Lec-2, 12 June 2021

Structure of Matter
and Radiation
 Atomic Nucleus
➢ Discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford.
➢ Nucleus contains proton and neutron.
➢ Nuclear particles are called nucleon.
➢ Atomic number, Z = number of protons (p)
➢ Mass number, A = Sum of the number of
protons and neutrons (p+n) or A=Z+n
➢ Number of Neutrons = Mass Number -
Atomic Number
58
➢ As long as the proton number is same the
element is same.
27𝐶𝑜
 Isotope

➢ Atomic nucleus having same number of

protons

58 60
27𝐶𝑜 27𝐶𝑜
Isotopes of Cobalt
 Isobar
➢ Atoms or nuclides of separate elements having the same mass number
(same number of nucleons).
 Isotone
➢ Nuclei that have the same number of neutrons.
 Isomers
➢ Isomers are molecules with the same molecular formulas, but different
arrangements of atoms.
 Nuclear Energy Levels
➢ The nucleus, like the atom, has discrete energy
levels whose location and properties are governed
by the rules of quantum mechanics.
➢ There is a state of lowest energy (the ground state)
and discrete possible excited states for a nucleus.
➢ Where the discrete energy states for the electrons
of an atom are measured in eV or keV, the energy
levels of the nucleus are considerably greater and
typically measured in MeV.
➢ A nucleus that is in the excited state will not remain
at that energy level for an indefinite period. Like the
electrons in an excited atom, the nucleons in an
excited nucleus will transition towards their lowest
energy configuration and in doing so emit a
discrete bundle of electromagnetic radiation called
a gamma ray (γ-ray).
 Nuclear Isomers
➢ Atoms with the same mass number and atomic number, but with different states of
excitation in the atomic nucleus.
➢ The higher or more excited state is called a metastable state, while the stable,
unexcited state is called the ground state.
Meta stable state

99𝑚
43 𝑇𝑐
99
Protactinium
43 𝑇𝑐 Stable state
Basic knowledge about Radioactivity
and Isotope
 Atomic mass unit (amu or u)
An atomic mass unit is defined as a mass equal to one twelfth the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
The mass of any isotope of any element is expressed in relation to the carbon-12 standard.

Example: Mass of an electron = 0.000549 amu

 Mass Energy equivalence

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
Energy equivalence for 1 amu:

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝐸 = 1.66 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔 . 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 2

𝐸 = 1.4924 × 10−10 𝐽
1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽
𝐸 = 931.5 × 106 𝑒𝑉

𝐸 = 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉
Nuclear Binding Energy

𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = ∆𝑚 × 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉

Nuclear Stability
 Radioactivity
• Atoms found in nature are either stable or unstable.
• An atom is stable if the forces among the particles that makeup the nucleus
are balanced. An atom is unstable (radioactive) if these forces are
unbalanced.
• An unstable nucleus will achieve stability by changing its nuclear
configuration.
• This includes changing neutrons to protons, or vice versa, and then ejecting
the surplus mass or energy from the nucleus
• This emitted mass or energy is called radiation (electromagnetic or particle)

Radioactive decay or radioactivity is the process by which an unstable

atomic nucleus disintegrate spontaneously and emits energy.
 Radioactivity

French physicist Henri Becquerel 1896 discovered spontaneous

radioactivity while studying uranium compounds.

In 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie n found other radioactive

elements: polonium, thorium and radium.

Marie Curie coined the term “radioactivity”

Henri Becquerel

Becquerel and the Curies shared the 1903 Nobel Prize for
their work on radioactivity
 Decay Law
The radioactive decay law states that the probability per unit time that a nucleus will decay is a constant, independent of
time. This constant is called the decay constant and is denoted by λ, “lambda”.

𝒅𝑵
= −𝝀𝑵
𝒅𝒕

N= N0e-λt 𝜆 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Activity: 𝝀𝑵

Unit of activity:
1 becquerel = 1 decay/s

1 curie = 3.7x1010 radioactive decays per

second
 Half Life
➢ The time it takes for one-half of
the atoms of a radioactive
material to disintegrate.
➢ Half-lives for various radioisotopes
can range from a few
microseconds to years.

Half-life of a radioactive isotope is 8 hours. What percentage of the isotope will decay after one day?
Modes of radioactive decay
 Alpha decay
• Alphas are large particles ejected by
the heavier nuclides
• Alpha decay is probable for nuclides A− 4 +2
with Z > 82
Z
A
X→ Z −2Y + He
4
2
• Alpha contains two protons and two
+2
Po→ Pb+ He
neutrons (no electrons) and is, in 210 206 4
effect, a helium nucleus
84 82 2
• Thus, the atomic number decreases by
two and the mass number decreases
by four

MeV
Q = [ M A X − ( M A−4Y + M 4 He )](931.5 )
Z Z −2 2
amu
Beta decay
• Betas are physically the same as electrons, but may be positively or
negatively charged
• Negative beta is a beta minus or negatron
• Positive beta is a beta plus or positron
• Betas are ejected from the nucleus, not from the electron orbitals
• In all beta decays the atomic number changes by one while the atomic
mass is unchanged
 Beta- decay

• Occurs in neutron-rich nuclides

1
0 n→ p + e + 
1
1
0
−1
• The nucleus converts a neutron into a
proton and a beta minus (which is
ejected from the nucleus with an anti-
neutrino)
A
Z X → Y +  +
A
Z +1
0
−1
• Mass and charge are conserved
• The daughter element is different from

Sr → Y +  + 
the parent element 90 90 0
38 39 −1
 Beta+ decay

• Occurs in proton-rich nuclides

• The nucleus converts a proton into a
1
1 p→ n+ e + 
1
0
0
+1
neutron and a beta plus (which is ejected
from the nucleus with a neutrino)
A
Z X → Y +  +
A
Z −1
0
+1
• As with negatrons, the positron can have a
range of energies from 0 to EMax MeV
• Positron is the negatron’s anti-particle
 Electron Capture
• Proton-rich nuclides may also decay via
orbital electron capture (EC) 1
1 p + e→ n + 
0
−1
1
0
• Usually an innermost K shell electron is

X + e→ Y +
captured and often referred to as K-capture A 0 A
• The electron and a proton are converted into Z −1 Z −1
a neutron and a neutrino is emitted
• Electrons from higher orbitals will fill
vacancy and usually emit characteristic x-
53
25 Mn ⎯⎯→ Cr +
EC 53
24
rays
 Auger Electron

• When electrons change shells, EM radiation are usually •

emitted
• In some instances, the excess energy is transferred to • • •
another orbital electron, which is then ejected from the • • •
atom
• This ejected electron is known as an Auger electron
• Another orbital vacancy now exists and x-rays may be
emitted if they are filled