Ed101 Module 5

Republic of the Philippines
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY

Fuentes Drive, Roxas City, Capiz, Philippines
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website: www.capsu.edu.ph email address:
roxas@capsu.edu.ph
Accredited: Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP)
Member: Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC)
Agricultural Colleges Association of the Philippines (ACAP)

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Module 5: Infancy and Toddlerhood
Overview:
The period that comes after pre-natal or antenatal stage is infancy which, in turn, is
followed by toddlerhood. Infancy and toddlerhood span, the first two years of life. Young
children rapidly grow, develop, and achieve important milestones between birth and age 3,
creating the foundation for later growth. Physical development is one domain of infant and
toddler development. It relates to changes, growth, and skill development of the body,
including development of muscles and senses. This lesson will introduce developmental
milestones in addition to influences on early physical growth and development.
Cognitive development in infancy refers to the development in a way a baby
thinks. This includes his/her language, communication and exploration skills. Examples of
cognitive activities include paying attention, remembering’ learning to talk, interacting
with toys and identifying faces.
Socio-emotional development has something to do with the development of a
person’s ability to master one’s emotion and the ability to relate to others. It is necessarily
to include temperament, attachments and social skills.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Identify infant and toddler physical and motor developmental milestones and ways
to support development for all infants and toddlers.
2. Describe the brain’s role in infant and toddler physical development.
3. Recognize influences of physical growth and development.
4. Trace the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development of infants and
toddlers.
Discussion:
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS
When healthy babies are born, some of their internal systems, such as those
developed for breathing and processing food, are developed and functional. However,
infants require responsive care from loving adults, proper nutrition, and appropriately
stimulating environments to support the best possible physical development. Infant and
toddler physical development occurs quickly, and it is essential to understand physical
development during various stages.
From birth, infants want to explore their world.
While each child has their own schedule for
development and mastering new skills, infants are
often eager early on to move their mouths, eyes and
bodies toward people and objects that comfort or
interest them. They continue to practice skills that let
them move closer to desired objects. Ongoing observation and frequent conversations
with their families can help you learn what infants and toddlers are able to do, what they
are learning to do, and in what areas they could use your support.

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Infants develop physically from the top down, starting with their heads and necks.
At birth, an infant has a very difficult time holding up their head because the neck
muscles are not strong enough to provide support. As infants and toddlers grow, their
determination to master movement, balance, and fine- and gross-motor skills remains
strong. Rolling and crawling occur as infants develop skills in using large-muscle groups.
Grasping and picking up objects with fingers are signs of small-muscle skill growth.
Influences on Early Physical Growth and Development
There is no exact age at which all infants should be able to grasp objects or hold up
their heads without support. Physical development occurs at different times for all children
depending on many factors, such as the child’s unique characteristics, the family’s values
and culture, and available resources. However, many infants and toddlers experience
developmental milestones at similar times. The chart below outlines information about
what infants and toddlers are likely experiencing and learning during different periods:
Examples of Physical Development Milestones – Infants and Toddlers
2 Months
 Holds head up with support
 Begins to push up when lying on tummy
 Makes smoother movements with arms and legs
4 Months
 Holds head steady without support
 Pushes down on legs when feet are on a hard surface
 Rolls over from tummy to back
 Holds and shakes toys, swings at dangling toys
 Brings hands to mouth
 Pushes up to elbows when lying on tummy
6 Months
 Rolls over both from stomach to back and from back to stomach
 Begins to sit with support
 Supports weight on legs when standing and might bounce
 Rocks back and forth, sometimes crawls backward before moving forward
9 Months
 Crawls
 Sits without support
 Moves into sitting position with support
 Stands, holding on to adult or furniture for support
 Pulls to stand
1 Year
 Moves into sitting position without support
 Pulls up to stand and walks alone while holding onto furniture
 Takes few steps without support of adult or furniture
 Stands alone

