MECHANICS OF STRUCTIRE

MECHANICS OF STRUCTURE
Name: Kaware Akshay Sanjay
Class: S.E. Civil A
RollNo: 20CV321
Batch: DSE
University Roll No: 72162097D

Dept.ofCivilEngineering, AISSMSCOE, Pune

[Typehere]

DEPARTMENTOFCIVILENGINEERING

LABORATORY MANUAL

MECHANICS OF STRUCTURE
 AISSMSCOLLEGEOFENGINEERING,PUNE

DEPARTMENTOFCIVILENGINEERING

SUBJECT: MECHANICS OF STRUCTURE

S.E(CIVILENGINEERING)

INDEX

Sr. Date of Date of

No. Title of Experiment Performance Checking Signature Remarks

1. Tension Test on Metal 28/07/2020 04/08/2020

2. Shear Test on Metal 04/08/2020 11/08/2020
3. Torsion Test on Metal 11/08/2020 18/08/2020
4. Impact Test on Metal 18/08/2020 25/08/2020
5. Compression Test on Timber 25/08/2020 08/09/2020
6. Bending Test on Timber and
Plywood 08/09/2020 15/09/2020
7. Field Test on Bricks 15/09/2020 29/09/2020
8. Efflorescence of Bricks 29/10/2020 06/10/2020
Water Absorption Test on
9. Bricks 06/10/2020 13/10/2020
10. Compressive Strength Bricks 13/10/2020 20/10/2020
Flexural Strength of Flooring
11. and Roofing Tiles 20/10/2020 27/10/2020
12. Abrasion Test on Flooring Tile 27/11/2020 03/11/2020
13. Assignment- 1 03/11/2020 10/11/2020
14. Assignment- 2 03/11/2020 10/11/2020
15. Assignment- 3 03/11/2020 10/11/2020
16. Assignment on ILD 10/11/2020 17/11/2020
GROUP: A
METALS

1
 Experiment no.:- 1

Tension Test on Metal

Aim: - To study mechanical properties of mild and tor steel specimen under tension
Load
References: - IS 1608 – 2005

Objective: - To conduct a tensile test on mild and tor steel specimens to determine

➢ Limit of proportionality
➢ Elastic limit
➢ Yield strength
➢ Ultimate strength
➢ Young’s modulus of elasticity
➢ Percentage elongation
➢ Percentage reduction in area

Apparatus  Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

&  Mild steel and TMT steel specimens
Specimens: -  Graph paper
 Scale
 Vernier Calliper

Diagram: -

2
Observations:

Mild steel Tor steel

1 Original Diameter (D1) 15.90 mm 16.10 mm

2 Gauge Length (Li) 400 mm 400 mm

3 Cross Sectional Area (A1) 198.55 mm2 203.58 mm2

4 Load at Yield Point 40 x 103 N 60 x 109 N

5 Stress at Yield Point 201.46 N/mm2 294.72 N/mm2

6 Maximum Load 116 x 103 N 132.9 x 103 N

7 Ultimate Stress 584.23 N/mm2 652.8 N/mm2

8 Breaking Load 63x103 N 116x103 N

9 Final Gauge Length (Lf) 510 mm 420 mm

10 Diameter at Fracture (D2) 8 mm 12 mm

11 Area at Fracture (A2) 50.265 mm2 113.04 mm2

12 Nominal Breaking Stress 317.30 N/mm2 569.80 N/mm2

13 Percentage Elongation 27.59 % 5.009 %

14 Percentage Reduction in Area 74.689 % 44.77 %

15 Young’s Modulus 1.83 GPa 10.806 GPa

3
Observation Table: -
For Mild Steel

Sr. No Load in N Elongation in mm Stress N/mm2 Strain

1 20 3.72 99.47 0.0124
2 40 5.62 198.944 0.0188
3 60 7.09 298.416 0.023
4 80 8.36 397.889 0.0278
5 100 9.76 497.361 0.0375
6 116 14.35 576.939 0.0478
7 108 16.4 537.15 0.0346
8 106 16.9 527.203 0.0536
9 104 17.5 517.225 0.0602
10 102 18.08 507.308 0.0619
11 100 18.57 497.361 0.065
12 95 19.5 472.493 0.069
13 88 20.72 437.676 0.0705
14 85 21.15 422.757 0.0757
15 74 22.54 366.047 0.0757
16 71 22.72 353.26 0.0765
17 70 22.96 348.153 0.0766
18 65 23 323.284 0.0766
19 63 23 313.37 0.0766

