Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587

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Ocean Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oceaneng

Comprehensive experimental and numerical assessment of a drag turbine

for river hydrokinetic energy conversion
A. Ramadan a, *, M. Hemida b, W.A. Abdel-Fadeel c, W.A. Aissa c, M.H. Mohamed d, e
a
Arab Academy for Science, Technology & Maritime Transport, Cairo, Egypt
b
Ministry of Irrigation and Water Recourses, Souhag, Egypt
c
Faculty of Energy Engineering, Aswan University, Aswan, Egypt
d
Mechanical Power Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering EL-Mattaria, Helwan University, P.O Box: 11718, Cairo, Egypt
e
Mechanical Engineering Dept., College of Engineering and Islamic Architecture, Umm Al-Qura University, P.O. 5555, Makkah, Kingdom Saudi Arabia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Nile River is considered as an auspicious area; in particular along with Upper Egypt, to produce electrical energy
River current from the water current which called hydrokinetic energy. This sort of renewable energy is admitted deeply as a
Vertical axis turbine unique and uncommon solution for the electric power demand in the remote areas on the rivers’ sides. The
Hydrokinetic energy
hydrokinetic energy of the river stream can be extracted by a submerged vertical axis turbine due to its specific
CFD
advantages. The main objective of this work is to investigate experimentally the performance of two different
Savonius rotor profiles inside an irrigation canal in Toshka, Aswan, Egypt. Furthermore, the rotor with the
optimum performance is investigated numerically by adding two shielding plates to further enhancements. The
results indicate that the rotor with better fullness has better operating characteristics with a power coefficient
0.1285 at a tip speed ratio of 0.61 that is higher than the other rotor profile by 12%. Moreover, the two shielding
plates increased the net average power coefficient at a tip speed ratio at 0.7 for the optimum rotor profile by 84%
compared with the conventional design.

1. Introduction
1.1. Hydrokinetic energy
The extracted energy from the river stream is a pivotal source of
renewable energy. The vertical axis turbine system is a new and
emerging category of renewable energy technology. It is an unconven­
tional solution in remote areas for electric power production. The water
stream energy conversion system is considered as the first proposed
station conducted in Egypt. These types of power stations contribute to
the development of Upper Egypt in many fields like Agriculture,
tourism, and industry. The strategy for the wave energy and hydroki­
netic energy conversion to generate electric power in Egypt must be
taken into consideration. However, this article motivates and con­
ducting this type of renewable energy that draws attention to its use.
Shapes of water turbines are born out from the wind turbine to with both
types of vertical and horizontal axis turbines (Antheaume et al., 2008).
The high performance with high power production was introduced
by a sleek linear flow of water at high speed (ABS Alaskan Inc, 2010).
The flow options and characteristics of any water stream had some
variation, seasonal and daily; the installation of the hydrokinetic turbine
ought to be indeed considered. A positive issue of the water flow is that
it’s one direction flow, which eliminates the necessity for rotor yawing.
The hydrokinetic convertor and also the level of power output are
directly influenced by the water speed. The situation and also the po­
sition of the hydrokinetic turbine had respect to the crosswise of the flow
channel. Moreover, it’s an extremely necessary and significant factor for
two essential reasons. First, the energy flux at the surface of the water is
higher than the energy flux of the stream at the bottom of the river as
expected. Additionally, this amount takes various values looking at the
space from the shore. In an exceedingly sleek channel, the water current
is quickest in the middle, however, in an exceeding water stream, this
might vary looking on the depth of the water. Therefore, the water speed
includes a sure site-specific and localized profile, wherever the out their
quantity of energy flux which will be obtained and made depends on the
rotor location (Antheaume et al., 2008). Second, the competitor within
the river users of the water flow, like boats, fishing vessels, bridges, etc.,
and these may cut back the potency and effectiveness of the useable