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18 Months
 Walks alone
 Runs
 Pulls toys while walking
 Helps undress self
 Drinks from a cup
 Eats with a spoon
2 Years
 Begins to run
 Climbs onto and down from furniture without support
 Walks up and down steps while holding on for support
 Throws ball overhand
 Draws or copies straight lines and circles
 Stands on tiptoes
 Kicks a ball
Keep in mind that the milestones above are simply the average ages at which specific
development is observed.
Certain conditions must exist for an infant or toddler to grow and develop. A young
child’s basic needs, or physical needs, include:
 Food (nutritious and age-appropriate)
 Shelter (protection from harm)
 Warmth
 Clean air and environment
 Health and dental care
 Activity and rest
We also know that the way we ourselves were raised is important to our
understanding of how and in what contexts children develop. The values and beliefs held
by our family and culture contribute to our knowledge of growth and development.
Height and Weight
▪ It’s normal for newborn babies to drop 5 to 10 percent of their body weight within a
couple of weeks of birth. That is due to the baby’s adjustment to neonatal feeding. Once
they adjust to sucking, swallowing and digesting, they grow rapidly.
▪ Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies through the first six months.
After six months, breastfed babies usually weigh less than bottle-fed babies.
▪ In general, an infant’s length increases by about 30 percent in the first five months.
▪ A baby’s weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the second year of
life. ▪ Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress along a natural
curve of steady development

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Reflexes
▪ The newborn has some basic reflexes which are, of course automatic, and serve as
survival mechanisms before they have the opportunity to learn. Many reflexes which are
present at birth will generally subside within a few months as the baby grows and matures.
Some of the most common reflexes that babies have are:
 Sucking Reflex: The sucking reflex is initiated when something touches the roof of
an infant’s mouth. Infants have a strong sucking reflex which helps to ensure they
can latch unto a bottle or breast. The sucking reflex is very strong in some infants
and they may need to suck on a pacifier for comfort.
 Rooting Reflex: The rooting reflex is most evident when an infant’s cheek is
stroked. The baby responds by turning his or her head in the direction of the touch
and opening their mouth for feeding.
 Gripping Reflex: Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm. The
strength of this grip is strong, and most babies can support their entire weight in
their grip.
 Curling Reflex: When the inner sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infant responds
by curling his or her toes. When the outer sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the
infant will respond by spreading out their toes.
The Brain’s Role in Physical Development

You can easily observe infants making movements with their bodies and refining
their physical skills. Thanks to advances in research and technology, we can now also see
how the brain changes and grows as young children develop. At birth, the brain is 25
percent of its adult size, and by age 5, it reaches 90 percent of adult size. Early-life
interactions and experiences of infants and toddlers help them make sense of the world
and form connections between different parts of the brain.
These supportive experiences and connections help improve coordination and
strengthen muscles. Research tells us that as infants repeat and practice different
movements, such as turning their heads or reaching for an object, they are building and
maintaining connections between brain cells. The brain is busy making sense of the
experience.
It is important for infants and toddlers to have time for these new experiences and
to explore the world around them with you, a trusted and caring adult caregiver. The
repeated experience of safely exploring together helps infants and toddlers learn they can
trust you, while also ensuring that their brains focus on learning, developing, and making
connections. If infants and toddlers do not have nurturing and responsive adults to help
keep them safe, their brains will instinctually focus on survival and they will have less
opportunity to create and strengthen connections for further skill development, including
physical growth.

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Culture Affects How We See and Interpret Behaviors and Development

