Chapter 2

1. The Pourbaix diagram of manganese is given below. Mark each zone with Corrosion,
Passivation, or Immunity.

Corrosion
Passivation

Corrosion
Passivation

Passivation

Corrosion

Passivation
Passivation

Immune

2. Fill the blanks in the following description:

The pH value can change in tissue that has been injured or infected.
o Normal tissue fluid has a pH of about 7.4 .
o In a wound it can be as low as 3.5 .
o In an infected wound the pH can increase to 9.0 .

3. Search on internet (Google, Pubmed and Web of Science are recommended) and find
the pH values of the following organs of the body:
a. Stomach
b. Lung
c. Liver
d. Small intestine

No standard answers, and it is entirely up to students to find out.

17
4. Search on internet (Google, Pubmed and Web of Science are recommended) for the
electrode potential of Co or Co-base alloys in sea water. Use this electrode potential
as the first approximation to predict the corrosion potential of Co in the body, based
on the Pourbaix diagram of Co below. Analyze what could happen if a cobalt
prosthesis is exposed to the above three micro anatomic environments in Exercise 1,
and cite the reference properly.

Pourbaix diagram of Co metal

Answer
In sea water, Ecorr of Co-Cr alloy is -0.25V (SCE) = -0.008V (SHE).
Ref:http://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=web&c
d=1&ved=0CB0QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fstellite.co.uk%2FPortals%2F0%2FS
tellite%25206%2520Final.pdf&ei=c6cJVLenOM-
zuAS4kID4CA&usg=AFQjCNFDqzcIxDd16MXzqTARtYsVwI3eHw&bvm=bv.74
649129,d.dGc

When pH = 3.5, or 7.4, Co2+ ion is stable, and thus corrosion is possible.
When pH = 9.0, Co3O4 is stable and thus passivity is possible.

5. Read the corrosion potential of magnesium on Figure 2.5. The Pourbaix diagram of
magnesium is given below. Analyze the corrosion tendency of this metal in normal
body fluid.

18
 Answer
The corrosion potential of magnesium in sea water is about -1.6.
When pH = 3.5, or 7.4, Mg2+ ion is stable, and thus corrosion is possible.
When pH = 9.0, Mg(OH)2 is stable and thus passivity is possible.

6. Compare the relative location of the following pairs of metals in the emf series and
in the galvanic series for seawater.
(a) Zinc and chromium (use 316 stainless steels for chromium in the galvanic series
for seawater)
(b) Platinum and titanium
(c) Nickel and silver
(d) Titanium and aluminium (use aluminium alloys for aluminium in the galvanic
series for seawater)
What does the relative position of these various pairs of metals tell you about the
use of the emf series to predict possible galvanic corrosion in seawater?

Answer
(a) Zinc (-0.762) and Cr (-0.744), the two are close in emf series.
Zinc (-1.0) and Cr (-0.1), the two are distant in the galvanic series.
(b) Pt (+1.18) and Ti (-1.630), the two are distant in emf series.
Pt (+0.2) and Ti (0.0), the two are close in the galvanic series.
(c) Ti (-1.630) and Al (-1.662), the two are very close in emf series.
Ti (0.0) and Al (-0.3), the two are distant the galvanic series.
Hence, the emf series cannot be used reliably to predict the corrosion tendencies of
coupled metals in other than standardized environments, such as sea water.

19
 7. Avoid surface damage of metallic implants is strongly advised to orthopedists in
surgical operations. Explain the reason behind this clinical good practice.
Answer
The corrosion resistance of metallic implants are achieved by passivation. That is, a
thin oxide layer forms on the surface, which can protect the metal from anodic
dissolution. Hence, surface perfection is important.

8. What long-term toxic effects could be caused by the release of nickel and chromium
ions?
Answer
Metal allergy and cancer.
9. Although magnesium is a macro-element in the body, what disease could be
introduced by a long-term over-dose of magnesium in the body?
Answer
There is a risk of renal dysfunction with an overdose of magnesium

10. Search on internet and identify at least two trace elements that are not included in
Table 2.4. Describe their biological roles in maintaining health, and their toxicity if
over dosed.
No standard answer. It is entirely for students to find out.