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ahmedramadan2001@aast.edu (A. Ramadan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2021.108587
Received 10 October 2020; Received in revised form 1 December 2020; Accepted 2 January 2021
Available online 5 April 2021
0029-8018/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Ramadan et al.
Fig. 1. Water speed at different distances behind the Aswan dam (Raslan and
Salama, 2015).
Fig. 2. The power density in river flow (Ahmed et al., 2014).
space for a turbine installation (ABS Alaskan Inc, 2010). Additionally,
alternative varieties of suspended and hanged particles and materials
like rock, fish, etc. within the water stream might even be variable (Khan
et al., 1823). The statistical data of the water speed vs the space behind
the Aswan Dam is illustrated in Fig. 1 (Raslan and Salama, 2015). The
info was foretold for one hundred twenty days because of the flow rate
are remarkable and maximum in this period of year (summer and spring
days) at these locations. As illustrated in Fig. 2, the available power
density (Javil. = out their power/rotor space.) and captured power
density (Jcap. = Javil × Cp.) of water flow. This kind of stand-alone
power grid may be the core of development within the rare space in
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Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587
the territorial division because of the simplicity of the turbine in each
producing and installation. This type of energy can be extracted by
vertical axis turbine such as Savonius turbine, which is very simple in
design and installation.
1.2. Savonius turbine principles
Savonius turbine is classified as a drag-type vertical axis turbine. It
depends primarily on the difference between the drag force that
generated on the concave side and the convex side of the rotor. This
difference in drag force creates the torque, which rotates the turbine as
shown in Fig. 3.
The vertical axis turbine is used as water stream energy conversion
systems and devices for near-surface placement, compared to the other
types of the hydro turbines according to the followings subtitle aspects:
• Energy flux has a high value at the near-surface of the river.
• The effect and influence of competing users from fishing and boating
are avoided.
• Footprint: any trenching, pilling at the bottom may become subject
to environmental scrutiny.
• Low cost and high durability.
• The manufacturing of this type especially the S-shaped is available
locally in Egypt.
• The power production is continuous around the year with just a small
adaptation to the turbine with the water level.
Tutar and Veci (2015) investigated the impact of water depths with
totally different wave boundary conditions on the performance of
Savonius turbine with single and turbine arrays, (3 turbines) with 3
numerous positions of arrays. However, these arrays were conducted at
many distances between them.
The submersion depth of the turbine blade underwater line affects
the rotor efficiency. The submersion level was − 5, 0, and 5 cm with a
rotor diameter of 25 cm. They designed the experimental model and
tested it for a particular condition of water current. They reached to that,
the 3 blades rotor with zero level submersions had the most potency of
18% compared to 8% at − 5 cm.
Yaakob et al. (2013) studied the impact of the deflectors on the
Savonius turbine as a hydrokinetic turbine within a duct. The model had
two different designs of deflectors; the primary one had one deflector,
and therefore the second had 2 deflectors. The three-dimensional CFD
analysis was chosen by the authors, to check and investigate the power
and torque coefficient. the Cp 0.27 in 2 deflectors compared to that
equals 0.21 for one deflector, this increase within the Cp indicated the
influence of those deflectors on the entire performance of the Savonius
turbine.
Sharma et al. (2014) reported the improvement of the conventional
Savonius hydrokinetic turbine’s efficiency of 21% as a maximum by
controlling its design parameters. The performance and characteristics
of a two-stage, two-bladed configuration of the Savonius rotor had been
inspected. Whole experiments had been conducted in a wind tunnel,
which has low wind speed. The studied parameters were the overlap
ratio, tip speed ratio, power coefficient (Cp), and torque coefficient (Cm).
The experiments showed that a maximum Cp of 0.517 was obtained at
9.37% overlap condition.
Schleicher et al. (2013) investigated numerically as a 3D simulation
to generate 500 Watt from the water current. The turbine had a captured
efficiency of 0.45 at a rotor diameter of 0.5334 m with a water speed of
less than 2.2 m/s. Where Zaidi et al. (2013) studied the effect of the
chord length of the helical blade 3D numerical simulation on the per­
formance of the turbine (Grolov Turbine).
This study was conducted and carried out by utilizing the commer­
cial code fluent of ANSYS; this investigation was performed by
employing the shear stress transport (SST) k-ω model. They used the
hydrofoil of NACA 0012 with a rotor radius of 0.15 m with chord lengths