Because culture shapes so many parts of an infant’s and toddler’s development, you must
understand the practices, beliefs, and values of the families you support. Without this
understanding, it is difficult to interpret the infant’s or toddler’s behaviors and
development. For example, you may believe it is important to help toddlers learn to
become independent and begin to feed themselves using fine-motor skills. A family,
however, may not view independence as important because they believe it is more
valuable to depend upon one another.
Other influences on infant and toddler physical growth and development are:
 Prenatal care and development, including genetic inheritance, family patterns,
exposure to drugs and alcohol, birth experience
 Prematurity (birth before the 38th week of development) and low birth weight,
which may bring respiration difficulties, vision problems, and feeding and digestive
problems
 Temperament, or the ways an infant or toddler approaches his or her world
 Family’s composition, lifestyle, level of education, and housing
 Maturation, or the sequence of biological elements that reflect a pattern of growth
and development
 Developmental delays or special needs, including health concerns
Part 1 Evaluation:
1. Having learned the physical developmental of infants and toddlers, as a future parent or
as caregiver of children, reflect on:
a. What you should do more often for infants and toddlers (1 paragraph)
b. What you should refrain from doing to facilitate their growth and development
(1 paragraph)
2. Paste 1-2 pictures of you in your infancy and/or toddlerhood days. If you don’t have a
picture of yourself, you may select a picture of any of your relatives, just indicate who is in the
picture and your relationship to him/her.
a. What can you say about your physical features?
b. Describe your activities by asking your parents or any family members about
what were you fond of doing at that stage.
c. What are the roles of adults when you were an infant/toddler? Cite at least 5.

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS
In addition to rapid physical growth, young children also exhibit significant

development of their cognitive abilities, particularly in language acquisition and in the
ability to think and reason. You already learned a little bit about Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development, and in this section, we’ll apply that model to cognitive tasks
during infancy and toddlerhood. Piaget described intelligence in infancy as sensorimotor
or based on direct, physical contact where infants use senses and motor skills to taste, feel,
pound, push, hear, and move in order to experience the world. These basic motor and
sensory abilities provide the foundation for the cognitive skills that will emerge during the
subsequent stages of cognitive development.
Piaget and Sensorimotor Intelligence
How do infants connect and make sense of what they are learning? Remember that
Piaget believed that we are continuously trying to maintain cognitive equilibrium, or
balance, between what we see and what we know (Piaget, 1954). Children have much
more of a challenge in maintaining this balance because they are constantly being
confronted with new situations, new words, new objects, etc. All this new information
needs to be organized, and a framework for organizing information is referred to as
a schema. Children develop schemas through the processes
of assimilation and accommodation.
For example, 2-year-old Deja learned the schema for dogs because her family has a
Poodle. When Deja sees other dogs in her picture books, she says, ―Look mommy, dog!‖
Thus, she has assimilated them into her schema for dogs. One day, Deja sees a sheep for
the first time and says, ―Look mommy, dog!‖ Having a basic schema that a dog is an
animal with four legs and fur, Deja thinks all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. When
Deja’s mom tells her that the animal she sees is a sheep, not a dog, Deja must
accommodate her schema for dogs to include more information based on her new

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experiences. Deja’s schema for dog was too broad since not all furry, four-legged
creatures are dogs. She now modifies her schema for dogs and forms a new one for sheep.
Development of Object Permanence
A critical milestone during the sensorimotor period is the development of object

permanence. Object permanence is the understanding that even if something is out of
sight, it continues to
exist. The infant is now
capable of making
attempts to retrieve the
object. Piaget thought
that, at about 8 months,
babies first understand
the concept of objective
permanence, but some
research has suggested
that infants seem to be
able to recognize that
objects have
permanence at much
younger ages (even as
young as 4 months of
age). Other researchers,
however, are not
convinced (Mareschal
& Kaufman, 2012). It
may be a matter of ―grasping vs. mastering‖ the concept of objective permanence. Overall,
we can expect children to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist even when they
are not in sight by around 8 months old, but memory may play a factor in their
consistency. Because toddlers (i.e., 12–24 months old) have mastered object permanence,
they enjoy games like hide-and-seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room
they will come back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in
appropriate places when you ask them to find objects.
Learning and Memory Abilities in Infants

Memory is central to cognitive development. Our memories form the basis for our
sense of self, guide our thoughts and decisions, influence our emotional reactions, and
allow us to learn (Bauer, 2008).
It is thought that Piaget underestimated memory ability in infants (Schneider,
2015).
As mentioned when discussing the development of infant senses, within the first
few weeks of birth, infants recognize their caregivers by face, voice, and smell. Sensory