For TMT Steel

Sr. Stress
No Load in N Elongation in mm N/mm2 Strain
1 10 6.64 49.736 0.0221
2 20 9.44 99.472 0.0314
3 30 11.23 149.208 0.0374
4 40 12.65 198.944 0.0434
5 50 13.87 248.416 0.0462
6 60 15 348.153 0.05
7 70 16 397.889 0.0533
8 80 16.85 447.625 0.0561
9 90 17.62 497.361 0.0587
10 100 18.44 547.097 0.064
11 110 19.57 537.671 0.0632
12 111 22.42 570.97 0.0747
13 114 27.75 574.452 0.0972
14 115 28.2 581.912 0.094
15 117 29.53 596.833 0.0984

4
 16 120 31.45 620.707 0.01048
17 124 36.36 646.569 0.01048
18 130 44.45 556.517 0.01712
19 132 59.91 660.993 0.01484
21 132.9 61.76 616.725 0.01883
22 134 64.94 616.728 0.02164
23 119 66 591.86 0.022
24 110 67.61 547.097 0.02253

Calculations:
1. Stress at yield point =

FOR MILD STEEL:

FOR TMT STEEL: = 294.72

2. Ultimate stress =

FOR MILD STEEL: = 584.23

FOR TMT STEEL: = 652.81 N/

3. Area at Fracture =

FOR MILD STEEL: = 50.265

FOR TMT STEEL: ( x ) = 86.59

4. Percentage elongation ]

FOR MILD STEEL: x 100 = 27.5 %

FOR TMT STEEL: x 100 = 5.00%

5. Nominal breaking stress =

FOR MILD STEEL: = 317.30 N/

5
 FOR TMT STEEL: = 569.80 N/

6. Actual breaking stress =

FOR MILD STEEL: = 1253.35 N/

FOR TMT STEEL: = 1026.18 N/

Result:-

As per IS 456:
Mild steel percentage elongation should be ≤ 27%
Here we have found 27.59% elongation in mild steel, which is not considerable.
As per IS 456:
TMT steel percentage elongation should be ≤ 7%
Here we have found 5.009% elongation in TMT, which is considerable.

6
7
8
 Experiment no.:- 2

Shear Test on Metal

Aim: - To determine shear strength of mild and tor steel

References: - IS 5242 – 1979

Objective: - To determine the modulus of rigidity for the given specimen.

Apparatus  UTM
&
Specimens: -
 Shear test attachment
 Vernier Calliper
 Mild steel (6 mm ø)
 Tor steel (8 mm ø)

Diagram: -

Theory:- The force acting tangentially to the surface is known as shear force. It is the
ratio of shear force to the surface area. The shear tests are greatly dependent
upon the specimen geometry and the lengths of specimen which are shared and
those which are supported. This test consists of breaking the specimen under
single or double shear. This test is essential as many machine parts and
structural members are subjected to shear stress and such static properties in
share plane an important role in design. A member is said to be subjected to
shear if line of action of force is parallel to the plane of cross section resisting it.
If only one plane resists, it is called as single shear and if two planes resist
shear, it is called as double shear. In this test specimen is tested in the form of a

9
 Prismatic bar which is held rigidly at one end (in single shear) or at both ends
(in double shear) and load is applied through a metallic piece having a hole
through which the specimen passes. The load application is very near the
support to avoid the bending of specimen. The test consists of gradual
application of load till the specimen gets fail in the shear.

Procedure:- 1) Determine the mean diameter of specimen with the help of Vernier calliper.
2) Place the assembly for single or double shear.
3) Keep the assembly with the specimen on lower cross head and bring the
middle cross head just above the shear attachment.
4) Apply the load gradually still the specimen fails in single and double shear.
Note the corresponding load from the display.
5) Study the type of fracture.

Observation Table:-

Sr. Single Shear Double Shear Ratio Average

no. Specimen Material (D.S./ S.S.)

Load (N) Load (N)

1 Mild Steel 14 x 103 28.8 x 103 2.04

2 Mild Steel 13.1 x 103 30.8 x 103 2.35 2.313 N

3 Mild Steel 11.4 x 103 29.1 x 103 2.55

Calculations:

SPECIMEN I -

Material - Mild Steel

Diameter - 6.2 mm

Cross - sectional area – = 30.19 mm2

Single Shear Test -

Load at failure = 13.1 kN

Stress =

= = 433.92 N/mm2

Double Shear Test -

10
 Load at failure = 32.8 kN

Stress = = 510.10 N/mm2

 SINGLE SHEAR —

Sr. Specimen Material Diameter C/s Area Load (N) Stress

No. (mm2) N / (mm2)
1 Mild Steel 6.2 30.19 13.1 x 103 433.92

2 Mild Steel 6 36 13.5 x 103 336.11

3 Mild Steel 6.05 28.74 11.6 x 103 396.5

 DOUBLE SHEAR —

Sr. Specimen Material Diameter C/s Area Load (N) Stress

No. (mm2) N / (mm2)
1 Mild Steel 6.2 30.19 30.8 x 103 510.10
2 Mild Steel 6 36 29.8 x 103 413.885
3 Mild Steel 6.05 28.74 11.6 x 103 506.1

Result: -

The average shear strength of mild steel specimen is found to be

Single shear = 388.8 N/mm2

Double shear = 476.69 N/mm2

11
 Experiment no.:- 3

Torsion Test on Metal

Aim: - To study the mechanical properties of mild and tor steel under torsion
References: - IS 1717 – 2012

Objective: - To determine the modulus of rigidity for the given specimen.