A. Ramadan et al.
Fig. 3. Savonius turbine’s Blade and flow direction (Mohamed, 2011).
0.006, 0.0983, and 0.0988 m. The data output from the 3D numerical
simulation showed that the maximum Cp was 58% at chord length
0.0983 m.
Hantoro et al. (2018) performed experimental studies at an open
channel to investigate an innovative design for the Darrieus type to be a
hydrokinetic turbine. They compared the convention one with 3 straight
blades and two designs with 6 and 9 blades (SBC), where the swept area
was the same for all. The power coefficient for the 9 blades design was
0.42 at TSR 2.91 which was the maximum could be reached for the
system.
Kumar and Saini (2017) carried out an enhancement on the perfor­
mance of the Savonius hydrokinetic turbine using CFD analysis. The
simulation and calculations of the twisted Savonius hydrokinetic turbine
had been introduced and carried out by the commercial unsteady
Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) solver in conjunction with a
realizable k-ε turbulence model. It had been found that the Savonius
hydrokinetic turbine having a twist angle of 12.5◦ , which produces an
optimum power coefficient, equals 0.39 at speed ratio equals to 0.9 with
a water velocity of 2 m/s.
Ramadan et al. (2018) developed a numerical model to compare
conventional two blades, three blades, and modified S shape blade
savonious rotors and investigated experimentally the performance of
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Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587
each rotor in the air as a working medium. They found that the S shape
rotor consummated the higher performance with a power coefficient of
0.28 whereas the traditional two-blade and the three-blade Savonius
rotors had the most power coefficients 0.14 and 0.1 respectively.
Hayashi et al. (2005) studied the performance of a single-stage and 3
stages Savonius rotor with and without guide vanes. They concluded
that guide vanes augmented was increased the torque coefficient within
the low tip speed ratio however attenuates torque coefficient within the
high tip speed ratio. Moreover, they discovered that the three-stage rotor
without guide vanes increased the torque coefficient characteristics than
one stage rotor with guide vanes for tip speed ratio larger than 0.8.
Mahmoud et al. (2012) conducted experiments about the effect of
some design parameters on the performance of a savonious wind tur­
bine. They found that the 2 blades rotor was efficient than 3 and 4 ones.
The rotor with end plates offers higher potency than those while no
endplates. Double stage rotors have higher performance compared to
single-stage rotors. The rotors without overlap ratio were better in
operation than those with overlap. The results show also that the power
coefficient increases with raising the aspect ratio.
A. Ramadan et al.
Fig. 4. Irrigation canal used in the experiments.
Fig. 5. Kamoji blade configuration parameters (rotor 1) (Kamoji et al., 2008).
1.3. Work objectives and novelty
From the previous survey, blade profile, flow speed, and angular
velocity of the rotor are the foremost necessary parameters that man­
agement the rotor performance in terms of power and torque co­
efficients. The blade profile contains a direct impact on the vortices
formation around the rotor which is considered as lost power from the
mean flow.
The objectives of the article analysis are as follows:
Fig. 6. Mohamed’s blade configuration parameters (rotor 2) (Mohamed, 2011).
4
Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587
• Investigate experimentally the influence of the blade fullness on the
performance of 2 different blade profiles in an irrigation canal in
Aswan, Egypt.
• The impact of shielding plates setup within the upstream of the rotor
with the most effective performance characteristics is numerically
investigated using commercial CFD package FLUENT to get the op­
timum shielding plates orientation.
2. Experimental set-up and procedure
2.1. Flow facility
Experimental investigation of the performance of the two savonious
rotors was done in the lined irrigation canal in Toshka, Aswan. Water
flow in the canal is obtained from two centrifugal pumps driven by a 40
hp diesel engine and a 10 hp diesel engine. Intake of the two pumps is an
artificial well filled from Nasser Lake and the two pumps discharge into
the same basin, which supplies the canal with a constant flow rate.
The average width of the canal is 90 cm and the average depth is 30
cm. The length of the canal is approximately 2 km, so the start and end
effects of the canal may be neglected Fig. 4.
2.2. Experimental apparatus
The main objective of this study is to compare two blade profiles
using water as the working fluid. The first blade profile is the profile
obtained by Kamoji et al. (2008) which is referred to as rotor 1. They
investigated the performance of this rotor using air as a working fluid,
and they reported the following results for the optimum performance,
which are shown in Fig. 5:
A. Ramadan et al. Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587

