POLITICAL PARTIES

A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the
government. They agree on some policies and programmes for the society with a view to promote
the collective good. Since there can be different views on what is good for all, parties try to
persuade people why their policies are better than others. They seek to implement these policies by
winning popular support through elections.
Political parties that wish to contest local, state or national elections are required to be registered
by the Election Commission of India (EC).
A political party has three components: (i) the leaders, (ii) the active members and (iii) the
followers.

Functions of a Party
● they nominate candidates during elections;
● they campaign to obtain support for their candidates in the elections;
● they place objectives and programmes before the voters through their manifestos;
● those securing the majority in elections form the government and enact and implement the
policies;
● Those not in power form opposition and keep a constant check on the government;
● they form opposition when they are in minority in the legislature and constantly put
pressure on the government for proper governance;
● they educate people and help in formulating and shaping public opinion;
● they articulate peoples’ demands and convey them to the government; and
● they provide a linkage between people and governmental institutions.

Types of Political Systems in the World

There are three kinds of political system in the world mentioned below:
● One party system in which only one party exist and rule the country; opposition parties are
not allowed. This kind of system is followed in China.
● Two party system in which only two major parties exist such as in the USA and the UK.
● Multi-party system in which includes multiple parties, for example, in India and France.

India follows multi-party system and has the largest number of political parties in the world. This
kind of system provides a multiple option to the people to choose from. It also gives opportunity to
the regional parties to participate in national politics. On the other hand, the negative aspects of
this system are the hung parliaments, hung assemblies, coalition governments and unstable
governments.
Indian governance system has multi-party system and the political parties are categorized as −
National Political Party; State or Regional (level) Political Party. The recognition and status of
political parties are reviewed and authorized by the Election Commission of India.
There are currently 8 National Parties in India:
1. Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
2. Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)
3. Communist Party of India (CPI)
4. Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI-M)
5. Indian National Congress (INC)
6. Nationalist Congress Party (NCP)
7. Trinamool Congress (TMC)
8. National Peoples’ Party (NPP)

NPP is the first national party from the North-East region.

Eligibility of National Political Party

To be eligible for a ‘National Political Party of India,’ the Election Commission has set the following
criteria –
● It secures at least six percent of the valid votes polled in any four or more states, at a general
election to the House of the People or, to the State Legislative Assembly; and
● In addition, it wins at least four seats in the House of the People from any State or States.

OR
● It wins at least two percent seats in the House of the People (i.e., 11 seats in the existing
House having 543 members), and these members are elected from at least three different
States.

Eligibility of State Political Party

To be eligible for a ‘State Political Party,’ the Election Commission has set the following criteria –
● It secures at least six percent of the valid votes polled in the State at a general election,
either to the House of the People or to the Legislative Assembly of the State concerned; and
● In addition, it wins at least two seats in the Legislative Assembly of the State concerned.
OR
● It wins at least three percent (3%) of the total number of seats in the Legislative Assembly of
the State, or at least three seats in the Assembly, whichever is more.
 Nationalism in India

The growth of modern nationalism is intimately connected to the anti-colonial movement.

The congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi tried to forge groups together within
one movement. However, the unity did not emerge without conflict.

First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation

1. The National Movement was spreading in New areas in 1919 and incorporating new
social groups and developing new modes of struggle.
2. Mahatma Gandhi came to India and the Idea of Satyagraha emphasised the power of
truth and the need to search for truth.
3. He advocated that physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
4. In 1916, He travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the peasants to struggle against
the oppressive plantation system.

The Idea of Satyagraha

1. Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in January, 1915. His heroic fight for the Indians in
South Africa was well-known. His novel method of mass agitation known as Satyagraha
had yielded good results.
2. The idea of Satyagraha emphasized the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
3. In 1916, Gandhi travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the peasants to struggle
against the oppressive plantation system.
4. In 1917,crops that were planted in Kheda district of Gujarat were destroyed due to
famine, but the government refused to remit land revenue and insisted on its full
collection.
5. In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi intervened in a dispute between workers and mill owners of
Ahmedabad. He advised workers to go on strike and to demand a 35% increase in wages.
6. Satyagraha brought Gandhiji into close touch with the workers in the urban areas.

The Rowlatt act

1. When the Rowlatt Act 1919, was passed hurriedly through the Imperial Legislative
Council with unanimous opposition of the Indian members. Gandhiji’s patience came to
an end due to the enactment of the Rowlatt Act.
2. Gandhi wanted non-violent civil disobedience against such unjust laws, which would
start with a hartal on 6th April.
3. The 6th of April 1919 was observed as Satyagraha Day when people all over the country
observed fast and hartal.
4. In 1919, the country witnessed a remarkable political awakening in India.
 5. Local leaders were picked up from Amritsar and Mahatma Gandhi was barred from
entering Delhi.
6. On 10th April, the police in Amritsar fired upon a peaceful procession, provoking
widespread attacks.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

1. A large crowd gathered in the enclosed ground of Jalliawalla Bagh.
2. People came to protest against the government's repressive measures while some came
to attend the annual Baisakhi fair.
3. General Dyer entered the area. Blocked the exit points and opened fire on the crowd,
killing hundreds.
4. The government responded with brutal repression seeking to humiliate and terrorise
people.
5. Satyagrahis were forced to rub their noses on the ground, crawl on the streets and do
Salaam (salute) to all Sahibs.

Khilafat movement
1. Rowlatt Satyagraha had been a widespread movement, it was still limited mostly to
cities and towns.
2. Mahatma Gandhi now felt the need to launch a more broad based movement in India.
3. But he was certain that no such movement could be organized without bringing the
Hindus and Muslims closer together.
4. The First World War had ended with the defeat of the Ottoman Empire. There were
rumors that a harsh peace treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman Emperor,
who was the spiritual head (Khalifa) of the Islamic world.
5. The Muslims of India decided to force Britain to change her Turkish policy.
6. A Khalifa Committee was formed under the leadership of Maulana Azad, Ajmal Khan and
Hasrat Mohani.
7. A young generation of Muslim leaders like the brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali
began discussing with Mahatma Gandhi about the possibility of a united mass action on
the issue.

Differing strands within the movement:

1. Rebellion in the countryside: – From the cities, the non-cooperation movement spread
to the countryside. After the war, the struggles of peasants and tribals were developing
in different parts of India.
2. One movement here was against talukdars and landlords who demanded exorbitantly
high rents and a variety of other cesses from the peasants.
 3. Peasants had to begar: The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue tax, an
abolition of begar and social boycott of oppressive landlords.
4. Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up headed by Jawaharlal Nehru and others; within a month
over 300 branches had been set up by the villagers.
5. Tribal peasants interpreted the message of Mahatma Gandhi and the idea of Swaraj in
yet another way.
6. The colonial government had closed large forest areas preventing people from entering
the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuel wood and fruits.
7. Alluri Sitaram Raju Claimed that he had a variety of special powers. He asserted that
India could be liberated only by the use of force.

Towards Civil Disobedience

1. Mahatma Gandhi decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922.
2. The movement was turning violent in many places and satyagrahis needed to be
properly trained for mass struggle.
3. CR Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party within the congress to argue for a
return to council politics.
4. Salt was a powerful symbol that could unite the nation.
5. Salt march accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers.
6. Finally, Mahatma Gandhi once again decided to call off the movement and entered into
a pact with Irwin on 5 March 1931.
7. Participants saw the movement from different angles such as Patidars of Gujarat and
Jats of Uttar Pradesh.
8. To organise business interest, formed the Indian Industrial and commercial congress in
1920 and Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI).
9. Gandhi called the Untouchable as Harijan, meaning Children of God.