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and caregiver memories are apparent in the first month, motor memories by 3 months, and
then, at about 9 months, more complex memories including language (Mullally &
Maguire, 2014). There is agreement that memory is fragile in the first months of life, but
that improves with age. Repeated sensations and brain maturation are required in order to
process and recall events (Bauer, 2008). Infants remember things that happened weeks and
months ago (Mullally & Maguire, 2014), although they most likely will not remember it
decades later. From the cognitive perspective, this has been explained by the idea that the
lack of linguistic skills of babies and toddlers limit their ability to mentally represent
events; thereby, reducing their ability to encode memory. Moreover, even if infants do
form such early memories, older children and adults may not be able to access them
because they may be employing very different, more linguistically based, retrieval cues
than infants used when forming the memory.
Language Development
Given the remarkable complexity of a language, one might expect that mastering a
language would be an especially arduous task; indeed, for those of us trying to learn a
second language as adults, this might seem to be true. However, young children master
language very quickly with relative ease. B. F. Skinner (1957) proposed that language is
learned through reinforcement. Noam Chomsky (1965) criticized this behaviorist
approach, asserting instead that the mechanisms underlying language acquisition are
biologically determined. The use of language develops in the absence of formal instruction
and appears to follow a very similar pattern in children from vastly different cultures and
backgrounds. It would seem, therefore, that we are born with a biological predisposition to
acquire a language (Chomsky, 1965; Fernández & Cairns, 2011). Moreover, it appears that
there is a critical period for language acquisition, such that this proficiency at acquiring
language is maximal early in life; generally, as people age, the ease with which they
acquire and master new languages diminishes (Johnson & Newport, 1989; Lenneberg,
1967; Singleton, 1995).
Children begin to learn about language from a very early age. In fact, it appears
that this is occurring even before we are born. Newborns show a preference for their
mother’s voice and appear to be able to discriminate between the language spoken by their
mother and other languages. Babies are also attuned to the languages being used around
them and show preferences for videos of faces that are moving in synchrony with the
audio of spoken language versus videos that do not synchronize with the audio (Blossom
& Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke & Cortelyou, 1981).
Newborn Communication
Do newborns communicate? Certainly, they do. They do not, however,
communicate with the use of language. Instead, they communicate their thoughts and
needs with body posture (being relaxed or still), gestures, cries, and facial expressions. A
person who spends adequate time with an infant can learn which cries indicate pain and
which ones indicate hunger, discomfort, or frustration.

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Intentional Vocalizations. Infants begin to vocalize and repeat vocalizations within the
first couple of months of life. That gurgling, musical vocalization called cooing can serve
as a source of entertainment to an infant who has been laid down for a nap or seated in a
carrier on a car ride. Cooing serves as practice for vocalization. It also allows the infant to
hear the sound of their own voice and try to repeat sounds that are entertaining. Infants
also begin to learn the pace and pause of conversation as they alternate their vocalization
with that of someone else and then take their turn again when the other person’s
vocalization has stopped. Cooing initially involves making vowel sounds like ―oooo.‖
Later, as the baby moves into babbling (see below), consonants are added to vocalizations
such as ―nananananana.‖
Babbling and Gesturing. Between 6 and 9 months, infants begin making even more
elaborate vocalizations that include the sounds required for any language. Guttural sounds,
clicks, consonants, and vowel sounds stand ready to equip the child with the ability to
repeat whatever sounds are characteristic of the language heard. These babies repeat
certain syllables (ma-ma-ma, da-da-da, ba-ba-ba), a vocalization called babbling because
of the way it sounds. Eventually, these sounds will no longer be used as the infant grows
more accustomed to a particular language. Deaf babies also use gestures to communicate
wants, reactions, and feelings. Because gesturing seems to be easier than vocalization for
some toddlers, sign language is sometimes taught to enhance one’s ability to communicate
by making use of the ease of gesturing. The rhythm and pattern of language are used when
deaf babies sign just as when hearing babies babble .
Holophrasic Speech. Children begin using their first words at about 12 or 13 months of
age and may use partial words to convey thoughts at even younger ages. These one-word
expressions are referred to as holophrasic speech (holophrase). For example, the child
may say ―ju‖ for the word ―juice‖ and use this sound when referring to a
bottle. The listener must interpret the meaning of the holophrase. When this is someone
who has spent time with the child, interpretation is not too difficult. They know that ―ju‖
means ―juice‖ which means the baby wants some milk! But, someone who has not been
around the child will have trouble knowing what is meant. Imagine the parent who
exclaims to a friend, ―Ezra’s talking all the time now!‖ The friend hears only ―ju da ga‖
which, the parent explains, means ―I want some milk when I go with Daddy.‖
Theories of Language Development