20
Chapter 3
1. In Table 3.1, the yield strength is Not Applicable (N.A.) for ceramics and skin.
Explain the reasons.
Answer
Yield point is when deformation transits from elastic to plastic.
Ceramics are highly brittle such that they virtually show no plastic deformation
before fracture.
Skin, on the other extreme end, is highly elastic, virtually elastic all the way until
rupture with little plastic deformation.

2. The tensile engineering stress-strain curve of an alloy is given below.

(a) What is the yield strength at a strain off-set of 0.002?
(b) What is the ultimate tensile strength?
(c) What is the elongation at break?

Answer
(a) 420 MPa
(b) 460 MPa
(c) 3.2%

21
 Courtesy of CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group

(a)
Normal bone Osteoporosis

(b)

Figure 2.1
(a) Iron-deficiency anemia; (b) boron-deficiency osteoporosis; (Continued)

002x001a.eps 002x001b.eps
 Courtesy of CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group

(c) (d)

Figure 2.1 (Continued)

(c) thyroid gland enlargement caused by iodine deficiency; and (d) premature hair graying due to lack of copper.

002x001c.eps
 Courtesy of CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group

1.8
Ti
Coefficient of fibroblastic outgrowth

1.6 Capsule
104

Polarization resistance (R/Ωm)

Ni In Co-Cr Alloy
1.4 Pd Sn
Ta Zr 316L
1.2 103 Zr
Control: GlassAuCr Si Ti
1.0 304L Nb
Al Toxic Ta
Toxic

Ag 102
0.8 Pt
Bi Vital
Ag
0.6
Fe Co 100 V Au
0.4 Ni
Sr Cu Al Mo
0.2 Mg V, Cu, Zn 10–1
Cd, Hg Toxic Mo? Fe
0 Co
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 Biocompatibility
Relative growth rate of L929 cells
(a) (b)

Figure 2.2
(a) Cytotoxicity of some pure metals. (b) The relationship between polarization resistance and biocompatibility of
pure metals, cobalt–chromium alloy, and stainless steels.

002x002.eps
 Courtesy of CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group

Earth

Mining

Ores: oxides, sulfides, silicates

Extractive metallurgy
Pure metals
(casting)

Alloying metallurgy Alloys

During use
Corrosion

(casting)
Billets (or called ingots)

Thermomechanical processing

Shaping and forming

Components

Machining, joining, and finishing

Customers End-user products

Figure 2.3
Processing of metals.

002x003.eps
 Courtesy of CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group

Magnesium Copper

2+ 2+
2+
2+ 2+ 2+

2+ 2+
2+
2+ 2+ 2+
2+ 2+ Water
2+

Figure 2.4
Electrical double layer (EDL) around metals in pure water, showing that an electrode potential exits across the
metal/solution interface.

002x004.eps
 Courtesy of CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group

Active Magnesium
Zinc
Berylium
Aluminum alloys
Cadmium
Mild steel, cast iron
Low alloy steel
Austenitic Ni cast iron
Aluminum bronze
Naval brass, yellow brass, red brass
Tin
Copper
Pd-Sn solder (50/50)
Admiralty brass, aluminum brass
Manganese bronze
Silicon bronze
Tin bronzes
Stainless steel Types 410, 416
Nickel silver
90-10 Cu-Ni
80-20 Cu-Ni
Stainless steel Type 430
Lead
70-30 Cu-Ni
Ni-Al bronze
Ni-Cr alloy 600
Silver braze alloys
Nickel
Silver
Stainless steel Type 304
Ni-Cu alloys 400, K-500 (Monel)
Stainless steel Type 316
Alloy 20
Ni-Fe-Cr alloy 825
Ni-Cr-Mo-Cu-Si alloy B
Titanium
Ni-Cr-Mo alloy C
Platinum
Graphite
Noble
0.5 0.0 –.0.5 –1.0 –1.5
E in V vs. SCE

Figure 2.5
The galvanic series in seawater. (Redrawn from LaQue, F.L.: Marine Corrosion, Chapter 6. 1975. Copyright Wiley-
VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, New York. Reproduced with permission.)