The Sense of Collective Belonging

1. Nationalist Movement Spreads when people belonging to different regions and
communities begin to develop a sense of collective belongingness. The identity of a
nation is most often symbolized in a figure or image.
2. This image of Bharat Mata was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay in 1870
when he wrote ‘Vande Mataram ‘ for our motherland. Indian folk songs and folk sung by
bards played an important role in making the idea of nationalism. In Bengal,
Rabindranath Tagore and in Madras, Natesa, Sastri collection of folk tales and songs,
which led the movement for folk revival.
3. During the Swadeshi Movement, a tri-color ( red, green and yellow ) flag was designed in
Bengal. It had eight lotuses representing eight provinces and a crescent moon
representing Hindus and Muslims.
4. Means of creating a feeling of nationalism was through reinterpretation of history. The
nationalist writers urged the readers to take pride in India’s great achievements in the
past and struggle to change the miserable conditions of life under British rule.
 ECONOMIC PLANNING IN INDIA
● Economic planning is a process under which attempts are made to achieve desired targets of
economic development within a specified period of time.
● After Independence of India, in 1948, a declaration of industrial policy was announced. The
policy suggested the creation of a National Planning Commission and the elaboration of the
policy of a mixed economic system.

Evolution of Planning in India

● Sir M. Vishveshwarya (1934), a prominent engineer and politician made his first attempt in
laying foundation for economic planning in India in 1934 through his book, “Planned
Economy of India”. It was a 10-year plan.
● Jawaharlal Nehru (1938) set-up “National Planning Commission” by a committee but due to
the changes in the political era and 2nd World War, it did not materialize.
● Bombay Plan (1940): The 8 leading industrialists of Bombay presented “Bombay Plan”. It
was a 15 Year Investment Plan.
● S. N Agarwal (1944) gave the “Gandhian Plan” focusing on the agricultural and rural
economy.
● M.N. Roy (1945) drafted ‘People’s Plan”. It was aimed at mechanization of agricultural
production and distribution by the state only.
● J.P. Narayan (1950) advocated, “Sarvodaya Plan” which was inspired by Gandhian Plan and
with the idea of Vinoba Bhave. It gave importance not only for agriculture, but encouraged
small and cottage industries in the plan.

Planning Commission
● Planning Commission was set up to formulate Five Year Plan in India.
● The Planning Commission was created on March 15, 1950, and the plan era began on April 1,
1951, with the launch of the first five-year plan (1951-56).
● Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Chairman of Planning Commission.
● The Planning Commission has been replaced by the NITI Aayog on 1st January 2015.

India’s Five-Year Plans

● The concept of economic planning in India or five-year plan is derived from Russia.
● India has launched 12 five year plans so far. The twelfth five-year plan was the last one in
five-year plans.
● The Government of India has decided to stop the launching of five-year plans and it was
replaced by NITI Aayog.

First Five-Year Plan (1951-1956)

● This plan was based on the Harrod-Domar Model.
● Its main focus was on the agricultural development of the country.
 ● Many irrigation projects including Bhakra-Nangal Dam and Hirakud Dam were started in the
first five-year plan.
● About 44.6 percent of the plan outlay went in favour of the public sector undertakings
(PSUs).
● The community development projects were started.
● This plan was successful and achieved the GDP growth rate of 3.6% (more than its target).

Second Five-Year Plan (1956-1961)

● It was based on the P.C. Mahalanobis Model.
● Its main focus was on the industrial development of the country. Second to transports and
communication.
● Steel plants at Bhilai, Durgapur, and Rourkela were established during this plan.
● This plan was successful and achieved the growth rate of 4.1%.
● Due to the assumption of a closed economy, shortage of food and capital were felt during
this Plan.

Third Five Year Plan (1961-1966)

● Third Five Year Plan is also called 'Gadgil Yojna'.
● The main target of this plan was to make the economy independent and to reach
self-propelled position or take off.
● The plan aimed to increase national income by 30 % and agriculture production by 30 %.
● Due to Indo-China war, this plan could not achieve its growth target of 5.6%.

Plan Holiday or Three Annual (1966-1969)

● The main reason behind the plan holiday was the Indo-Pakistan war & failure of third plan.
● During this period, annual plans (1966-1967, 1967-1968 & 1968-1969) were made and equal
priority was given to agriculture, its allied sectors and the industry sector.

Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-1974)

● There are two main objectives of this plan i.e., growth with stability and Progressive
achievement of self- reliance.
● Fourteen Major Indian Banks were nationalized.
● This plan failed and could achieve growth rate of 3.3% only, against the target of 5.7%.

Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-1979)

● In this plan top priority was given to agriculture, next came industry and mines.
● The plan also focused on poverty alleviation and self-reliance.
● The Twenty Point Programme (TPP) was launched by the Government of India in 1975.
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi launched this programme.
● Overall, this plan was successful, which achieved the growth rate of 4.8% against the target
of 4.4%.
 ● The draft of this plan was prepared and launched by D.P. Dhar. This plan was terminated by
Janata party government in 1978.

Rolling Plan
● The Janta Government terminated the fifth five-year plan in 1977-78 and launched its own
sixth five year plan for period 1978-83.
● In 1980, there was again a change of government at the Centre with the return of the
Congress which abandoned the Sixth Plan of the Janata Government in the year 1980 itself.
● The new government launched a fresh new Sixth Plan for the period 1980–85.
● The plan (1978-1980) is called Rolling plan.

Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-1985)

● The basic objective of this plan was poverty eradication and technological self-reliance.
● This Plan (1980–85) was launched with the slogan of ‘Garibi Hatao’.
● The plan gave emphasis on socio-economic infrastructure in the rural areas and also focused
on eliminating rural poverty and regional disparities.
● Its growth target was 5.2% but it achieved 5.7%.

Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1990)

● The Plan (1985- 90) emphasised on rapid food grain production, increased employment
creation and productivity in general.
● The Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) was launched in 1989 with the motive to create wage
employment for the rural poor.
● The plan also focused on growth, modernisation, self-reliance and social justice.
● Its growth target was 5.0% but it achieved 6.0%.

Two Annual Plans

● Eighth five-year Plan could not take place due to volatile political situation at the centre. So,
two annual programmes were formed in 1990-91 & 1991-92.
● The two consecutive Annual Plans (1990–92) were formulated within the framework of the
approach to the Eighth Plan (1990–95) with the basic thrust on maximisation of employment
and social transformation.

Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-1997)

● In this plan the top priority was given to development of the human resources i.e.
employment, education and public health.
● During this plan, New Economic Policy of India was introduced.
● The Eighth Plan (1992–97) was launched in a typically new economic environment.
● This plan was successful and got annual growth rate of 6.8% against the target of 5.6%.
Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002)
● The main focus of this plan was “growth with justice and equity”.
● This five-year plan gave priority to Agriculture and Rural Development with a view to
generating adequate productive in employment and eradication of poverty.
● Ensuring food and nutritional security for all.
● The plan emphasizes seven minimum services which include Safe drinking water, Primary
health service, Universalization of primary education, and Nutritional support to children.
● This plan failed to achieve the growth target of 7% and Indian economy grew only at the rate
of 5.6%.

Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007)

● This plan aimed to double the per capita income of India in the next 10 years.
● This five-year plan aims to achieve 8 percent average GDP growth for the period (2002-07).
● Reduction in gender gaps in literacy and wages rates by at least 50% by 2007.
● It aimed to reduce the poverty ratio to 15% by 2012.
● Increased emphasis on the social sector (education, health, etc.)
● Its growth target was 8.0% but it achieved only 7.2%.

Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-2012)

● The Plan targets a growth rate of 10 percent and emphasizes the idea of ‘faster and more
inclusive growth’.
● Prepared by C.Rangarajan.
● Its growth rate target was 8.1% but it achieved only 7.9%.

Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-2017)

● Its main theme is “Faster, More Inclusive and Sustainable Growth”.
● Provide electricity to all villages.
● Connect all villages with all-weather roads.
● Provide access to banking services to 90 percent Indian households.
● Its growth rate target is 8%.

NITI Aayog

● NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India) was formed on January 1, 2015
through a Union Cabinet resolution. NITI Aayog is a policy think-tank of the Government of
India.
● The NITI Aayog is the new planning body replacing Planning Commission in India.
● NITI Aayog serves as a knowledge hub and monitors progress in the implementation of
 policies and programmes of the Government of India.
● The Prime Minister is the Chairperson of NITI Aayog and Union Ministers will be Ex-officio
members. The Vice-Chairman is the functional head of NITI Aayog.