Fig. 7. 2D drawing of obtained modified Savonius rotors: (a) Kamoji rotor (b) Mohamed rotor.

• Overlap ratio (m/D) = 0.0

• Aspect ratio (H/D) = 0.7 XP1/r = 0.54822 YP1/r = 0.19762
• Blade arc angle (ψ) = 124◦
• Blade shape factor (p/q) = 0.2 XP2/r = 0.34849 YP2/r = − 0.37885
• Endplate diameter Do = 1.1D XP3/r = 0.54593 YP3/r = 0.770346

The second profile is the profile obtained by Mohamed and et al. a/d = − 0.00635 e/d = 0.18286
(Mohamed, 2011), which is named as rotor 2. He divided the blade into
In the present research, two parameters are modified in Mohamed
two fixed points at the start and the end and three movable points. Using
and et al. (Mohamed, 2011). blade design:
numerical models, he investigated the performance of this rotor using
air as a working fluid and reported the following results for the optimum
• Overlap ratio = 0.
performance, which are shown in Fig. 6:

5
A. Ramadan et al.
Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup.
• No rotating shaft between the two endplates.
Fig. 7 shows a two-dimensional drawing for the 2 rotor profiles and
illustrates the distinction between the fullness of every rotor. However,
the test rig is shown in Fig. 8 consists of 2 steel sheet plates with
thickness 6 mm, length 80 cm, and width 50 cm connected with threa­
ded bars with 16 mm in diameter and 1 m in length. Blade and end plates
are made from steel sheet plates with a thickness of 2 mm. The two
rotors have the same height, rotor diameter, and end plates diameter as
14 cm, 20 cm, and 22 cm, respectively. Each endplate has 4 holes, which
connect the rotating shaft into the turbine by a flange that is welded into
the end of the shaft. Centers of rotation of the shafts are kept in align­
ment with two bearings (UC 204). Each bearing is connected to the steel
sheet plate by four bolts.
Blockage ratio is the ratio between the model and the test section
cross-section areas = HD/HwW = 0.1037 = 10.37% (Moffat, 1988). The
average width of the canal is W = 90 cm and the average depth is Hw =
30 cm. The turbine diameter is D = 20 cm and height H = 14 cm this
value is considered a reasonable ratio which is less than Golecha et al. of
15% (Golecha et al., 2011).
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Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587
The rotational speed of the rotor is measured by a non-contact
tachometer (Lutron create with accuracy ± 0.05%). A special tool is
put in within the tachometer, which is mounted by a clearance match
into the tachometer. Water speed within the canal is measured by
employing a flat skinny picket board that moves within the direction of
water flow.
1-pulley 2-nylon string
3-weighting pan 4-shaft
5-steel rods 6-savonious rotary engine
7-spring balance 8-bearing
By direct contact between them moving board and the setup tool,
water speed is recorded within the tachometer’s memory. The dimen­
sion of the canal varies from 88 cm to 90 cm, so that the water speed is
measured in numerous positions through the canal. The typical recorded
water speed within the canal is 0.64125 m/s.
Torque is determined by a rope brake dynamometer. The turbine is
allowed to rotate freely with no load at the start of the experiment. It’s
then loaded step by step by applying loads on the weighting pan;
A. Ramadan et al. Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587

Fig. 9. The experimental setup inside the irrigation canal.