002x005.eps
 Courtesy of CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group

1.6
Oxygen
1.2

0.8
(b)
0.4
Eh/V
Water
0

–0.4
(a)
–0.8 Hydrogen
–1.2
–2 0 4 8 12 16
pH

Figure 2.6
Pourbaix diagram of water.
Two lines:
Below line (a)—water is unstable and must decompose to H2
Above line (a)—water is stable and any H2 present is oxidized to H+ or H2O
Above line (b)—water is unstable and must oxidize to give O2
Below line (b)—water is stable and any dissolved O2 is reduced to H2O
Three regions:
Upper: H2O electrolyzed anodically to O2
Lower: H2O electrolyzed cathodically to H2
Middle: H2O stable and will not decompose

002x006.eps
 Courtesy of CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group

2.0

(Corrosion)
1.5
b (Passivity) 2.3
1.0 CuO
Cu+2 –2
E in V vs. SHE

Passivation
CuO2

Corrosion
0.5 (Corrosion)
Cu2O Corrosion
0.0 a
Cu
–0.5 0.0
(Immunity)
–1.0
Cu stable
–1.5 (immunity)

0 4 8 12 16 –1.6
0 7 14
pH pH
(a) (b)

Figure 2.7
Pourbaix diagram of copper. (a) The Pourbaix diagram of copper superimposed by diagram for water. (b) Three
regions: corrosion, passivation, and immunity. (From the WikimediaCommons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/.)
In regions where
• Cu2+ or CuO22− ion is stable, corrosion is possible
• Copper oxide Cu2O or copper hydroxide Cu (OH)2 is stable, passivity is possible
• Cu is stable, thermodynamically immune to corrosion

002x007a.eps 002x007b.eps
 Courtesy of CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group

2.0 2.0
AgO
1.5 1.5 Fe+3
(Passivity)
b b
1.0 (Corrosion) 1.0

(corrosion)
Ag+
E in V vs. SHE

E in V vs. SHE
0.5 (Corrosion) 0.5
AgO– Fe2O3
0.0 a
Ag

(Passivity)
0.0 a Fe+2
(Immunity)
Fe3O4
–0.5 –0.5

–1.0 –1.0 Fe
(Immunity) HFeO2– (corrosion)
–1.5 –1.5

0 4 8 12 16 0 4 8 12 16
(a) pH (b) pH

2.0 2.0

(Corrosion)
b
1.5
b (Passivity)
1.0
1.0 +2
CuO
E in V vs. SHE

E in V vs. SHE

Cu
CuO–2
0.5 (Corrosion) 2
a Ti
+3
(Passivity) Cu2O
0.0
TiO2 0.0 a
Cu

–1.0 –0.5
Ti+2
(Immunity)
(Corrosion)
Ti2O3 –1.0
–2.0 Ti (immunity) TiO –1.5

0 4 8 12 16 0 4 8 12 16
(c) pH (d) pH

Figure 2.8
Pourbaix diagrams of silver (Ag), iron (Fe), titanium (Ti), and copper (Cu). (a) E corr = −0.12 V (SCE) = 0.122 V
(SHE). When pH = 3.5, 7.4 or 9.0, Ag is stable. Immunity is possible. (b) Ecorr = −0.466 V (SCE) = −0.224 V (SHE)
[7], when pH = 3.5 or 7.4, Fe+2 is stable, Corrosion is possible; when pH = 9.0, Fe2O3 is stable, Passivity is possible.
(c) Ecorr = 0 V (SCE) = 0.242 V (SHE), when pH = 3.5, 7.4 or 9.0, TiO2 is stable, Passivity is possible. (d) Ecorr =
−0.3 V (SCE) = −0.058 V (SHE), when pH = 3.5 or 7.4, Cu is stable, Immunity is possible. When pH = 9.0, Cu2O
is stable, Passivity is possible.