Structure of the NITI

● Chairman: Prime Minister of India (ex-officio).
● Governing Council: will comprise the Chief Ministers of all states and Lt. Governors of union
territories.
● Vice-Chairperson: to be appointed by the PM (First Vice Chairman was Arvind Panangariya).
● Members: all as full-time.
● Part-time Members: maximum of 2, from leading universities, research organisations and
other relevant institutions in an ex-officio capacity.
● Ex-Officio Members: maximum of 4 members of the Union Council of Ministers to be
nominated by the PM.
● Chief Executive Officer: to be appointed by the PM for a fixed tenure, in the rank of
Secretary to the Government of India.

Functions of NITI Aayog

● Cooperative and Competitive Federalism: To enable the States to have active participation
in the formulation of national policy.
● Decentralized Planning: To restructure the planning process into a bottom-up model.
● Vision and Scenario Planning: To design medium and long-term strategic frameworks
towards India’s future.
● Internal Consultancy: It provides internal consultancy to Central and State governments on
policy and programmes.
● Monitoring and Evaluation: It will monitor the implementation of policies and programmes
and evaluate the impacts.
 Renaissance and Discovery

Introduction
● Literally, the word Renaissance implies 'rebirth' or 'revival'.
● But it relates to the major changes that took place in Europe during the transition phase
from the medieval-to-modern era.
● On the intellectual side, there was a resurgence of literature and art.
● The investigative spirit resulted in inventions in the field of science.
● Politically, the end of feudalism and the emergence of nation-states experienced this
period.
● In the social sphere, the spirit of individualism and humanism started to dominate.
● All these transformations were referred to collectively as the Renaissance in Europe.
● By the end of the 5th century A.D., the Roman Empire declined.
● It had led to classical literature and arts being neglected.
● But these cultural treasures have been maintained in Constantinople's Eastern Roman
Empire.
● Constantinople was seized by the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
● The Byzantine-Greek scholars, therefore, escaped to Rome from Constantinople.
● They carried the legacy of Greeks and Romans with them.
● A spirit of enquiry evolved with this resurgence of classical learning in Italy.
● This investigation spirit stimulated the advancement of science, art, architecture,
sculpture, painting, literature, geography, and religion.
Renaissance in Italy
● For several reasons, Italy is considered the Renaissance birthplace.
● Some of them were:
● Italy was the seat of the Latin language and ancient civilization.
● The rich city-states that art and literature have been patronized in Italy like Florence and
Venice.
● For instance, many scientists had been patronized by the Florence Medici family.
● The publication of the Divine Comedy by Dante (1265-1321), the biggest Italian poet,
caused the Renaissance movement in Florence town.
● It's been written in Italian.
● The Renaissance then spread to other areas of Europe and in the seventeenth century
attained its pinnacle.

The revival of Classical Literature

● The Renaissance's most significant contribution was the revival and teaching of ancient
literature in Greek and Latin.
● Petrarch (1304–1374) was the pioneer in this effort with his deep knowledge of these
languages.
● He collected and compiled many ancient manuscripts with Plato's and Aristotle's works.
● Classical learning had also been encouraged by his disciple Boccaccio.
● Ancient Greek literature was spread in Florence by many Greek scholars who came from
Constantinople.
● Manuel Chrysoloras was the most notable among them.
● Also notable was Erasmus' (1463-1536) contribution to the correction and editing of
Latin works.
● Erasmus also edited 'New Testament' in Greek language.
● John Gutenberg's (1398-1468) invention of the printing press in Germany had influenced
Renaissance literature.
● He published the first book, The Bible.
● In England, William Caxton established a printing press.
● Soon, many printing presses came up all over Europe, providing the Renaissance
movement with a stimulus.
● The availability of books at lower rates made the masses more aware of them.

Renaissance Literature
● In addition to the revival of classical literature, many works have emerged during this
period in both classical languages and native languages.
● We have already spoken of the Divine Comedy of Dante written in Italian.
 ● Likewise, Chaucer wrote in English the Canterbury Tales.
● Living in Florence, Machiavelli wrote his eight-volume History of Florence.
● The Prince, a book on political science, was his most famous work.
● While Italy was home to the Renaissance's most famous literary figures. In France,
England, Germany, and Spain, typical Renaissance literature can also be found.
● In England, his famous book Utopia in Latin was written by Sir Thomas Moore.
● The Elizabethan era, however, marked the start of the English Renaissance.
● It saw playwrights such as William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Charles
Webster; poets such as Edmund Spenser, Sydney, and Ben Johnson.
● During this time, Hakluyt wrote excellent travel accounts.
● The most typical writer of Renaissance literature was Montaigne (1533-1592), the
French essayist.
● His works reflect an intense interest in himself and things related to man's life.
● For centuries, his essays on education were considered important.
● In his method of writing and thinking, a precursor of Voltaire, Montaigne rebelled
against the authority and tyranny of the past and earned the title of "the first modern
man."
● In Germany, the Bible was translated into German by Martin Luther.
● The Ship of Fools was written by Sebastian Brant.
● In Spain, the renowned Don Quixote was written by Cervantes.

Renaissance Art
● The Christian religion and the Church dominated art in the Middle Ages.
● The love of nature and the human body was provided significance during the
Renaissance.
● Although the spirit of humanism prevailed, Christian was the topic of most Renaissance
art.
● Renaissance painting in Italy flourished most abundantly.
● Among the Renaissance painters were Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo
(1475-1564) and Raphael (1483-1520).

Leonardo da Vinci:
● An artist, poet, musician, and engineer was one of the most versatile men of his time.
● He is therefore known as the "man of the Renaissance."
● He was born in Florence and visited a number of nations.
● The Duke of Milan patronized him.
● The Mona Lisa and the Last Supper were his popular paintings.
Michelangelo:
● He was a painter as well as a sculptor.
● He lived in Florence with the Medici family patronizing him.
● He moved to Rome later.
● His most wonderful accomplishment in painting is the magnificent frescoes on the
ceiling of the Vatican's Sistine Chapel.
● There are 145 images with 394 figures in this job, some of which are as big as 10 feet.
● His painting, The LasUudgment, is regarded as the finest in the world.

Raphael:
● With a sense of beauty, he accomplished a rare blend of devotional sensation.
● Although at the age of thirty-seven Raphael died, he created many paintings, the most
familiar of which is the Madonna.
● The Venetian School is an excellent example of Renaissance art's secularization.
● Venice's artistic expression was worldly and materialistic.
● The biggest painters ofVenice were Titian (1477-1576) and Tintoretto (1518-1592).

Renaissance Sculpture
● The art of sculpture during the Renaissance period also experienced advancement.
● Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455) was the forerunner of Renaissance sculpture.
● His masterpiece was the magnificent doors at Florence's Baptistery.
● The beauty of these doors was valued by Michaelangelo as worthy of Paradise gates.
● The statue of St. George in Florence and that of St. Mark in Venice was created by
Donatello (1386-1466).
● Besides being a painter, Michelangelo was a well-known sculptor.
● For the Medici family in Florence, he created some of his finest carvings.
● The other famous sculptors of this era were Brunelleschi and Robbia.
● One of Renaissance architecture's most familiar examples is St. Peter's Church of Rome.
 French, Russian, and Industrial Revolution

French Revolution Of 1789

The French Revolution was a time of social and political upheaval in France and its colonies that
began in 1789 and ended in 1799. Inspired by liberal and radical ideas, Its overthrow of the
Monarchy influenced the decline of absolute Monarchies in other parts of Europe.

Background
● The French involvement in the American revolution of 1776 was a costly affair that left
the country in a state of near bankruptcy. King Louis’s extravagant spending also did not
help matters.
● Empty royal coffers, poor harvests and rise in food prices had created feelings of unrest
among the poor rural and urban populace. The matter was further worsened by the
imposition of taxes that provided no relief. As a result rioting, looting and general strikes
became the norm
● Towards the end of 1786, a universal land tax was proposed by the controller general,
Charles Alexandre de Calonne. This tax reform would no longer exempt the privileged
classes like the clergy and the nobility as had been the case for centuries
● The King summoned the Estates-General to pass these measures. The Estates-General
was an assembly that represented the French nobility clergy and the middle class. The
last time the Estates-General was called was in 1614.
● The date of the meeting was fixed on May 5 1789, where grievances of the three estates
would be presented to the king.