Table 1
Uncertainties of calculated parameters.
Parameter Uncertainty (%)

Tip speed ratio 2.74

Actually obtained power (T.ω) 5.2
Available flow power (0.5ρAU3w) 5.8

Fig. 10. Savonius rotor with two deflector plates at the entrance.

readings of digital balance and tachometer are recorded. Friction is a

crucial parameter that affects the measuring of the tension of the
rotating turbine. Friction within the bearings and 1 mm inelastic fishing
nylon wire wound on the rotor shaft is decreased as much as possible.
The seals are eliminated from the bearings, and bearings are washed in
gasoline to get rid of the grease and sprayed with W-D forty (rust
Fig. 11. Computing domains and Generated mesh in the rotating domain.
remover) before every reading to remove any contaminants or sludge
particles, which could be collected within the bearing throughout the
experiment leads to the reduction of friction (Fig. 9) (Kamoji et al., 2008;

7
A. Ramadan et al. Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587

Table 2 clockwise and counterclockwise directions to get the best angle of the
Realizable k-ε model constants. obstacle (θ). With this position of the obstacle plate, the deflector plate
C2 σε σk will be inspected by fixing point B coordinate and the length of the
deflector plate and rotating the plate in clockwise and counterclockwise
1.9 1.2 1
directions around point B to get the optimum angle of the deflector (ϕ).
Finally, the rotor with the two plates positioned at their optimum
orientation will be examined at different tip speed ratios to obtain the
Table 3 optimum operating conditions of the rotor.
Effect of the number of cells on power and torque coefficients.
Mesh 1 Mesh 2 Mesh 3 Mesh 4
4. Numerical analysis

Number of nodes 53525 82632 132134 149347

In the present work, fluent commercial software is used as compu­
Number of cells 52440 81268 130408 147474
Torque coefficient 0.1949 0.1953 0.1937 0.1937 tational fluid dynamics (CFD) program to simulate the Savonius rotor.
Power coefficient 0.1352 0.1355 0.1344 0.1344 Fluent (ANSYS version 14) is a CFD software using the finite element
method to solve the flow problems in or around complex geometries. In
the Fluent program, the physical properties of the flow are specified; the
Mahmoud et al., 2012; Golecha et al., 2011). analysis technique and the turbulence model are chosen. It is found that
Uncertainties of 3 calculated parameters tip speed ratio, obtained the two-dimensional analysis has acceptable accuracy, so it is used to
power, and available flow power is shown in Table 1. These values are conduct the numerical analysis in a shorter time.
based on MARLAP Manual and Supporting Documents (MARLAP). Gambit is a software program, which used to generate the mesh of
Moreover, the correction factor is conducted according to: the required domains that are exported to the fluent program for the
( )
1 numerical analysis. Quad/tri pave scheme was used for mesh generation
ƒ = Blockage ​ ratio Model ​ frontal ​ area = 0.025. of the model. This scheme specifies that the mesh is composed primarily
4 Test ​ section ​ area
of quadrilateral mesh elements but includes triangular corner elements
The correction is taken into consideration in the results output dur­
ing the test to get the final results correctly (Moffat, 1988).

3. Influence of the deflector plate and obstacle plate on the

turbine performance

The main goal of the two guiding plates at the entrance of the turbine
is the improvement of the performance of the rotor. This improvement is
obtained by:

1 Increasing the positive drag forces acting on the advancing blade by

increasing the flow velocity at the entrance of this blade, this will
increase the positive moment of the rotor.
2 Decreasing the negative forces acting on the returning blade by
shielding the flow from the returning blade. Therefore, the negative
moment acts in the adverse direction of rotation will decrease.

The optimum orientation of the two-deflector plates is obtained by

investigating the performance of the rotor without deflector plates at
different tip speed ratios. The rotor with the highest power coefficient at
a specific tip speed ratio is investigated at this tip speed ratio by placing
the obstacle plate only at the entrance of the returning plate. Cartesian
coordinates of this plate as shown in Fig. 10 are measured from the
center of rotation of the rotor. The coordinate of point A and the length
of the obstacle plate is fixed and this plate is rotated around point A in Fig. 13. Effect of the computation time step on moment coefficient results.