002x008a.eps
 Last Lecture
• A biomaterial is a biocompatible material, which
is used to replace or assist part of an organ or its
tissue, while in intimate contact with living tissue.

• No harm to the host body defines

biocompatibility. Biocompatibility is standing
in the first place of consideration.

• Four types of Biomaterials:

metallic, ceramic, polymeric & composite

Question 1
 Part I
Biomaterials Science

Chapter 2
Toxicity and Corrosion of
Materials
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Recommend Reading
Introduction to Corrosion Science, by E
Chapter 2 of
McCafferty. Springer (Excellent Book)
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Objectives of the Lecture

• Describe the concept of trace elements and
understand their biological roles and toxicities.
• Predict the corrosion tendency of metals in body fluid
using galvanic series.
• Describe the corrosive nature of body fluid.
• Be able to read Pourbaix diagrams.
• Predict the possible events when metals are immersed
in the body fluid using galvanic series and Pourbaix
diagrams.
• Describe the strategies to minimise corrosion/toxicity of
metallic implants in the body.
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Elements in the Body

Element O C H N Ca P K S Na Cl Mg Trace
Elements
Wt.% 65 18.5 9.5 3.3 1.5 1.0 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 <0.01%
At.% 26 10 62 1.5 0.5

• A trace element is a chemical element that

is needed in extremely low quantities for
the proper growth, development, and
physiology of the body. A trace element is
also referred to as a micronutrient.
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Macro-elements in the body

Macro Roles
Elements
O, C, H, N in water and the molecular structures of proteins
Ca Structure of bone and teeth; role in cell signalling, metabolism,
tissue maintenance
P Structure of bone and teeth. Required for ATP, the energy
carrier.
Mg Important in bone structure.
Na Major electrolyte of blood and extracellular fluid.

K Major electrolyte of blood and intracellular fluid.

Cl Major electrolyte of blood and extracellular and intracellular

fluid.
S Element of the essential amino acids methionine and cysteine.
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

List of Trace Elements

• Barium • Cobalt • Lithium • Strontium
• Beryllium • Copper • Manganese • Tungsten
• Boron • Iodine • Molybdenum • Zinc
• Cadmium • Fluorine • Nickel
• Caesium • Iron • Selenium
• Chromium

Many metal elements exist in the body as trace elements.

Question 2
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Functions of Some Trace Elements

• Iron: Deficiencies of Iron can cause
anaemia.
• Boron: Deficiencies of boron can
contribute to osteoporosis.

• Iodine: Deficiencies of iodine can cause a

thyroid imbalance.

• Copper: Deficiencies of copper can cause

premature hair greying, sterility and
premature wrinkling of the skin.
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Toxic Examples –Co, Cr & Ni

• Although Co and Ni is an essential element
for life in minute amounts, at higher levels
of exposure it shows mutagenic and
carcinogenic effects.
• In 1966, the addition of cobalt compounds
to stabilize beer foam in Canada led to
cardiomyopathy, which came to be known
as beer drinker's cardiomyopathy.
• After nickel and chromium, cobalt is a
major cause of contact dermatitis.

Erin Brockovich
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Biocompatibility of
Trace Elements
• Most trace elements can be tolerated
by the body in minute amounts, but
cannot be tolerated in large amounts in
the body, although they are essentials in
cell function (e.g. Fe) and vitamin B12 (e.g.
Co), for instance.
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Metallic Structure-Properties
• Metallic valency gives following properties
Conductive (thermally and electrically)
Ductile (non-brittle, safe to be used in
structure)
Strong (good combination of strength and
ductility)
Corrosion

Hence, corrosion can introduce

toxicity, and thus is a major concern!
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Considerations in Designing
Metallic Implants
• Primarily
Priority choices of elements are those
either native in the body (such as Fe, Ti
and Cr) or inert (such as Au).
Design corrosion resistant alloys.