Apparatus  UTM
&
Specimens: -
 Shear test attachment
 Vernier Calliper
 Mild steel (6 mm ø)
 Tor steel (8 mm ø)

Diagram: -

Theory:- For transmitting power through a rotating shaft it is necessary to apply a

turning force. The force is applied tangentially and in the plane of transverse
cross section. The torque or twisting moment may be calculated by
multiplying two opposite turning moments. It is said to be in pure torsion and
it will exhibit the tendency of shearing off at every cross section which is
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.
Torsion equation:
Torsion equation is given by below

12
 G= N/mm2
T= maximum twisting torque (N mm)
J = polar moment of inertia (mm4)
τ = shear stress (N/mm2)
G = modulus of rigidity (N/mm2)
θ = angle of twist in radians
L= length of shaft under torsion (mm)

Procedure:- 1. Select the driving dogs to suit the size of the specimen and clamp it in
the machine by adjusting the length of the specimen by means of a
sliding spindle.
2. Measure the diameter at about three places and take the average value.
3. Choose the appropriate range by capacity change lever
4. Set the maximum load pointer to zero.
5. Set the protector to zero for convenience and clamp it by means of
knurled screw.
6. Carry out straining by rotating the hand wheel in either direction.
7. Load the machine in suitable increments.
8. Then load out to failure as to cause equal increments of strain reading.
9. Plot a torque- twist (T- θ) graph.
10. Read off co-ordinates of a convenient point from the straight line portion
of the torque twist (T- θ) graph and calculate the value of C by using
relation

Observations:-
Gauge length of the specimen, l = 360mm
Diameter of the specimen, d = 16mm
Polar moment of inertia (J) = = = 201.061 mm4

Observation Table: -

Sr. No Twist (ø°) Torque (N-m)

1 0 0
2 10 0
3 20 0
4 30 0
5 40 0
6 50 0
7 60 0
8 70 0

13
 9 80 0
10 90 40
11 100 40.2
12 150 40.6
13 200 40.8
14 260 40.9
15 460 41.0
16 580 43.2
17 800 44.4
18 900 45.8
19 972 45.8
Calculations:-

J= = = 6433.98 mm4

G= = = 2.64 MPa

Result: - Modulus of rigidity for steel (G) = 2.64 MPa

14
 Experiment no.:- 4

Impact Test on Metal

Aim: - To find impact resistance of metals

References: - IS 1598 – 1977 Izod test
IS 1499 – 1977 Charpy test

Objective: - To determine the impact resistance of metals by Izod and Charpy test

Apparatus  Impact testing machine

&
Specimens: -
 For Izod test specimen 75 mm X 10mm X 10mm with V notch of
apex angle 45° and 2 mm deep at a distance of 28 mm from one
end.
 For Charpy test specimen 55 mm X 10mm X 10mm with U notch
at 27.5mm from ends, 5mm deep with root radius 1mm.

Diagram: -

Theory:- An impact test signifies toughness of material that is ability of material to absorb
energy during plastic deformation. Static tension tests of un notched specimens
do not always reveal the susceptibility of a metal to brittle fracture. This
important factor is determined by impact test. Toughness takes into account both
the strength and ductility of the material. Several engineering materials have to
withstand impact or suddenly applied loads while in service. Impact strengths are
generally lower as compared to strengths achieved under slowly applied loads. Of
all types of impact tests, the notch bar tests are most extensively used. Therefore,
the impact test measures the energy necessary to fracture a standard notch bar by
applying an impulse load. The test measures the notch toughness of material
under shock loading. Values obtained from these tests are not of much utility to
design problems directly and are highly arbitrary.Still it is important to note that

15
 it provides a good way of comparing toughness of various materials or toughness
of the same material under different condition. This test can also be used to assess
the ductile brittle transition temperature of the material occurring due to lowering
of temperature
The pendulum is mounted on antifriction bearings. It has two starting positions,
the upper one for Charpy, the lower one for Izod testing. On release, the
pendulum swings down to break the specimen & the energy absorbed in doing so
is measured as the difference between the heights of drop before rupture of the
test specimen and is read from the maximum pointer position on the dial scale.
There are two strikers and one combined support anvil available for fitting in to
the pendulum and on the base of machine for the Izod, Charpy test respectively.
Changing from one striker to another is achieved simply by fixing the new striker
into its position.
Charpy Impact Test Izod Impact Test
Material Tested Metal Plastic & Metals
Types of notches U-notch and V-notch V-notch