Fig. 12. The steadiness of the torque coefficient.

8
A. Ramadan et al. Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587

Fig. 14. Change of torque coefficient at tip speed ratio = 0.6.

wall function approach needs the dimensionless distance of the first

layer from the wall (y+) to be less than 5; which is used in this paper.

4.1. Governing equations

4.1.1. Computational fluid dynamics equations

To calculate the different forces acting on the blades numerically, the
continuity and the momentum equations should be solved. After that,
the instantaneous forces can be calculated on the blades to obtain the net
torque and net power of the turbine under these conditions of canals
water flow.
In the present study, the realizable k-ε model was used as model to
solve these equations. The standard k-ε model is improved by using
variable Cμ value for computing the turbulent viscosity instead of the
constant value in the realizable k-ε model and this provides superior
performance for flows involving rotation, boundary layers under strong
adverse pressure gradients, separation, and recirculation (ANSYS, 2011;
Elbatran et al., 2017). These equations are stated as follow:
Continuity Equation:
∂Ui ∂Ui
+ =0 (1)
∂t ∂Xj
Momentum Equation:
( ( ))
( ) ′ ′
∂Ui ∂Ui ∂P ∂2 Ui ∂ ρUi Uj
Fig. 15. The torque coefficient validation. ρ + Uj = − +μ − (2)
∂t ∂Xj ∂Xi ∂Xj ∂Xj ∂Xj
at user-specified. ( ) ( )
∂Ui ∂Uj 2 ∂Um
The overall domain is divided into two subdomains to facilitate ′
− Ui Uj = νt
′
+ − k + νt δ (3)
∂Xj ∂Xi 3 ∂Xm ij
simulation of the rotor rotation. The highest resolution subdomain
contains the grid elements surrounding the rotor (referred to as the
νt kinematic ​ eddy ​ viscosity
rotating domain). The lowest resolution subdomain is the outer domain
(referred to as the stationary domain). As shown in Figs. 10 and 11, k turbulent ​ kinetic ​ energy
dimensions of the stationary domain and generated mesh of the rotating
domain. They were chosen to be quietly large to minimize the blockage δij unit ​ tensor.(kronecker ​ delta ​ is ​ 0 ​ when ​ i ∕
= j ​ and ​ 1 ​ if ​ i = j)
effect without increasing computing time (Ramadan, 2016) and the
diameter of the rotating domain is 1.2D. Boundary conditions (BCs) Ui flow ​ mean ​ velocity
define the appropriate flow properties on faces of boundaries for the
chosen model. Therefore, they are the corner stone of any simulation, P flow ​ mean ​ pressure
and it is important to specify the BCs properly. Many kinds of underlying
BCs are employed in the present simulations i.e., velocity-inlet, pres­ − Ui Uj
′ ′
Reynolds ​ stress
sure-outlet, symmetry, non-conformal interface and no-slip condition
for both stationary and moving walls as shown in Fig. 11. Boundary The turbulent kinetic energy may be expressed in its transport
conditions are defined in mesh generator then, the values implemented equation as:
in the solver. The velocity inlet to the turbine equals 0.64 m/s and the ∂ ∂
(
μ ∂k
)
∂Ui 2
(
∂U
)
∂Ui
pressure outlet is equal the atmospheric pressure approximately because (ρk) + ρUj k − eff . = μt sij − μt i + ρ k − ρε
∂t ∂Xj σk ∂Xj ∂Xj 3 ∂Xi ∂Xi
the turbine is not submerged in deep under the water.
(4)
The model is analyzed and solved using unsteady flow with a sliding
mesh model (SMM) which is a recommended model in the rotating In addition, the dissipation rate may be expressed in its transport
zones. The Realizable k − ε model with enhanced wall function is equation as:
adopted. The enhanced wall function method is applied to include and (
μ
)
∂ ∂ ∂ε ε2
ensure the precise resolution of the boundaries layer predication. The (ρε) + ρUj ε − eff ⋅ = C1 ρSε − C2 ρ √̅̅̅̅̅ (5)
∂t ∂Xj σε ∂Xj K + vε