Causes Of French Revolution of 1789

● Social – The social conditions in France in the late 18th century were extremely unequal
and exploitative. The clergy and the nobility formed the first two Estates and were the
most privileged classes in French society. They were exempt from payment of taxes to
the State. On the other hand, the Third Estate that consisted of peasants and workers
formed the majority of the population. They were burdened with excessive taxes with
no political and social rights. As a result, they were extremely discontent.
● Economic – As a result of numerous wars waged by Louis XVI the State coffers were
empty. The situation was made even more complex by France’s involvement in the
American War of Independence and the faulty system of taxation. While the privileged
classes were excused from paying taxes the Third Estate was more and more burdened
with them.
 ● Political – The Bourbon king of France, Louis XVI was an extremely autocratic and
weak-willed king who led a life of obscene luxury. This led to a lot of disenchantment
among the masses who then were leading life of extreme poverty and widespread
hunger.
● Intellectual – The 18th century was marked by a conscious refusal by French thinkers of
the ‘Divine Rights Theory’. Philosophers like Rousseau rejected the paradigm of absolute
monarchy and promulgated the doctrine of equality of man and sovereignty of people.
They played a pivotal role in exposing the fault lines of the old political system, i.e. the
ancien regime, and articulating the popular discontent.

Stages of French – Revolution

Stage I – The meeting of the Estates-General

● Despite the non-aristocratic members outnumbering the aristocrats in terms of
population. Yet, they could be outvoted by the other two bodies.
● Before the meeting of the Estates-General on May 5, members of the Third Estate (as
the non-aristocratic class was known) began to mobilise the support of equal voting
rights which would be on the basis of head and not by status
● While the middle-class was of the opinion that fiscal and judicial reform was the need of
the hour, the nobles were against the idea of giving up the privileges they had enjoyed
under the traditional system.
● When the meeting was convened, the question over the voting process turned to open
hostility between the three orders, thus the original purpose of the meeting and the
authority of the king who called for it being neglected.
● With further talks having failed the Third estate met alone and formally adopted the title
of National assembly on June 17, 1789. They gathered in a nearby indoor tennis court
and took the oath of office. This oath was known as the Tennis Court Oath. The
members of this new assembly vowed not to disperse until reforms have been initiated.
● Seeing no other option Louis XVI had to absorb the three assemblies into the new order.

Stage II – The French Revolution Begins

● The National Assembly continued to meet at Versailles. In the meantime, fear and
violence had consumed Paris.
● Speculations went around regarding an imminent military coup. This led to an
insurgency which resulted in the taking of Bastille fortress on July 14, 1789. This event
marked the beginning of the French Revolution
 ● A wave of revolutionary fervour spread throughout the countryside, which led to a
peasants revolt that saw many homes of tax collectors and burnt as well as those of the
aristocrats themselves.
● The rebellions caused the nobles of the country to flee en masse. This period is known
as the Great Fear when the National Assembly finally dealt a fatal blow to feudalism on
August 4, 1789. The old order had finally ended.

Stage III – Declaration of Rights of Man

● The National Assembly adopted the Rights of Man and of the Citizen on August 4, 1789.
The charter was grounded on democratic principles, drawing from philosophical as well
as political ideas of Enlightenment thinkers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The declaration
was published on August 26, 1789
● The constitution was adopted on September 3, 1791. It symbolised a new French society
where the king would have limited powers with a moderate assembly wielding the most
power. This, however, was not enough for the radical elements of the assembly like
Goerges Danton and Maximilien de Robespierre, who demanded a trial of the king and a
more republican form of government.
● The French constitution was adopted on September 3, 1791. Although it was moderate
in its stance by limiting the powers of the king, it was not enough for the more radical
members of the assembly like Maximilien de Robespierre who wanted Louis XVI to stand
trial.

Stage IV – Reign of Terror

● The revolution took a more radical turn when a group of insurgents attacked the royal
residence in Paris and arrested Louis XVI on August 10, 1792
● The following month many who were accused of being the ‘enemies of the revolution’
were massacred in Paris. Some of these included the moderate voices of the revolution.
The Legislative Assembly was replaced by the National Convention which proclaimed the
establishment of the Republic of France and the abolition of the Monarchy.
● King Louis XVI was condemned to death on January 21, 1793, and executed for treason.
His wife, Marie Antoinette would follow him nine months later.
● The execution of the king marked the beginning of the most violent and turbulent phase
of the French Revolution – the Reign of Terror.
● The National Convention was under the control of an extremist faction led by
Robespierre. Under his auspices, thousands were executed for suspected treason and
counter-revolutionary activities. The Reign of Terror ended until Rpbespierr’s own
execution on July 28, 1794.
 ● Robespierre’s death began a moderate phase during which the people of France
revolted against the excesses committed during the Reign of Terror. This was known as
the Thermidorian Reaction.

Stage V – End of the French Revolution

● On August 22, 1795, the National Convention, now composed of moderates who had
survived the excesses of the Reign of Terror, approved the creation of a new constitution
that created France’s bicameral legislature.
● The power would be in the hands of the Directory, a five-member group appointed by
the parliament. Any opposition to this group was removed through the efforts of the
army, now led by an upcoming and successful general, Napoleon Bonaparte.
● The Directory’s rule was marked by financial crises and corruption. In addition, they had
ceded much of their authority to the army that had helped them stay in power.
● Finally, resentment against the Directory reached fever pitch and a coup d’état was
staged by Napoleon himself, toppling them from power. Napoleon appointed himself
“first consul”. The French Revolution was over and the Napoleonic era was about to
begin during which time French domination continental Europe would become the
norm.

Significance of the French Revolution

● For all its faults, the French Revolution is highly regarded as the turning point in modern
history as the rise of new ideas steeped in liberalism, enlightenment and democracy.
These ideals were carried throughout Europe by French armies that fought many wars in
order to preserve the Republic’s existence.
● It inspired the common folk in Europe to rise up against their own Monarchs in a wave of
revolutionary fervour. Although most were harshly put down, the revolutions would
continue into the early years of the 19th century which saw the fall of many absolute
Monarchy all over Europe.
● Above all, the French Revolution brought an end to feudalism and made a path for
future advances in broadly defined individual freedoms

Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution, otherwise known as the First Industrial Revolution, was a series of
innovations in manufacturing processes that transformed rural, agrarian European and
American societies into industrialised and urban ones.
Where did the Industrial Revolution Begin?
● The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and many of the technological
innovations were of British origin. Due to its cold damp climate, Britain was ideal for
raising sheep which gave it a long history of producing textiles such as wool, linen,
cotton etc. Before the industrial revolution, the textile industry was in every sense a
‘cottage industry’ as the work was performed in smaller workshops and homes by
individual spinners, weavers and dyers.
● With the introduction of machines like the flying shuttle, spinning jenny and power
loom, weaving cloth and spinning yarn was made much easier and faster, while at the
same time requiring less human labour.
● The efficient and mechanized means of production could now meet the growing
demand for cloth both at home and abroad. Britain’s overseas colonies were also a
captive market for the goods it produced now. Along with the textile industry, the iron
industry adopted some innovations of its own as well.
● One of these innovations was the method of smelting iron with coke, a material created
by heating coal. This method was cheaper when compared to using charcoal that was
traditionally used and produced high-quality material at the same time. The rapidly
expanding steel and iron production fulfilled demands created by many wars that Britain
fought overseas, such as the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) and it helped in the growth
of the railway industry.

What was the impact of Steam Power during the Industrial Revolution?
● Nothing so vividly describes the impact of the industrial revolution as the invention of
machines that harnessed the power of steam.
● The first prototype of a modern steam engine was designed by Thomas Newcomen in
the early 1700s. He named it as the “atmospheric steam engine” and was originally
created for pumping out water from mines.
● James Watt, an engineer from Scotland, worked on the steam engine created by
Newcomen in the 1760s. By adding a water condenser to make it more efficient, James
Watt invented a steam engine that would be far more efficient than any other models
invented so far. Also, his innovation would be used by many industries such as paper and
cotton mills, waterworks, canals, ironworks etc.
● The demand for coal rose to astronomical heights during this period as most of the
machines were powered by these cheap sources of energy. But these demands for coal
were themselves met by the machines that helped workers to extract coal from the
mines.