How is language learned? Each major theory of language development emphasizes
different aspects of language learning: that infants’ brains are genetically attuned to
language, that infants must be taught, and that infants’ social impulses foster language
learning. The first two theories of language development represent two extremes in the
level of interaction required for language to occur.
1. Chomsky and the language acquisition device

This theory posits that infants teach themselves and that language learning is
genetically programmed. The view is known as nativism and was advocated by Noam

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Chomsky, who suggested that infants are equipped with a neurological construct referred
to as the language acquisition device (LAD), which makes infants ready for
language. The LAD allows children, as their brains develop, to derive the rules of
grammar quickly and effectively from the speech they hear every day. Therefore, language
develops as long as the infant is exposed to it. No teaching, training, or reinforcement is
required for language to develop. Instead, language learning comes from a particular gene,
brain maturation, and the overall human impulse to imitate.
2. Skinner and reinforcement

This theory is the opposite of Chomsky’s theory because it suggests that infants
need to be taught language. This idea arises from behaviorism. Learning theorist, B. F.
Skinner, suggested that language develops through the use of reinforcement. Sounds,
words, gestures, and phrases are encouraged by following the behavior with attention,
words of praise, treats, or anything that increases the likelihood that the behavior will be
repeated. This repetition strengthens associations, so infants learn the language faster as
parents speak to them often. For example, when a baby says ―ma-ma,‖ the mother smiles
and repeats the sound while showing the baby attention. So, ―ma-ma‖ is repeated due to
this reinforcement.
3. Social pragmatics
Another language theory emphasizes the child’s active engagement in learning the
language out of a need to communicate. Social impulses foster infant language because
humans are social beings and we must communicate because we are dependent on each
other for survival. The child seeks information, memorizes terms, imitates the speech
heard from others, and learns to conceptualize using words as language is acquired.
Tomasello & Herrmann (2010) argue that all human infants, as opposed to chimpanzees,
seek to master words and grammar in order to join the social world. Many would argue
that all three of these theories (Chomsky’s argument for nativism, conditioning, and social
pragmatics) are important for fostering the acquisition of language (Berger, 2004).
Part 2 Evaluation:
1. Based on Piaget’s sensorimotor stage, reflect on how you, as a future parent or teacher
can enhance infant and toddlers’ cognitive development. (1-2 paragraphs)