Position of specimen Horizontally, Notch Vertically, Notch facing

facing away from towards from pendulum
pendulum
Striking point Middle of sample Upper tip of the sample
Size of specimen 10 x 10 x 55mm 10 x 10 x 75mm

Procedure:- 1. lzod test

1) With the striking hammer (pendulum) in safe test position (Angle 900). Firmly
hold the steel specimen in impact testing machine’s vice in such a way that
the notch face the hammer and is half inside and half above the top surface of
the vice.

2) Bring the striking hammer to its top most striking position unless it is already
there, and lock it at that position.

3) Bring indicator of the machine to zero, or follow the instructions of the

operating manual supplied with the machine.

4) Release the hammer. It will fall due to gravity and break the specimen
through its momentum, the total energy is not absorbed by the specimen.
Then it continues to swing. At its topmost height after breaking the specimen,
the indicator stops moving, while the pendulum falls back. Note the indicator
at that topmost final position.

5) Again bring back the hammer to its idle position.

2. Charpy Test

1) With the striking hammer (pendulum) in safe test position, (Angle 1400).
specimen is kept horizontally in impact testing machines. The specimen is
16
 placed on supports or anvil so that the blow of hammer is opposite to the
notch

2) Bring the striking hammer to its top most striking position unless it is already
there, and lock it at that position.

3) Bring indicator of the machine to zero, or follow the instructions of the

operating manual supplied with the machine.

Release the hammer. It will fall due to gravity and break the specimen through
its momentum, the total energy is not absorbed by the specimen. Then it
continues to swing. At its topmost height after breaking the specimen, the
indicator stops moving, while the pendulum falls back. Note the indicator at
that top most final position.

Observation Table:-
Izod Test.
Material Initial Reading Final reading
Brass 56 Nm 70 Nm

Aluminum 58 Nm 64 Nm
Mild steel 66 Nm 124 Nm
Charpy Test.
Material Initial Reading Final reading
Brass 40 Nm 60 Nm

Aluminum 40 Nm 80 Nm

Mild steel 40 Nm 212 Nm

Calculations:-

Sr. Material Energy Absorbed During Strength Joule/mm2

No. Used Impact Test [FR-IR] Nm

IZOD CHARPY IZOD CHARPY

1. Brass 12 20 0.12 0.2

2. Aluminum 6 40 0.06 0.4
3. Mild steel 66 172 0.66 1.72

Result: -

Sr. No. Material Used Impact Strength Joule/mm2 Remark

IZOD CHARPY IZOD CHARPY
1. Brass 0.12 0.2 Brittle Brittle
2. Aluminum 0.06 0.4 Semi ductile Semi ductile
3. Mild steel 0.66 1.72 Ductile Ductile

17
 GROUP: B
TIMBER & PLYWOOD

18
 Experiment no.:- 5
Compression Test on Timber
Aim: - To determine compressive strength of Timber
References: - IS 1708 – 1986
Objective: - To determine strength of timber parallel and perpendicular to grains
Apparatus  Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
& Specimens: -  Timber Specimens Parallel to grains 50 X 50 X 150 mm
 Timber specimen perpendicular to grains 50 X 50 X 200 mm

Diagram: -

Theory:- Timber is generally used as a compression member either for columns or as

props for different situations. Hence is essential to have an idea about its
compressive strength which is a governing criterion for compressive members.
Procedure:- 1. Three wooden specimens are prepared for grains parallel to load and grains
perpendicular to grains
2. The specimen parallel to grain is then placed in compression testing
machine and load is increased gradually till the specimen fails.
3. Similarly take tests on two other specimens also
4. Same process shall be performed on specimens perpendicular to grains
Observation Table:-
1. Parallel to the grain:

Sr No Area of Fractured Compressive Average

contact Load (N) strength=(load/area) Compressive
(mm2) (N/ mm2) Strength(N/ mm2)
1 2744 120.5x 43.91
2 3025 106.7x 35 40.99
3 2500 110.2x 44.08

19
 2. Perpendicular to the grain:

Sr No Area of Fractured Compressive Average

contact Load (N) strength=(load/area) Compressive
(mm2) (N/ mm2) Strength (N/ mm2)
1 5243 110x 20.98
2 5500 48.4x 8.8 21.39
3 2500 86x 34.4

Calculation:
Compressive strength (N/mm2)

a) Grains Parallel to load:

