commercial Efficiency= C/A

Electrical Efficiency = B/A
Mechanical Efficiency = C/B
A-B = Cu Losses And B – C = iron and friction losses
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Example :
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DC Motors Lecture Notes

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U.O.

Th - College of Engineering DC Motors Prepared by Mustafa Al Ghezi

- Explain Principle of working of a DC motor.

- Explain concept of development of torque & back EMF in DC motor

including simple problems.

- Derive equation relating to back EMF, Current, Speed and Torque

- Classify DC motors & explain characteristics, application.

solid State converter.

- Explain Speed of DC motor by field control and armature control

- Explain power stages of DC motor & derive Efficiency of a DC motor.

DC motor operates on the principle that when a current carrying conductor

is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force given by F =

length of the conductor. The direction of force can be found by Fleming’s

left hand rule. From the point of construction, there is no difference

between a DC generator and DC motor. Figure below shows a multipolar

DC motor. Armature conductors are carrying current downwards under

excited, with current carrying armature conductors, a force is experienced

by each armature conductor whose direction can be found by Fleming’s left

function of a commutator in DC motor is to provide a continuous and

In DC generator the work done in overcoming the magnetic drag is

converted into electrical energy. Conversion of energy from electrical form

to mechanical form by a DC motor takes place by the work done in

Fleming’s left hand rule:

 Used to determine the direction of force acting on a current carrying

conductor placed in a magnetic field.

kept at right angles to one another.

 The middle finger represent the direction of current

 The fore finger represent the direction of magnetic field

 The greatest advantage of DC motors may be speed control. Since

speed is directly proportional to armature voltage and inversely

proportional to the magnetic flux produced by the poles, adjusting

 Today, adjustable frequency drives can provide precise speed control

for AC motors, but they do so at the expense of power quality, as the

solid-state switching devices in the drives produce a rich harmonic

spectrum. The DC motor has no adverse effects on power quality.

 Power supply, initial cost, and maintenance requirements are the

negatives associated with DC motors

 Rectification must be provided for any DC motors supplied from the

grid. It can also cause power quality problems.

 The construction of a DC motor is considerably more complicated

and expensive than that of an AC motor, primarily due to the

commutator, brushes, and armature windings. An induction motor

requires no commutator or brushes, and most use cast squirrel-cage

rotor bars instead of true windings — two huge simplifications.

Back EMF and its Significance:

What is back emf ?

When the armature of a DC motor rotates under the influence of the

in opposite direction to the applied voltage V (Lenz’s law) and is known

as Back EMF or Counter EMF (Eb).

The equation for back emf in a DC motor is given below,

How Back EMF Occur in DC Motor ?

Consider a shunt wound DC motor :

Therefore, driving torque acts on the armature which begins to rotate. As

causing the current to flow against Eb is converted into mechanical energy

developed in the armature. It follows, therefore, that energy conversion in

a dc motor is only possible due to the production of back emf Eb.

Net voltage across armature circuit = V – Eb

If Ra is the armature circuit resistance, then, Ia = (V – Eb)/Ra

The significance of Back EMF:

i.e., it makes the motor to draw as much armature current as is just

sufficient to develop the torque required by the load. Armature current

When the motor is running on no load, small torque is required to overcome

current is just sufficient to produce the increased torque required by the