• Secondarily
Other desired properties.
Questions 3&4
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Corrosion of Metallic Implants

• Tissue fluid in the human body contains water,
dissolved oxygen (O), proteins, and various ions
such as Na+, Cl- and OH-. As a result, the human
body presents an aggressive environment to
metals used for implantation.

• Corrosion resistance of a metallic implant

material is consequently the most important
aspect of its biocompatibility.
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Why does corrosion occur?

• The lowest free energy state of many metals
in an oxygenated and hydrated environment
is that of their oxide, which is the natural
state of elements in ores.

Ores
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion
Processing of Metals
Earth

Mining
Ores: oxides, sulfides, silicates
Extractive Metallurgy Pure metals
(Casting)
During use
Corrosion

Alloying Metallurgy Alloys

(Casting) Billets (or called ingots)

Thermomechanical Processing

Shaping and Forming

Components

Machining, Joining and Finishing

Customers End-user products

 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

How does corrosion occur?

• Corrosion occurs when metal atoms
become ionised and go into solution, or
combine with oxygen or other species in
solution to form a compound that flakes
off or dissolves.

• Ionisation is the key step of corrosion

mechanism.
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

How does ionisation occurs?

 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Electrode Potential E
• The difference in electric potentials across
a metal/solution interface is commonly
referred to as an electrode potential.
• Theoretically, the electrode potential can
be measured as voltage and used to
indicate the tendency of electrons to flow
away, i.e. the tendency of the metal to be
ionised.
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Standard Electrode Potentials

(Relative Corrosion Tendency of Metals)

• The tendency of elements to corrode can be

quantified by the standard electrode potential
(also known as standard electrochemical series).

• The lower the potential value, the higher the

tendency to corrode.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_electrode_potentials
http://www.engr.ku.edu/~rhale/ae510/corrosion/sld021.htm
http://www.csupomona.edu/~seskandari/physiology/physiological
_calculators/nernst_potential.html
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Two Standard Electrodes

• The standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) is
universally accepted as the primary standard.
Under these standard conditions, the electrode
potential of hydrogen is arbitrarily defined as Eo =
0.000V.
• The saturated calomel electrode (SCE) is another
widely used reference electrode, based on
mercury.

• Conversion between SHE and SCE

E vs. SHE = E vs. SCE + 0.242
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

corrosion tendency
Increasing
corrosion tendency
Decreasing
Electromotive Force Series
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Limitations of emf Series

• The emf series applies to pure metals in their own ions at
unit activity.
• The relative ranking of metals in the emf series is not
necessarily the same in other aqueous solutions (such as
physiological fluids). Thus, the emf series cannot be used
reliably to predict the corrosion tendencies of coupled
metals in other environments.
• The emf series applies to pure metals only and not to
metallic alloys
• The relative ranking of metals in the emf series gives
corrosion tendencies but provides no information on
corrosion rates.
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Corrosion Potential Ecorr

• Any metal or alloy placed in a corrosive
environment has its own electrode
potential, called the corrosion potential
Ecorr.

• In principle, you should use corrosion

potentials to predict corrosion tendency,
rather than standard electrode potentials.
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Galvanic Series (Seawater)

Note that the electrode potentials
in the galvanic series are
measured relative to a saturated
calomel electrode (SCE), whereas
standard electrode potentials are
always referred to as the standard
hydrogen electrode (SHE). The
conversion between the electrode
potentials measured against the
two reference electrodes is given
by
E vs. SHE = E vs. SCE + 0.242
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Use of Galvanic Series

• Sea water is similar to the body fluid!

• So, the galvanic series for seawater can

be used as a first approximation, although
data in the body solution itself should be
used if available.