1. = = 43.91

2. = = 35

3. = = 44.08

b) Grains perpendicular to load:

1. = = 20.98

2. = = 8.8

3. = = 34.4

Result: -

1. The compressive strength of timber for grains parallel to load is found out to be

40.99 N/mm2

2. The compressive strength of timber for grains perpendicular to load is found out to be

21.92 N/mm2

20
 Experiment no.:- 6
Bending Test on Timber and Plywood

Aim: - To determine bending strength of Timber and Plywood

References: - 1. IS 1708 – 1969, Methods of testing small clear specimen of timber
2. IS 883 – 1970, Code practice for design of structural timber in
building
Objective: - To determine bending stress and Young’s modulus of the material
Apparatus  Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
& Specimens: -  Timber and Plywood Specimens
 Scale

Diagram: -

Theory:- If a beam is simply supported at the ends and carries a concentrated load at the
centre, the beam bends concave upwards. The distance between the original
position of the beam and its position after bending is different at different points
(fig) along the length if the beam, being maximum at the centre in this case. This
difference is called ‘deflection’. In this type of loading the maximum amount of
deflection is given by the relation,

Where,
W= load acting at the centre,
L=length of the beam between the supports mm
E= young’s modulus of material of the beam, N/mm2
I= Moment of inertia of the beam about the neutral axis in mm4

Bending stress: As per bending equation,

Where
M= bending moment(Nmm)
= bending stress (N/mm 2)
y =distance of the fibre of the beam from the neutral axis.

21
Procedure:- 1. Adjust the supports alone the UTM bed so that they are symmetrically with
respect to the length of the bed.
2. Place the beam on the knife edges on the blocks so as to project equally
beyond each knife edge. See that the load is applied at the centre of the
beam.
3. Note the initial reading of vernier scale.
4. Apply a load and again note the reading of the vernier scale.
5. Go on taking reading applying load in steps each time till you have minimum
3 readings.
6. Calculate the bending stresses for different loads using relation
given in the observation table.
7. Repeat the experiment for different beam specimens.

Observation Table:-
For timber:-

SrNo Dimensions Breaking load Flexural Strength Avg Flexural

lxbxd (kN) (N/ ) Through
(N/ )
1 30.9x4.6x4.8 13.7 5.991x
2 30.6x4.6x4.6 15.8 7.45 x 6.27x
3 30.3x4.8x5.6 17.8 5.37 x

For plywood:-

SrNo Dimensions Breaking load Flewural Strength Avg Flewural

lxbxd (kN) (N/ ) Through
(N/ )
1 30.2x9.7x1.6 1.5 2.73 x
2 30.1x5.8x1.6 1.4 4.2 x 3.18 x
3 30.3x9.7x1.6 1.4 2.56 x

Result: -

A) Bending strength:

i) For timber = 6.27x N/mm2

ii) For plywood = 3.18 x N/mm2

22
 GROUP: C
BRICKS & TILES

23
 Experiment no.:- 7

Field test on bricks

Aim: - To study the quality of bricks by various field tests on bricks.

References: - IS 1237-1980
Objective: - To determine the quality of construction bricks by various field tests.

Following tests are conducted on bricks to determine its suitability for construction
work.

1. Absorption test.
2. Hardness test.
3. Shape and size.
4. Color test.
5. Soundness test.
6. Structure of brick.
7. Presence of soluble salts (Efflorescence Test)

1. Absorption Test on Bricks

Absorption test is conducted on brick to find out the amount of moisture content
absorbed by brick under extreme conditions. In this test, sample dry bricks are taken and
weighed. After weighing these bricks are placed in water with full immersing for a
period of 24 hours. Then weigh the wet brick and note down its value. The difference
between dry and wet brick weights will give the amount of water absorption. For a good
quality brick the amount of water absorption should not exceed 20% of weight of dry
brick.

2. Hardness Test on Bricks

A good brick should resist scratches against sharp things. So, for this test a sharp tool or finger
nail is used to make scratch on brick. If there is no scratch impression on brick then it is said to
be hard brick.

24
3. Shape and Size Test on Bricks

Shape and size of bricks are very important consideration. All bricks used for
construction should be of same size. The shape of bricks should be purely rectangular
with sharp edges. Standard brick size consists length x breadth x height as 19cm x 9cm x
9cm.

To perform this test, select 20 bricks randomly from brick group and stack them along
its length, breadth and height and compare. So, if all bricks similar size then they are
qualified for construction work.

4. Color Test of Bricks

A good brick should possess bright and uniform color throughout its body. Colour of a
good brick should be copper red. If brick is of dark blackish blue colour it indicates the
brick is over burnt and brittle in nature.