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SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS
Through early relationships and with nurturing, responsive interactions, infants and
toddlers learn ways of being in relationships, how to get their needs and wants met, and
how to identify and regulate emotions. Because these skills develop together, this area of
development is referred to as social-emotional development.
Let us discuss those elements that have something to do with the wholesome socio-
emotional development of children:
1. Attachment
For healthy socio-emotional development, the infant needs to establish an enduring
emotional bond characterized by a tendency to seek and maintain closeness to a specific
figure, particularly during stressful situation. This is the social phenomenon of attachment.
According to Dr. John Bowly, the father of attachment theory, the beginnings of
attachment occur within the first 6 months of a baby’s life with a variety of built-in signals
that baby uses to keep her caregiver engaged. The baby cries, gazes into her mother’s
eyes, smiles, etc. In the next few months, the baby develops in her degree of' attachment to
her parents. She smiles more freely at them than at any Stranger whom she seldom sees.
The key to a good start in the social development of the baby is a lot of responsive
interaction with the baby (K.Pasek and R.Golinkoff, 2003). Babies thrive on social
interaction when it is in response to their social bids. Babies seem to let us know when
they want to interact or not. The timing of the caregiver’s response to the baby is
important.
2. Temperament
Every child is born with her or his unique way of approaching the world. This is
called temperament. Some young children, for example, are constantly on the move while
others prefer to sit and watch the world around them. Some young children enjoy new
experiences and meeting new people while others are slower to warm up in new situations.
Rothbart (1989) defined temperament as the individual personality differences in infants
and young children. As Murphy and Moon describe, ―infants and young children vary
greatly in their interest in different sensory areas, in the intensity of their attention to
sensory stimuli, and in their sensitivity to feelings of comfort and discomfort, familiarity
and strangeness, and the emotional context in which sensory experiences occur.‖
No matter how well you understand temperament and are attuned and responsive,
there will be times that an infant or toddler in your care may not seem to be developing
socially and emotionally. Some infants and toddlers may experience social or emotional
difficulties. These difficulties may be related to inborn (nature) or environmental (nurture)
influences.

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Here are the milestones of the baby and the toddler’ s emotional development and
social development:
Birth to 3 months:
 The first three months are a time all about
helping an infant learn to feel safe, comfortable,
secure, and curious about his or her
world. “Your smile and gentle touch help me to
feel safe and happy.”
 When caregivers respond to an infant’s cues
with comfort and care, infants develop
trust. “Your soothing voice and touch helps me
to feel safe, secure, and loved.”
 Infants use sounds, facial expressions, and body movements to tell caregivers what
they need and how they are feeling. “I am learning how to tell you what I need.
Sometimes I look away when I need a break. I yawn sometimes when I am feeling
tired. Thank you for watching and getting to know me.”
3 to 6 months:
 The infant is active, responsive, and
increasingly in control of his or her body. “I
stretch my arms toward you when I want you
to pick me up and hold me gently.”
 Infant offers smiles and communicates with a
gaze and basic vocalizations. “I‟m smiling to
let you know I am ready to communicate.”
 Sense of security and well-being are totally dependent upon relationships with
important caregivers.
 Emphasis is on routine and exploration—showing caregivers what they like and
dislike, and how they prefer to sleep, eat, and play. “I‟m beginning to notice daily
routines and the things we do together. When you turn the lights down, I know that
it is time for sleep.”

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6 to 9 months:
 Moving and exploring is the goal – infants become
eager explorers who are thrilled to discover that
they can make things happen.
 Infants are learning to solve problems. “When a toy
drops, I look to see where it went. I expect you will
help me to get it back. I then try it again to see if I
can make the same thing happen again.”
 An infant is beginning to understand that people still exist even when they are out of
sight. “I realize that my mommy is about to leave me. I will protest in hopes that she
stays. Being separated from her is hard for me.”
9 to 12 months:
 Infants are enjoying increased independence. “Please stay calm even when I
demand to do things on my own. It‟s hard work for me to learn and figure out all of
these new things and sometimes I get frustrated, but I want to keep trying.”
 Infants can understand more than they can verbally communicate.
 Infants enjoy doing things over and over again. “Watch me practice and figure out
how things work! Repetition is also helping me build my memory!”
 Infants take action with a goal in mind. “When I crawl away from you quickly, I am
not trying to upset you. I am having fun and do not want my diaper changed right
now. This is how I take control of my world and let you know how I am feeling.
Please talk to me and give me time to transition from my activity, and let me know
that when we‟re done I can go back to what I was doing.”
12 to 18 months:
 Infants and toddlers are watching others and imitate what they see. “I have been
watching and am able to use things the way they are supposed to be used. Watch me
talk on this toy telephone!”
 Infants and toddlers are using skills to explore and discover the boundaries of what
they can do. “I may get frustrated when you try to feed me and I want to do it on my
own.”
 Infants and toddlers are beginning to understand feelings of self and others. “My
feelings can be hard for me to handle. I may become frustrated and have tantrums. I
need your help to calm down.”