Question 5
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Galvanic Corrosion
• When two dissimilar metals are immersed in
an electrolyte and electrically connected, one
metal corrodes preferentially to another, a
process called Galvanic corrosion. In
Galvanic corrosion, the anodic metal will
have a higher corrosion rate in the couple
than in the freely corroding (uncoupled)
condition. Galvanic corrosion is usually not a
desired occurrence. It can be minimized by a
number of methods
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Minimization of Galvanic Corrosion

• Select combinations of metals as near to each other

as possible in the galvanic series.
• Insulate the contact between dissimilar metals whenever
possible.
• Apply organic coatings.
• Avoid the unfavourable area effect of having a small
anode coupled to a large cathode.
• Install a third metal which is anodic to both metals in the
galvanic couple (“sacrificial” anode).
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Corrosion Tendency of Metals at

Aqueous Environments
• Some metals become covered with passivating
film (oxide film, e.g. Al2O3 ), which protects the
metal from further attack.

• Tendency to corrode of an element depends on

both relative electric potential and pH of the
environment.
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Pourbaix Diagrams
–Corrosion Phase Diagrams

Two lines:
Below line {a} – water is unstable and must decompose to H2
Above line {a} – water is stable and any H2 present is oxidised to H+ or H2O
Above line {b} – water is unstable and must oxidize to give O2
Below line {b} – water is stable and any dissolved O2 is reduced to H2O
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

To Read Pourbaix Diagrams

Oxygen

Water

Hydrogen (Immunity)

Pourbaix diagram is similar to phase diagram. A phase diagram tells you the gas,
liquid, solid state of materials when (T, P and X) change. A Pourbaix diagram tells
you the ionic state of the material when (Voltage and pH) vary.
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

pH Values in the Body

• Different parts of the body have different pH
values and oxygen concentrations.
Consequently, a metal that performs well (is
immune or passive) in one part of the body may
suffer an unacceptable amount of corrosion in
another.

• pH can change dramatically in tissue that has

been injured or infected.
 Normal tissue fluid has a pH of about 7.4.
 In a wound it can be as low as 3.5.
 In an infected wound the pH can increase to 9.0.
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Corrosion Tendency of Ag in body

• Ecorr = -0.12 (SCE) = 0.122 (SHE). When pH = 3.5,

7.4 or 9.0, Ag is stable. Immunity is possible.
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Corrosion Tendency of Ti in body

• Ecorr = 0.242 (SHE) When pH = 3.5, 7.4 or 9.0, TiO2 is

stable. Passivity is possible. Actually, Ti remains passive
under physiological conditions. Corrosion currents in
normal saline are very slow: 10-8 A/ cm2. Ti implants remain
unchanged virtually in appearance. Ti offers superior
corrosion resistance but is not as stiff or strong as steel.
Hence, a perfect surface is important.
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Minimisation of Corrosion
1. Use appropriate metals (native or inert
elements of the body).
2. Design alloys to minimise corrosion.

3. Avoid implantation of different types of

metal in the same region.
4. In the manufacturing process, provide
matched parts from the same batch of the
same variant of a given alloy.

5. In surgery, avoid contact between metal

tools and the implant, unless special care
in taken (to avoid surface damage).
Question 6
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Highlights of the Lecture

• Most metal elements exist in the body as
trace elements. Trace elements can be
tolerated by the body in minute amounts, but
cannot be tolerated in large amounts in the
body.
• Corrosion Resistance is standing in the first
place of consideration in design of metallic
biomaterials, in alignment with the
requirement on biocompatibility of
biomaterials.
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Highlights of the Lecture

• The difference in electric potentials across a
metal/solution interface is commonly referred
to as an electrode potential, E.
• Conversion between SHE and SCE
E vs. SHE = E vs. SCE + 0.242
• Any metal or alloy placed in a corrosive
environment has its own electrode potential,
called the corrosion potential, Ecorr.
• The galvanic series is the corrosion
potentials in seawater.
 Part I BIOMATERIALS
Chap 2 Toxicity & Corrosion

Highlights of the Lecture

• pH can change dramatically in tissue that has
been injured or infected.
 Normal tissue fluid has a pH of about 7.4.
 In a wound it can be as low as 3.5.
 In an infected wound the pH can increase to 9.0.

• Strategies to minimise corrosion

 Corrosion resistant materials
 Avoid dissimilar metals
 Avoid surface damage
 Next Lecture

Mechanical Properties