5. Soundness Test of Bricks

Soundness test of bricks shows the nature of bricks against sudden impact. In this test, 2
bricks are chosen randomly and struck with one another. Then sound produced should be
clear bell ringing sound and brick should not break. Then it is said to be good brick.

25
6. Structure of Bricks

To know the structure of brick, pick one brick randomly from the group and break it.
Observe the inner portion of brick clearly. It should be free from lumps and
homogeneous.

7. Efflorescence Test on Bricks

A good quality brick should not contain any soluble salts in it. If soluble salts are there,
then it will cause efflorescence on brick surfaces.

To know the presence of soluble salts in a brick, placed it in a water bath for 24 hours
and dry it in shade. After drying, observe the brick surface thoroughly. If there is any
white or grey color deposits, then it contains soluble salts and not useful for
construction.

26
 Experiment no.:- 8

Efflorescence of Bricks

Aim: - Determination of Efflorescence of Bricks

References: - IS:3495-PART 3-1992

Objective: - To determine area of Efflorescence

Apparatus  A shallow flat bottom dish containing sufficient distilled water to

& Specimens: completely saturate the specimens. The dish shall be made of glass,
- porcelain or glazed stoneware and of size 180 mm x 180 mm x 40 mm
depth for square shaped and 200 mm diameter x 40 mm depth for
cylindrical shaped.
 Distilled water
 Brick specimens
Diagram: -

Theory:- Efflorescence is a whitish crystalline deposit on surface of the bricks. Usually

sulphate of magnesium, calcium, sulphate and carbonate (and sometimes
chloride and nitrates) of sodium and potassium are found in efflorescence. These
salts may be traced to the brick itself, sand used in construction, the foundation
soil, ground water, water used in the construction and loose earth left over in
contact with brick work.
Bricks with magnesium sulphate content higher than 0.05 percent should not be
used in construction. Soluble salt content in sand (chloride and sulphate
together) should not exceed 0.1 percent. Water, if it finds access to brick work,
moves along its pores by capillary action and carries with it dissolved salts. As
the solution evaporates from the exposed surface of the brick work, the salts are
left as deposit on the surface or on layers just below it. Disintegration or flaking
of the brick surface is caused by the mechanical force exerted by salts as these
crystallize just below the exposed surface. Magnesium sulphate, in particular,
disintegrates bricks and pushes out plaster.

27
 REMEDIES:

1. Well fired bricks should be used in construction.

2. Sand should be tested for its salt content.
3. Proper D.P.C. should be provided in the building.
4. Efflorescence on brick work traceable to salts in the materials can be
removed by dry brushing and washing repeatedly. Such efflorescence may re-
appear in dry season but usually are less in intensity. Finally these disappear as
the salt content of the bricks gradually leached out.

Procedure:- 1. Fill distilled water in shallow dish and place one end of brick in dish. Water
should fill in dish such that bricks should immerse in water up to 25 mm
depth.

2. Place this whole arrangement in a warm well ventilated room until all the
water in the dish is absorbed by the specimens, and the surplus water
evaporates.
3. Cover the dish containing brick with suitable glass cylinder so that there will
not excessive evaporation from dish.
4. When whole water get absorbed and brick appears to be dry, place a similar
quantity of water in the dish and allow it to evaporate as before.
5. After this process examine the bricks for efflorescence and report results as
(a) Nil – When there is no perceptible deposit of efflorescence.
(b) Slight- Not more than 10% area of the brick covered with a thin deposit
of salt.
(c) Moderate- Covering upto 50% area of the brick.
(d) Heavy- Covering 50% or more but unaccompanied by powdering or
flacking of the brick surface.
(e) Serious- When, there is a heavy deposit of salts accompanied by
powdering and/or flacking of the exposed surfaces.

28
Observation Table:-

Sr Total surface area of brick Area covered by effloresce Remark

No Cm2
1 19 x 9 0% NIL
2 19 x 9 0% NIL
3 19 x 9 0% NIL
4 19 x 9 0% NIL
5 19 x 9 0% NIL

Result:- The efflorescence deposits are not observed on the surface of the bricks [NIL].

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 Experiment no.:- 9

Water absorption test on Bricks

Aim: - To determine water absorption of Bricks

References: - IS:3495-PART 3-1992
Objective: - To determine percentage of water absorption of bricks
Apparatus 1. Oven
& Specimens: - 2. Dry bricks
3. Weighing machine
Diagram: -

Theory:- Water absorption test on bricks are conducted to determine durability property
of bricks such as degree of burning, quality and behaviour of bricks in
weathering.
A brick with water absorption of less than 7% provides better resistance to
damage by freezing. The degree of compactness of bricks can be obtained by
water absorption test, as water is absorbed by pores in bricks.
The water absorption by bricks increase with increase in pores. So, the bricks,
which have water absorption less than 3 percent, can be called as vitrified.