Innovations in Transportations During the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution led to an improvement in Britain’s road network, which was
substandard before the advent of industrialisation. The arrival of new innovations such as
steam-powered locomotives heralded a new era in transportation that saw an efficient
movement of freight and people across Britain by 1815. These innovations also allowed the
transport of goods to overseas markets across the Atlantic Ocean and beyond.

Communications and Banking During the Industrial Revolution.

● The later period of the Industrial Revolution saw many advances in long-distance
communication. The first telegraph system was patented by inventors William Cooke and
Charles Wheatstone, while Samuel Morse worked on their version of the telegraph in
the United States. The telegraph system created by Wheatstone and Cooke would be
used for signalling in the railways as it required efficient means of communication due to
the speed of the trains in question.
● A new factory system that relied on owners and managers came to be during this time
period.
● Along with the first stock exchanges in the 1770s and 1790s in Britain and the United
States respectively. Adam Smith, regarded as the ‘father of modern economics’,
published The Wealth of Nations where he advocated a system of free-market
characterised by individual ownership of methods of production and little to no
government interference.

Standard of Living during the Industrial Revolution

● For all its technological marvels and breakthroughs, the Industrial Revolution came with
a few faults of its own. The rapid industrialisation had led to rapid urbanisation,
prompting many to leave the countryside to find work in the cities. This brought
significant challenges as the cities now suffered from overcrowding, pollution, appalling
levels of sanitation compounded by frequent shortages of clean drinking water.
● Although the standard of living improved dramatically for the middle and upper classes,
the poor and the working classes had no change in their lot in life. Although
mechanization of factories had improved output and production overall, the working
conditions had become tedious and at times fraught with danger. The wages paid to
these workers were also low, fuelling violent opposition to changes in Britain’s industrial
landscape.

Impact of the Industrial Revolution

● The Industrial Revolution was a watershed moment in human history as every aspect of
daily life felt its impact in one way or another. The average income and the growth of the
population, in general, saw unprecedented changes. Modern economists are of the
 opinion that the standard of living of the general population began to change
considerably for the first time in history even though it did not see an overall
improvement until the beginning of the 20th century.
● The Industrial Revolution saw the emergence of modern capitalist economies around
the world at this time as the GDP per capita saw an exponential rate of growth around
this time. Economic historians regard the Industrial Revolutions as the most important
moment in human history since the domestication of animals and plants.

The Russian Revolution

The Russian Revolution of 1917 was one of the most significant events of the twentieth century
that ended centuries of monarchy in Russia and brought forth the first constitutionally
communist state in the world.

Background of the Russian Revolution

● The Russia of the 1900s was one of the most economically backwards and least
industrialised nations in Europe with a large population of peasants and a growing
number of industrial workers.
● It was where the last vestiges of feudalism - serfdom - was still in practice. Serfdom was
a system where landless peasants were forced to serve the land-owning nobility.
Although the practice in most of Europe was ended by the time of the Renaissance in
the late 16th century, it was still being carried out in Russia well into the 19th century.
● It would not be until 1861 when serfdom would be abolished. The emancipation of serfs
would set off a chain of events that would lead to the Russian Revolution in the coming
years.

1905 Russian Revolution

● The Industrial Revolution came to Russia much later compared to the rest of Europe.
When it did, it brought with it a multitude of political and social changes.
● The Industrial Revolution in Russia doubled the population in urban areas such as St
Petersburg and Moscow, putting a strain on the infrastructure of the cities and leading to
overcrowding and pollution. The result was a new level of destitution of the urban
working class.
● The population boom did not have the food supply to sustain it in the long run, as
decades of economic mismanagement and costly wars lead to chronic shortages in the
vast country from time to time.
 ● In response to their present conditions the Russian people, composed mainly of workers
marched to the winter palace of Tsar Nicholas II on January 22 1905. Although he was
not there at the time, he had given orders not to shoot at the unarmed crowd.
● However his orders, either due to miscommunication or downright inefficiency on part
of the officers, were largely ignored
● When the huge crowd of people finally showed up the troops were intimidated by the
sheer size of the people present. Upon their refusal of the protestors to disperse when
told to, the Russian troops opened fire killing and wounding hundreds of the protesters.
This event was known as the Bloody Sunday massacre and would have grave
consequences for the Russian monarchy in the years to come.
● The massacre sparked the Russian revolution of 1905, during which angry workers
responded with a series of crippling strikes throughout the country. The strikes further
threatened to cripple Russia’s already fragile economy. Left with no choice, Nicholas II
agreed to implement reforms, which would be known as the October manifesto. But
kept delaying them in order to not lose his grip on power. To this effect, he dissolved the
Russian parliament through which he had promised to implement reforms.
● Although nothing significant came out of the 1905 revolution, the events of Bloody
Sunday had alienated the Tsar from his people.

Events of World War I

● Russia joined its Serbian, French and British allies in declaring war against the Central
Powers of Austria, Germany and Ottoman Turkey on August 1914
● Russia had not modernised its army at the pace that Germany had and as a result, the
war proved disastrous for Russia. Its casualties were far more than any other nation in
the war.
● Germany had seized key Russian territories which further caused food shortages and
disrupting the economy as a result.
● Hopin to rally the Russian troops and the people in the wake of the deteriorating
condition of the war front, Tsar Nicholas II personally made his way to take command of
the army, leaving his wife, Tsarina Alexandra in charge of the government.
● Due to her German heritage, the Tsarina was hated by the Russian populace. It did not
help matters when she began dismissing elected officials on the alleged advice of the
controversial preacher and mystic, Rasputin. His influence and hold over the Russian
imperial family were well known at the time.
● Rasputin was murdered by nobles resenting his hold over the imperial court on
December 30, 1916, but the damage was already done. Most ordinary Russian had lost
faith in the Tsarist government. Soon this resentment would turn into a full-blown
revolution in the coming years.
The February Revolution
● The February revolution began on March 8, 1917. Because Russia used the Julian
Calendar at the time it is known as the February Revolution. The Julian calendar date of
the revolution is given as February 23.
● Protestors took to the streets of the capital of St. Petersburg angry over chronic food
shortages. They were joined by industrial workers and clashed with the police on the
streets.
● On March 11, the troops garrisoning St. Petersburg were called to quell the protests but
despite firing upon them, the uprising was continued unchecked.
● The Russian parliament - the Duma - formed a provisional government on March 12.
Nicholas II abdicated the throne ending centuries of his family rule in Russia
● The new government under Alexander Kerensky established a statuette of rights such as
freedom of speech and the rights of unions to organize and strike. Despite this, he
continued the war with Germany contrary to the popular opposition against it.
● This move worsened Russia’s food supply problems. Unrest continued to grow as
peasants looted farms and food riots erupted in the cities.

The October Revolution

● On November 6 and 7, 1917 (or October 24 and 25 on the Julian calendar, hence
referred to as the October Revolution), communist revolutionaries led by Vladimir Lenin
launched a coup against Kerensky’s government.
● The new government under Lenin was composed of a council of soldiers, peasants and
workers. The Bolsheviks and their allies occupied key locations across St. Petersburg and
Russia as a whole soon formed a new government with Lenin as its head. Lenin became
the dictator of the world’s first communist state.
● But this was not the end of troubles for the new government
● Civil War broke out in Russia in late 1917 where the Red faction, composed mainly of
communists and socialists, fought against the White factions, which were composed of
monarchists, capitalists and democrats.
● Nicholas and his entire family were executed on July 16, 1918, by the Bolsheviks.
● The war would end in 1923 with Lenin’s’ red army claiming victory. It would pave the
way for the formation of a communist super-state: The Soviet Union. The Soviet Union
would become a formidable player during the events of the Cold war in the coming
decades
 United Nations

Introduction

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization founded in 1945. It is currently

made up of 193 Member States.
Its mission and work are guided by the purposes and principles contained in its founding
Charter and implemented by its various organs and specialised agencies.
Its activities include maintaining international peace and security, protecting human
rights, delivering humanitarian aid, promoting sustainable development and upholding
international law.