9
A. Ramadan et al. Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587

Fig. 16. Pressure contours of rotor 1 at λ = 0.63.

where S is the mean rate of strain tensor that is defined as: [ η ] k

√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ C1 = max 0.43, η=S (8)
η+5 ε
S = 2Sij Sij (6)
( ) Effective kinematic viscosity is calculated as:
1 ∂Ui ∂Uj
Sij = + (7) νeff = ν + νt (9)
2 ∂Xj ∂Xi
Turbulent Kinematic viscosity is evaluated from:
The constant C1 is defined as:

10
A. Ramadan et al. Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587

Fig. 17. Pressure contours of rotor 2 at λ = 0.6.

k2 √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
ν t = Cμ (10)
ε U* = Sij Sij + Ω ̃ij Ω ̃ij (12)
The constant Cμ is computed from:
And
1
Cμ = * (11) ̃
Ωij = Ωij − 2εijk ωk (13)
AO + AS kUε

Where, Ωij = Ωij − εijk ωk (14)

11
A. Ramadan et al. Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587

Fig. 18. Velocity contours of rotor 1 at λ = 0.63.

Where Ω ̃ij is the mean rate of rotation tensor viewed in a rotating 1 √̅̅̅ Sij Sjk Ski √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
reference frame with an angular velocity ωk. The model constants AO φ = cos− 1 6W W= ̃
S= Sij Sij
3
3 ̃
S
and AS are calculated as:
√̅̅̅ The model constants used in this research are shown in Table 2.
AO = 4.04 AS = 6cos φ
4.1.2. Performance parameters
Where,
The torque and the power outputs are the main parameters which are

12
A. Ramadan et al. Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587

Fig. 19. Velocity contours of rotor 2 at λ = 0.6.

introduce the quality of turbine design. However, these parameters ( )

should be in dimensionless form to illuminate the effect of dimensions. (M − S) rshaft + rrope g
T= (16)
Therefore, the torque and power coefficients are generated as in equa­ 1000
tions (15) and (17) to as a base in the judgment of the different design
Where M is the load, S is spring balance load, rshaft is the radius of the
performance.
shaft, rrope is the radius of the nylon string.
These two parameters have an influence on the performance of any
ρ is the density of the water, V is the approaching water speed, A is
turbine; the torque coefficient Cm and the power coefficient Cp that is
the frontal area of the turbine, and finally, R is the rotor radius.
written as follows:
Tω
T Cp = (17)
Cm = (15) 0.5 ρV 3 A
0.5 ρV 2 A R
ωis the angular speed of the rotor.
T is the average aerodynamic torque acting on the rotor shaft and may
The tip speed ratio of the turbine is defined as:
be calculated from the following relation:

13
A. Ramadan et al. Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587

Fig. 20. Variation of power coefficient with rotor angle at maximum efficiency point.

Fig. 21. Pressure distribution on the upstream and downstream of rotor 1 at tip speed ratio 0.63 and rotor angle 0◦ .

Fig. 22. Pressure distribution on the upstream and downstream of rotor 2 at tip speed ratio 0.6 and rotor angle 0.◦ .