Procedure:- 1. 3 bricks are taken randomly from a stack.

2. The bricks are put in an oven at a temperature of 1100C for drying.
3. Bricks are weighed in a digital weighing machine and is record asW1
4. The bricks are immersed in water at room temperature for 24 hours.
5. After 24 hours immersion, the bricks are taken out of water and wiped with
a damp cloth
6. The bricks are weight again and recorded as W2.
7. Water absorption in % is calculated as ( 2− 1)/ 1×100

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Observation Table:-

Sr No Weight W1 Weight W2 Water

(Kg) (Kg) absorption in %
1 2.914 3.421 17.398%
2 2.456 3.290 19.37%
3 3.133 3.335 6.447%
4 3.248 3.462 6.588%
5 2.780 3.213 15.575%

Calculations:-
Water Absorption =

1. = = 17.39%

2. = = 19.37%

3. = = 6.447%
4. = = 6.588%

5. = =15.575%

Result :- Water absorption of samples of bricks are in percent [%] are 17.39, 19.37, 6.447,
6.588, 15.575 respectively.

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 Experiment no.:- 10

Compressive strength Bricks

Aim: - To determine compressive strength of Bricks

References: - IS:3495-1976
Objective: - To determine compressive strength of bricks
Apparatus 1. A Compressive testing machine
& Specimens: - 2. Bricks 3 samples
3. Vernier Calliper
4. Ply wood cover
Diagram: -

Theory:- Bricks are used in construction of either load bearing walls or in portion walls
in case of frame structure. In load bearing walls total weight from slab and
upper floor comes directly through brick and then it is transferred to the
foundation. In case the bricks are loaded with compressive nature of force on
other hand in case of frame structure bricks are used only for construction of
partition walls, layers comes directly on the lower layers or wall. In this case
bricks are loaded with compressive nature of force. Hence for safety measures
before using the bricks in actual practice they have to be tested in laboratory
for their compressive strength. The usual crushing strength of common hand
moulded well burnt bricks is at 5 to10 N/mm , varies according to the nature
of preparation of the clay. Pressed and machine moulded bricks made of
thoroughly plugged clay are much stronger than common hand moulded
bricks made from carelessly prepared clay.

Procedure:- 1. Place the specimen with flat faces horizontal and mortar filled face facing
upwards between the two plywood sheet each 3 mm thickness and
carefully centered between plates of the testing machine.
2. Apply load axially of a uniform rate.

32
 3. Note down the load at failure. That load shall be the maximum load at
which the specimen fails to produce any further increase in the indicator
reading on the testing machine.
Observation Table:-

Sr No LxBxH Area Load Compressive Average

[mm3] = L x B P strength compressive
[mm2] [N] P/A [N/mm2] strength[N/mm2]

1 210x94x65 19740 23.9 1.216

2 220x100x69 22880 45.9 1.997
3 220x105x70 23100 31.4 1.359 1.353
4 220x100x72 22000 17.6 0.8
5 220x95x67 20900 29.3 1.402

Calculations: -

Compressive strength = =

1. = = 1.210 N/

2. = = 1.994 N/

3. = = 1.359 N/

4. = = 0.8 N/

5. = = 1.402 N/

Result: -
The average compressive strength of new brick sample is found to be 1.353 N/mm2

Conclusion:-
It is less than minimum compressive strength as mentioned in criteria of conformity. Hence
criteria not satisfied. The lot of brick should be discarded.

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 Experiment no.:-11
Flexural strength of Flooring and Roofing tiles

Aim: - To Determine strength of tiles

References: - IS 1237-1980
Objective: - To determine the flexural strength of flooring and roofing tiles
Apparatus 1. Tile testing machine
& 2. Lead shots
Specimens: -
3. Flooring and Roofing tiles
Diagram: -

Theory:- The flexural testing machine has two parallel self-aligning cylindrical steel
bearers. The bearing surface is rounded to 40mm diameter for testing tiles.
For testing flooring tiles the roller may be 12mm diameter. The distance
between the rollers can be adjusted. The load is applied through a third steel
roller of same shape (40mm or 12mm diameter) and placed midway
between the supports on the tile. The length of all bears shall be more than
maximum width of the tile to be tested. The load is applied through a
bucket, which can be gradually filled with lead shots and connected to the
loading bearer through levers.

Procedure:- 1. Select 6 tiles as a representative, to the lot of tiles manufactured

2. Soak tiles in water for 24 hours at a temperature of 270C 20C
3. Support the tiles, flat wise on the bearers (rollers) with sides parallel to
supports. The span, in case of the cement concrete tiles with smooth
surface upwards is as follows :
Tile size : 200mm X 200mm - span 150mm
Tile size : 250mm X 250mm - span 200mm
Tile size : 300mm X 300mm - span 250mm
4. Apply load at a uniform rate of 45 to 55 kg / minute by allowing, lend
shots to flow in the bucket. Apply load will specimen breaks.