History of UN Foundation

● In 1899, the International Peace Conference was held in The Hague to elaborate
instruments for settling crises peacefully, preventing wars and codifying rules of
warfare.
○ It adopted the Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International
Disputes and established the Permanent Court of Arbitration, which began
work in 1902. This court was the forerunner of the UN International Court
of Justice.
● The forerunner of the United Nations was the League of Nations, an organization
conceived in circumstances of the First World War, and established in 1919
under the Treaty of Versailles "to promote international cooperation and to
achieve peace and security."
○ The International Labour Organization (ILO) was also created in 1919
under the Treaty of Versailles as an affiliated agency of the League.
● The name "United Nations", coined by United States President Franklin D.
Roosevelt. A document called The Declaration by the United Nations was signed
in 1942 by 26 nations, pledging their Governments to continue fighting together
against the Axis Powers (Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis) and bound them against
making a separate peace.
● United Nations Conference on International Organization (1945)
○ Conference held in San Francisco (USA), was attended by
representatives of 50 countries and signed the United Nations Charter.
● The UN Charter of 1945 is the foundational treaty of the United Nations, as an
intergovernmental organization.
Components

The main organs of the UN are

1. the General Assembly,
2. the Security Council,
3. the Economic and Social Council,
4. the Trusteeship Council,
5. the International Court of Justice,
6. and the UN Secretariat.
All the 6 were established in 1945 when the UN was founded.

1. General Assembly

● The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative

organ of the UN.
● All 193 Member States of the UN are represented in the General Assembly,
making it the only UN body with universal representation.
● Each year, in September, the full UN membership meets in the General
Assembly Hall in New York for the annual General Assembly session, and
general debate, which many heads of state attend and address.
● Decisions on important questions, such as those on peace and security,
admission of new members and budgetary matters, require a two-thirds majority
of the General Assembly.
● Decisions on other questions are by simple majority.
● The President of the General Assembly is elected each year by assembly to
serve a one-year term of office.
● 6 Main Committees: Draft resolutions can be prepared for the General Assembly
by its six main committees: (1) First Committee (Disarmament and International
Security), (2) Second Committee (Economic and Financial), (3) Third Committee
(Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural), (4) Fourth Committee (Special Political and
Decolonization), (5) Fifth Committee (Administrative and Budgetary), (6)Sixth
Committee (Legal).
○ Each Member State may be represented by one person on each Main
Committee and on any other committee that may be established upon
which all Member States have the right to be represented.
○ Member States may also assign advisers, technical advisers, experts or
persons of similar status to these committees.
● Other Committees:
 ○ General Committee: It meets periodically throughout each session to
review the progress of the General Assembly and its committees and to
make recommendations for furthering such progress. It is composed of the
President of the General Assembly and 21 Vice-Presidents of the
Assembly and the Chairmen of the six Main Committees. The five
permanent members of the Security Council serve as Vice-Presidents, as
well.
○ Credentials Committee: It is mandated to examine the credentials of
representatives of Member States and to report to the General Assembly.

2. Security Council

● It has primary responsibility, under the UN Charter, for the maintenance of

international peace and security.
● The Security Council is made up of fifteen member states, consisting of five
permanent members—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the
United States—and ten non-permanent members elected for two-year terms by
the General Assembly on a regional basis.
● "Veto power" refers to the power of the permanent member to veto (Reject) any
resolution of Security Council.
● The unconditional veto possessed by the five governments has been seen as the
most undemocratic character of the UN.
● Critics also claim that veto power is the main cause for international inaction on
war crimes and crimes against humanity. However, the United States refused to
join the United Nations in 1945 unless it was given a veto. The absence of the
United States from the League of Nations contributed to its ineffectiveness.
Supporters of the veto power regard it as a promoter of international stability, a
check against military interventions, and a critical safeguard against U.S.
domination.

3. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

● It is the principal body for coordination, policy review, policy dialogue and
recommendations on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as
implementation of internationally agreed development goals.
● It has 54 Members, elected by the General Assembly for overlapping three-year
terms.
 ● It is the United Nations’ central platform for reflection, debate, and innovative
thinking on sustainable development.
● Each year, ECOSOC structures its work around an annual theme of global
importance to sustainable development. This ensures focused attention, among
ECOSOC’s array of partners, and throughout the UN development system.
● It coordinates the work of the 14 UN specialized agencies, ten functional
commissions and five regional commissions, receives reports from nine UN
funds and programmes and issues policy recommendations to the UN system
and to Member States.

4. Trusteeship Council

● It was established in 1945 by the UN Charter, under Chapter XIII.

● Trust territory is a non-self-governing territory placed under an administrative
authority by the Trusteeship Council of the United Nations.
● A League of Nations mandate was a legal status for certain territories transferred
from the control of one country to another following World War I, or the legal
instruments that contained the internationally agreed-upon terms for
administering the territory on behalf of the League of Nations.
● United Nations trust territories were the successors of the remaining League of
Nations mandates, and came into being when the League of Nations ceased to
exist in 1946.
● It had to provide international supervision for 11 Trust Territories that had been
placed under the administration of seven Member States, and ensure that
adequate steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government and
independence.
● By 1994, all Trust Territories had attained self-government or independence. The
Trusteeship Council suspended operation on 1 November 1994.

5. International Court of Justice (ICJ)

● The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United
Nations. It was established in June 1945 by the Charter of the United Nations
and began work in April 1946.
● The ICJ is the successor of the Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ),
which was established by the League of Nations in 1920.
6. Secretariat

● The Secretariat comprises the Secretary-General and tens of thousands of

international UN staff members who carry out the day-to-day work of the UN as
mandated by the General Assembly and the Organization's other principal
organs.
● The Secretary-General is chief administrative officer of the Organization,
appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security
Council for a five-year, renewable term.
● UN staff members are recruited internationally and locally, and work in duty
stations and on peacekeeping missions all around the world.

Funds, Programmes, Specialized Agencies and Others

The UN system, also known unofficially as the "UN family", is made up of the UN itself
(6 main organs) and many affiliated programmes, funds, and specialized agencies, all
with their own membership, leadership, and budget.

Specialized agencies

● International labour Organization (ILO)

● Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
● United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
● World Health Organization (WHO)
● World Bank Group
● International Monetary Fund (IMF)
● International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
● International Maritime Organization (IMO)
● International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
● Universal Postal Union (UPU)
● World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
● World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
● International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
● United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
● World Tourism Organization (WTO)

Functional commissions

● Statistical Commission
● Commission on Population and Development
● Commission for Social Development
● Commission on Human Rights
 ● Commission on the Status of Women
● Commission on Narcotic Drugs
● Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice
● Commission on Science and Technology for Development
● Commission on Sustainable Development
● United Nations Forum on Forests

Regional Commissions

● Economic Commission for Africa (ECA)

● Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP)
● Economic Commission for Europe (ECE)
● Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
● Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA)

Standing Committees

● Committee for Programme and Coordination

● Commission on Human Settlements
● Committee on Non-Governmental Organizations
● Committee on Negotiations with Intergovernmental Agencies
● Committee on Energy and Natural Resources

Related bodies

● International Narcotics Control Board

● Board of Trustees of the International Research and Training Institute for the
Advancement of Women
● Committee for the United Nations Population Award
● Programme Coordination Board of the Joint United Nations Programme on
HIV/AIDS
● Funds and programmes which send reports to ECOSOC
● United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
● United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
● United Nations Development Fund for Women
● United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
● United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
● Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
● United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)
● United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East
(UNRWA)
● Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention (ODCCP)
● World Food Programme (WFP)
 ● UN-HABITAT