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18 to 24 months:
 Toddlers work hard to be in control, explore the boundaries of their experiences, and
engage in problem solving. “I am beginning to sort things. Notice how I put my
train cars in one place and all of my other cars in another.”
 They are increasingly aware of themselves as separate
from others and are becoming more enthusiastic about
playing with peers.
 They are starting to show negative behaviors (hitting,
biting, kicking) in response to frustration. “I understand,
„No,‟ but cannot control my feelings and actions. Please
be patient and help me when I get frustrated.”
24 to 36 months:
 Toddlers are using language to express thoughts and feelings. “When you started to
put the blocks away too soon, I yelled, „That‟s not right!‟ I wanted to make a path
for the cows before we put things away.”
 Toddlers are using enhanced thinking skills to
solve problems. “I am getting really good at
playing pretend. I can act out my own stories and
use a bottle to feed my teddy bear. Sometimes, I
feel scared because I am not certain yet what is
real and what is pretend.”
 Toddlers take pride in their accomplishments, such
as, pouring milk.

Tel. No. (036) 6214-578 Fax No. (036) 6214-578
roxas@capsu.edu.ph
Erikson’s Psychosocial theory
The first two stages (of the 8 stages of a person’s psychosocial development) apply
at the periods of infancy and toddlerhood that is why they are discussed below:
Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year)

• Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust
• Main Question: ―Can I trust the people around me?‖
• Virtue: Hope
The first stage of Erik Erikson’s centers around the infant’s basic needs being met
by the parents. The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for food,
sustenance, and comfort. The child’s relative understanding of world and society come
from the parents and their interaction with the child. If the parents expose the child to
warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant’s view of the world will be one of
trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure environment and to meet the child’s basic
need a sense of mistrust will result. According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental
task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers,
regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort, and
affection, an infant learns trust that others are dependable and reliable. If they are
neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust that the world is in
an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place.

Tel. No. (036) 6214-578 Fax No. (036) 6214-578
roxas@capsu.edu.ph
Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)

• Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
• Main Question: ―Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?‖
• Virtue: Will
As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they
begin to explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security
from which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents’ patience and
encouragement help foster autonomy in the child. Highly restrictive parents, however, are
more likely to instill in the child a sense of doubt and reluctance to attempt new
challenges.
As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become
capable of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash and
dress themselves, and use the bathroom. If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior,
toddlers develop a sense of autonomy a sense of being able to handle many problems on
their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon, are capable, or ridicule early
attempts at self-sufficiency, children may instead develop shame and doubt their ability to
handle problems.
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while
those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. This stage also serves
as an important building block for future development. Kids who have confidence in their
skills are more likely to succeed in subsequent tasks such as mastering social, academic,
and other skills.
Part 3 Evaluation:
1. Reflect on how you, as a future parent or teacher, can enhance infant and toddlers’
socio-emotional development. (1 paragraph)

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Republic of the Philippines

CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY

CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY

Module 5: Infancy and Toddlerhood

CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY

Influences on Early Physical Growth and Development

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CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY

The Brain’s Role in Physical Development

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Culture Affects How We See and Interpret Behaviors and Development

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS

In addition to rapid physical growth, young children also exhibit significant

Piaget and Sensorimotor Intelligence

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Development of Object Permanence

A critical milestone during the sensorimotor period is the development of object

Learning and Memory Abilities in Infants

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CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY

Theories of Language Development

1. Chomsky and the language acquisition device

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2. Skinner and reinforcement

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SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS

CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY

CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY

CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY

CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY

Erikson’s Psychosocial theory

Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year)

CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY

Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)

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