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Observation Table:-

Cement Flooring Tile:

Sr. Dimensions of Breaking Flexural Average flexural

No. tile l X b X t Load P (N) strength (f) strength

1. 300×293×23 mm 1.4×103 N 4.0 N/mm2

2. 298×295×21 mm 1.2×103 N 4.12 N/mm2 3.913 N/mm2
3. 294×297×25 mm 1.5×103 N 3.5 N/mm2

Calculations:-
Flexural strength =

1)
= = 4.06 N/mm2

2)
= = 4.12 N/mm2

3)
= = 3.5N/mm2

Average flexural strength: = 3.913 N/mm2

Result: -

The average Flexural strength of flooring tiles is 3.913 N/mm2

35
 Experiment no.:- 12
Abrasion Test on Flooring Tile

Aim: - To Determine the resistance to wear of flooring tile

References: - IS 1237-2012
Objective: - To determine the reduction in thickness of flooring tiles
Apparatus 1. Abrasion Testing Machine as per IS Specification
& 2. Abrasive Powder as per IS Specification
Specimens: - 3. Vernier Calliper or Scale

Diagram: -

Theory:- One of these tests concerns how a tile performs under abrasion – as this will
dictate the suitability of a tile for certain applications. The surface quality of a
tile required for a busy shop floor or hotel lobby will be higher than that
needed for a wall in a domestic kitchen or bathroom.
These high traffic areas will be subjected to greater levels of footfall, weight,
and perhaps other stresses such as heavy cleaning machinery. All these forces
greatly increase the amount of abrasion a tile is subjected to during its
lifetime.
Requirement for Abrasive Powder to be used in the Abrasion Test
1. The abrasive powder shall have an aluminium oxide content of not
less than 95 percent by mass.
2. The grains shall be of rounded shape. The size shall conform to the
requirements given in
3. The specific gravity of the grains shall be in between 3.9 to 4.1.

36
 4. The grains shall generally have a hardness of 9 in Moh’s scale.

Preparation of Test Specimens

The test specimens shall be square in shape and of size 70.6 mm × 70.6 mm
(that is, 5 000 mm in area). They shall be sawn off one only from each tile,
preferably from the central part of the tile. The deviation in the length of the
specimen shall be within ±2 percent. The surface to be tested shall be ground
smooth and filling removed.

Procedure:- 2) The test specimens shall be square in shape and of size 70.6 mm × 70.6
mm (i.e. 5000 mm2 in area).
3) The specimens shall be dried at 110 ± 5°C for 24 h and then weighed to
the nearest 0.1 g.
4) The thickness of the tile should be measured at all corners and center
5) The grinding path of the disc of the Abrasion Testing Machine shall be
evenly strewn with 20 g of the abrasive powder.
6) The specimen shall then be fixed in the holding device with the surface
to be ground facing the disc, and loaded at the centre with 300 N.
7) The grinding disc shall then be put in motion at a speed of 30 rev/min
and the abrasive powder is continuously fed back on to the grinding path
so that it remains uniformly distributed in a track corresponding to the
width of the test piece.
8) After every 22 revolutions, the disc shall be stopped, the abraded tile
powder and the remainder of the abrasive powder shall be removed from
the disc and fresh abrasive powder in quantities of 20 g applied each
time.
9) After every 22 revolutions the specimen shall be turned about the
vertical axis through an angle of 90º in the clockwise direction and it
should be repeated 9 times thereby giving total number of revolutions of
220.
10) The disc, the abrasive powder and the specimen shall be kept dry
throughout the duration of the test.
11) After the abrasion is over, the specimen shall be reweighed to the
nearest 0.1 g.
12) The thickness at all corners and centre is measured after the abrasion.

Observation Table:-

Sr. Initial Final Wear in Initial Final weight Wear in

No. thickness thickness thickness weight W2 thickness
t1 t2 (mm) t = t 1 – t2 W1 (gm) from
(mm) (mm) (gm) weight

1. 21.22 19.296 1.924 285 270 15

Sr. Length Breadth Height Volume Area

No. (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm3) (cm2)
1. 7.0514 6.812 2.21 106.26 48.03

37
Calculations:-

tw =
–
=

tw = 1.164 mm

Loss of thickness= 21.22 – 19.296

= 1.924 mm

Loss of weight= 285 – 270

= 15 gm

Result: -

The average loss in thickness due to wear and tear of tile is 1.164 mm

Conclusion: -

Loss of thickness by weight did not exceed by 2.5 mm.

38