Funds and Programmes

● UNICEF
○ The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), originally known as the
United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, was created by
the United Nations General Assembly in 1946, to provide emergency food
and healthcare to children and mothers in countries that had been
devastated by World War II.
○ In 1950, UNICEF's mandate was extended to address the long-term
needs of children and women in developing countries everywhere.
○ In 1953, it became a permanent part of the United Nations System, and
the words "international" and "emergency" were dropped from the
organization's name, though it retained the original acronym, "UNICEF".
○ Executive Board: A 36-member board establishes policies, approves
programs and oversees administrative and financial plans. The members
are government representatives who are elected by the United Nations
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), usually for three-year terms.
○ UNICEF relies on contributions from governments and private donors.
○ UNICEF's Supply Division is based in Copenhagen (Denmark) and serves
as the primary point of distribution for such essential items as vaccines,
antiretroviral medicines for children and mothers with HIV, nutritional
supplements, emergency shelters, family reunification, and educational
supplies.
● UNFPA
○ The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), formerly the United
Nations Fund for Population Activities, is the United Nations sexual and
reproductive health agency.
○ Its mission is to deliver a world where every pregnancy is wanted, ‘every
childbirth is safe’ and every young person's potential is fulfilled.
○ In 2018, UNFPA launched efforts to achieve three transformative results,
ambitions that promise to change the world for every man, woman and
young person:
■ Ending unmet need for family planning
■ Ending preventable maternal death
■ Ending gender-based violence and harmful practices
● UNDP
○ The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is the UN's global
development network.
 ○ UNDP was established in 1965 by the General Assembly of the United
Nations.
○ It provides expert advice, training and grants support to developing
countries, with increasing emphasis on assistance to the least developed
countries.
○ The UNDP Executive Board is made up of representatives from 36
countries around the world who serve on a rotating basis.
○ It is funded entirely by voluntary contributions from member nations.
○ UNDP is central to the United Nations Sustainable Development Group
(UNSDG), a network that spans 165 countries and unites the 40 UN
funds, programmes, specialized agencies and other bodies working to
advance the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
● UNEP
○ The United Nations Environment Programme (UN Environment) is a
global environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda,
promotes the coherent implementation of the environmental dimension of
sustainable development within the United Nations system.
○ It was founded by the UN General Assembly as a result of the United
Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm Conference)
in June 1972.
○ UNEP and World Meteorological Organization (WMO) established the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988 to assess
climate change based on the latest science.
○ Since its founding, the UNEP has played a key role for the development of
multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs). The secretariats for the
following nine MEAs are currently hosted by UNEP:
■ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
■ Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES)
■ Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild
Animals (CMS)
■ Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer
■ Minamata Convention on Mercury
■ Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of
Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal
■ Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
■ Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure
for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International
Trade
● UN-Habitat
 ○ United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) is the United
Nations programme working towards a better urban future.
○ Its mission is to promote socially and environmentally sustainable human
settlements development and the achievement of adequate shelter for all.
○ It was established in 1978 as an outcome of the First UN Conference on
Human Settlements and Sustainable Urban Development (Habitat I) in
Vancouver, Canada, in 1976.
○ 2nd United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II) in
Istanbul, Turkey, in 1996, set the twin goals of the Habitat Agenda:
■ Adequate shelter for all
■ Development of sustainable human settlements in an urbanizing
world.
○ 3rd United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban
Development (Habitat III) was held in 2016 in Quito, Ecuador. It elaborated
on Goal-11 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG): "Make cities
and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.
● WFP
○ World Food Programme (WFP) is the leading humanitarian organization
saving lives and changing lives, delivering food assistance in emergencies
and working with communities to improve nutrition and build resilience.
○ The WFP was established in 1963 by the FAO (The Food and Agriculture
Organization) and the United Nations General Assembly.

UN Specialized Agencies

The UN specialized agencies are autonomous organizations working with the United
Nations. All were brought into a relationship with the UN through negotiated
agreements.
Some existed even before the First World War. Some were associated with the League
of Nations. Others were created almost simultaneously with the UN. Others were
created by the UN to meet emerging needs.

Articles 57 and 63 of the UN Charter provides provision of creating specialised

agencies.
● FAO
○ In 1945, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) was created In Quebec
City, Canada, by the first session of the newly created United Nations.
○ FAO is a specialized agency of the United Nations that leads international
efforts to defeat hunger.
 ○ FAO is also a source of knowledge and information, and helps developing
countries in transition modernize and improve agriculture, forestry and
fisheries practices, ensuring good nutrition and food security for all.
● ICAO
○ Under the Chicago Convention, the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) was established in 1944, as a UN specialized
agency. It manages the administration and governance of the Convention
on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention).
○ It provides the principles and techniques of international air navigation and
fosters the planning and development of international air transport to
ensure safe and orderly growth.
● IFAD
○ The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) was
established as an international financial institution in 1977 through United
Nations General Assembly Resolution as one of the major outcomes of
the 1974–World Food Conference.
○ This conference was organized by the United Nations in response to the
food crises of the early 1970s, when global food shortages were causing
widespread famine and malnutrition, primarily in the Sahelian countries of
Africa. It was realized that food insecurity and famine were not so much
failures in food production but structural problems relating to poverty.
● ILO
○ The International Labour Organization (ILO) is a United Nations agency
whose mandate is to advance social justice and promote decent work by
setting international labour standards.
○ It sets international labour standards, promotes rights at work and
encourages decent employment opportunities, the enhancement of social
protection and the strengthening of dialogue on work-related issues.
○ As an agency of the League of Nations, it was created in 1919, as part of
the Treaty of Versailles that ended World War I.
○ 9 International Labour Conventions and 10 Recommendations which dealt
with hours of work in industry, unemployment, maternity protection, night
work for women, minimum age, and night work for young persons in
industry were adopted in less than two years (by 1922).
○ By signing of the United Nation agreement whereby the ILO became the
first United Nations specialized agency in 1946.
○ The Organization won the Nobel Peace Prize on its 50th anniversary in
1969 for pursuing decent work and justice for workers.
○ In 1980, the ILO played a major role in the emancipation of Poland from
dictatorship by giving its full support to the legitimacy of the Solidarnosc
 Union, based on respect for Convention No. 87 on freedom of association,
which Poland had ratified in 1957.
○ It emphasised that the future of work is not predetermined: Decent work
for all is possible but societies have to make it happen. It is precisely with
this imperative that the ILO established its Global Commission on the
Future of Work as part of its initiative to mark its centenary in 2019.
■ Its job is to undertake an in-depth examination of the future of work
that can provide the analytical basis for the delivery of social justice
in the 21st century.
● IMF
○ UN Monetary and Financial Conference (1944, also called Bretton Woods
Conference), Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, United States was held to
regulate the international monetary and financial order after the conclusion
of World War II.
■ It resulted in the foundation of the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) in 1945.
● World Bank
○ UN Monetary and Financial Conference (1944, also called Bretton Woods
Conference), was held to regulate the international monetary and financial
order after the conclusion of World War II. It resulted in the foundation of
IBRD in 1945. IBRD is the founding institution of World Bank
● IMO
○ The International Maritime Organization (IMO) – is the United Nations
specialized agency with responsibility for the safety and security of
shipping and the prevention of marine and atmospheric pollution by ships.
● ITU
○ International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is a specialized agency of
the United Nations (UN) that is responsible for issues that concern
information and communication technologies (ICT). It is the oldest among
all the specialised agencies of the UN.
○ It was founded in 1865 and based in Geneva, Switzerland. It works on the
principle of international cooperation between governments (Member
States) and the private sector (Sector Members, Associates and
Academia).
○ ITU is the premier global forum through which parties work towards
consensus on a wide range of issues affecting the future direction of the
ICT industry.
○ It allocates global radio spectrum and satellite orbits, develops the
technical standards that ensure networks and technologies seamlessly
 interconnect, and strives to improve access to ICTs to underserved
communities worldwide.
● UNESCO
○ The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) was founded in 1945 to develop the “intellectual and moral
solidarity of mankind” as a means of building lasting peace. It is located in
Paris (France).
○ In this spirit, UNESCO develops educational tools to help people live as
global citizens free of hate and intolerance.
○ By promoting cultural heritage and the equal dignity of all cultures,
UNESCO strengthens bonds among nations.
● UNIDO
○ United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) promotes
industrial development for poverty reduction, inclusive globalisation and
environmental sustainability.
● WHO
○ The World Health Organization (WHO) is the United Nations’ specialized
agency for health.
○ It was established in 1948, and is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.
○ It is an intergovernmental organization and works in collaboration with its
Member States usually through the Ministries of Health.
○ The World Health Organization (WHO) is responsible for
■ providing leadership on global health matters,
■ shaping the health research agenda,
■ setting norms and standards,
■ providing evidence-based policy options,
■ providing technical support to countries,
■ and monitoring and assessing health trends.
● UNCTAD
○ UNCTAD supports developing countries to access the benefits of a
globalized economy more fairly and effectively. It helps to use trade,
investment, finance, and technology as vehicles for inclusive and
sustainable development.
● UNODC
○ The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) is a global
leader in the fight against illicit drugs and international crime.
○ It was established in 1997 through a merger between the United Nations
Drug Control Programme and the Centre for International Crime
Prevention.
 ○ UNODC is mandated to assist Member States in their struggle against
illicit drugs, crime and terrorism.
● UNHCR
○ The office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
(UNHCR) was created in 1950, during the aftermath of the Second World
War, to help millions of Europeans who had fled or lost their homes.
○ In 1954, UNHCR won the Nobel Peace Prize for its groundbreaking work
in Europe.
○ The start of the 21st century has seen UNHCR help with major refugee
crises in Africa, the Middle East and Asia.
○ It also uses its expertise to help many internally displaced by conflict and
expanded its role in helping stateless people.
● ESCAP
○ United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
(ESCAP) is the main economic and social development centre of the UN
in the region, headquartered in Bangkok (Thailand) in 1947.
○ It responds to the development needs and priorities of the region through
its convening authority, economic and social analysis, normative
standard-setting and technical assistance.
 Democracy in India

Introduction

● Although evidence of democracy is found in the Vedic period of ancient India by

the presence of organizations like Sabha, Samiti, and Vidath and some republics.
● But The role of four revolutions, England's Bloodless Revolution of 1688, the
American Revolution of 1776, the French Revolution of 1789, and the Industrial
Revolution of the 19th century prevailed in stabilizing the present form of
democracy. The glorious revolution of England ensured that Parliament should
be approved against the backdrop of administrative policy and state laws. After
years of colonial rule, India has also accepted parliamentary democracy.
● The word ‘Democracy’ is actually derived from Greek origins and essentially
means “rule by the people”. Democracy in the modern world is a form of
government where people have the ultimate authority over how the Nation
operates. Before elaborating upon the key features of democracy, let’s take a
look at its two basic forms: Direct and Representative.
○ Direct Democracy is a type of Democracy where people carry out direct
discourse among each other on various topics to arrive at a decision
based on the majority opinion. Every person put forth their opinion in the
form of a vote to carry out or stop any law or related action. This type of
democracy only works in small-sized organizations, being practically
impossible with the immense population of a Country.
○ Representative Democracy focuses on the principle of people electing
their representatives. One of the salient features of this type of democracy
is that the elected representatives serve the nation on the public’s behalf
by taking up various positions of responsibility. This form of Democracy is
much more viable to be translated into a form of government nationwide.

The philosophical basis of democracy

● Individual is the unit of the system

● Belief in the dignity of the person
● Providing Liberty and Rights
● Abolition of privileges in society
● Prohibition from humanized discrimination
● Limited and Constitutional Governance
● Participatory Governance
● Responsible governance
 ● Regular election

Idea of Democracy during British India and Post-independence

Mahatma Gandhi on Democracy

● “Democracy must mean the art of science of mobilizing the entire physical,
economic and spiritual resources of all the various sections of people in the
service of the common good for all.”
● “To safeguard democracy the people must have a keen sense of independence,
self-respect and their oneness, and should insist upon choosing as their
representatives only such persons as are good and true.”
● Gandhian concept of Self Rule means Swaraj is real democracy, where people’s
power rests in the individuals and each one realizes that he or she is the real
master of one’s self.

Nehru on Democracy
● “Democracy, if it means anything, means equality; not merely the equality of
possessing a vote but economic and social equality.”

Karachi resolution
● In 1931, the resolution at the Karachi session reflected the vision of democracy
that meant not just formal holding of elections but a substantive reworking of the
Indian social structure in order to have a genuine democratic society.

The framers of the Indian Constitution were inspired by principles of social equality and
political justice to introduce adult suffrage immediately–a big step forward to protect our
Indian Democracy.

After independence, India decided to have democratic political system. This system is
characterised by three elements: one, there is a high degree of autonomy; two,
economic agents and religious organisations are free from political interference; and
three, competition between various orders does not endanger integration but helps it.
The first generation of Indian leaders wanted their country to be a liberal democracy, in
which a person’s faith—or language, or caste, or gender—didn’t earn her better or
worse treatment by the state.

The Courts of India has several times kept parliamentary laws and executive orders
invalid to protect the rights of the people and protect the individual liberty in the country,
keeping the democratic element alive.
 TIMELINE OF INDIAN HISTORY
● 261 BC: Kalinga War
● 78 AD: Beginning of Saka Era
● 1191: First battle of Tarain
● 1192: Second battle of Tarain.
● 1206: Qutb-ud-din Aibak established ‘Slave Dynasty’
● 1221: Chengiz Khan invaded India
● 1336: Vijayanagara Empire established
● 1469: Birth of Guru Nanak
● 1526: The first Battle of Panipat
● 1526: Babur overthrow Delhi sultanate, established Mughal Empire
● 1539: Battle of Chausa fought between Mughal emperor Humayun and Sher Shah Suri
● 1540: Battle of Kannauj fought between Humayun and Sher Shah Suri
● 1556: Second Battle of Panipat
● 1565: Battle of Talikota
● 1576: Battle of Haldighati
● 1600: English East India Company established
● 1674: Maratha Empire established
● 1739: Nadir Shah invades India
● 1757: Battle of Plassey
● 1761: Third Battle of Panipat
● 1764: Battle of Buxar
● 1767: First Anglo-Mysore War
● 1773: Warren Hastings appointed as first Governor-General of India
● 1773: Regulating Act
● 1784: Pitt’s India Act
● 1776: Treaty of Purandhar
● 1799: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
● 1806: Vellore Mutiny
● 1829: Practice of Sati prohibited
● 1853: First Railway line opened between Mumbai and Thane
● 1855: Santhal rebellion
● 1856: Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act
● 1857: First War of Indian Independence
● 1857: The Universities of Madras Calcutta and Bombay were established
● 1861: Birth of Rabindranath Tagore
● 1863: Birth of Swami Vivekananda
● 1869: Birth of Mahatma Gandhi
● 1873: Jyotirao Phule established the Satyashodhak Samaj society
● 1875: Swami Dayananda saraswathi founded the Arya samaj
● 1885: The Indian National Congress was established
● 1889: Birth of Jawaharlal Nehru
● 1892: Dadabhai Naoroji was elected as First Indian Member of Britain Parliament
● 1897: Birth of Subhash Chandra Bose
● 1905: Partition of Bengal
● 1905: Swadeshi movement
● 1906: All India Muslim League established in Dhaka
● 1907: Surat Split
● 1908: Alipore bomb case
● 1909: Morley-Minto Reforms
● 1911: India’s capital moved from Calcutta to Delhi
● 1911: Partition of Bengal was cancelled
● 1912: Delhi conspiracy case
● 1913: Gadar Party formed
● 1913: Rabindranath Tagore receives Nobel Prize for Literature
● 1914: Outbreak of World War I
● 1915: Mohandas Gandhi returns to India
● 1915: Gandhi founds Sabarmati Ashram
● 1916: Lucknow Pact
● 1917: Champaran Satyagraha
● 1918: Kheda Satyagraha
● 1919: Rowlatt Act
● 1919: Jallianwala Bagh Massacre in Amritsar
● 1919: Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms
● 1920: Non-cooperation movement
● 1920: Establishment of League of Nations
● 1921: Malabar Rebellion
● 1922: Chauri-Chaura incident
● 1925: Communist Party of India was founded.
● 1925: Kakori conspiracy
● 1928: Bardoli Satyagraha
● 1929: Central Assembly Bombing by Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt
● 1929: Purna Swaraj resolution
● 1929: The Great Depression
● 1930: Civil Disobedience Movement
● 1930: The first Round Table Conference
● 1931: The second Round Table Conference
● 1931: Gandhi–Irwin Pact
● 1932: The third Round Table Conference
● 1932: Establishment of Indian Air Force
● 1932: Poona Pact
● 1939: Outbreak of World War II
● 1939: The All India Forward Bloc established by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose
● 1940: August offer
● 1942: Cripps Mission
● 1942: Quit India movement
● 1945: Wavell Plan
● 1945: End of World War II
● 1945: Establishment of United Nations Organisation
● 1946: Royal Indian Navy Mutiny
● 1946: Cabinet Mission
● 1946: Direct Action Day (16 August 1946)
● 1947: India became independent from British Rule
● 1949: Chinese Revolution
● 1950: India becomes Republic