Rω The SIMPLE (Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure-Linked Equations)

λ= (18)
V pressure-velocity coupling method is used in all simulations. A Second-
Equation (2) can be rewritten as follows Order Up flow spatial discretization scheme is used for the equations of
momentum, turbulent kinetic energy, pressure, and turbulent dissipa­
Cp = λ Cm (19) tion rate and a Least Squares Cell-Based scheme is used for the gradients
(ANSYS, 2011).
An experimental investigation is performed at constant Reynolds
The analysis is performed using a turbine diameter of 0.2 m and Re 1
number 1 × 105 based on the approaching water speed V with kinematic
× 105. The height of the turbine is taken 0.14 m in the transverse di­
viscosity υ and D is the blade diameter.
rection of the turbine. The value of the torque coefficient at every time
DV step is integrated over the projected area of the rotor which may be
Re = (20)
υ expressed in the form

14
A. Ramadan et al.
Fig. 23. Total pressure difference distribution on rotor 1 and rotor 2.
Fig. 24. Torque coefficient variation with different tip speed ratio for rotor 1
and rotor 2.
A=D × H (21)
This value is averaged overflow time. Every torque coefficient is
multiplied by a tip speed ratio to get the power coefficient at every tip
speed ratio.
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Numerical results
A numerical analysis is conducted for rotor 1 and 2 to detect the best
design for experimental and site tests. Table 3 illustrates the effect of a
number of cells on the performance of the rotor at a tip speed equals 0.7
based on the torque coefficient. The number of cells ranged from 50,000
to 147,000. The torque coefficient is getting stable and constant after
130,000 cells and whatever the increase in several cells. Moreover, the
time step size is considered as in El-Baz et al. (2016).
Every simulation takes ten cycles to allow for convergence state. This
convergence can be seen after 6 cycles and the result can be taken from
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Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587
Fig. 25. Power coefficient variation with different tip speed ratio for rotor 1
and rotor 2.
6th to 10th as shown in Fig. 12. The convergence criterion is determined
by neglecting all residuals, which are below 10− 5. Fig. 13 shows the
adopted time step size. It was equivalent to 0.5 degree of turbine rota­
tion; this corresponds to time step 0.002 s. Reducing the time step size to
be equivalent to 0.1◦ was found to produce 1% deviation of the average
moment coefficient of the rotor compared to 0.5◦ .
As shown in Fig. 14; the torque coefficient is obtained from CFD
analysis that calculates the net torque from the drag force difference
between the concave side and the convex side. The torque coefficient
value changes with flow time so that for every tip speed ratio perfor­
mance analysis is done to get the value of the torque coefficient. After 5
s, the instantaneous torque coefficient will be similar for every cycle as
shown in Fig. 14.
5.1.1. Model validation
The numerical model is validated by comparing the obtained
experimental results from Golecha and et al. (rotor 1) (Golecha et al.,
2011) with the results obtained from the numerical model with the
A. Ramadan et al.
Fig. 26. Torque coefficient for different tip speed ratios.
Fig. 27. Power coefficient for different tip speed ratios.
above configuration for Kamoji and et al. blade (rotor 1) (Kamoji et al.,
2008).
Fig. 15 shows the variation of torque coefficient with tip speed ratio
for numerical investigation, which seems to be in good agreement with
the experimental research. The maximum error value is 10% and the
average error value is 4.8% (MARLAP).
5.1.2. Rotor performance characteristics
Figs. 16–19 show the pressure contours and velocity contours of the
flow around rotor 1 and rotor 2, respectively.
As shown in Figs. 16 (e) And 17 (e) for rotor 1 the pressure in the
downstream decreased to minimum value (− 2.38 pa) at the tip of the
upper half of the turbine. It is then increased to (− 0.9 pa) before the
center and decreased again to (− 1.1 pa) at the center. On the other side,
the downstream pressure of rotor 2 reached minimum value (− 2.59 pa)
at the tip of the upper half of the turbine and increased to constant value
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Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587
(− 0.96 pa) with little decrease near the tip of the lower half of the
turbine. Moreover, the deceleration effect of the convex side of rotor 1
appears in the pressure contours of the upstream. High pressure region is
formed at the upstream of the turbine (0.7 pa) and this region acts as a
brake on the turbine.
Velocity contours of the flow around rotor 1 and rotor 2 are shown in
Figs. 18 (f) and 19 (e). the intensity of vortices at the downstream of
rotor 1 (dark blue areas with velocity 0.00228 m/s) is higher than the
intensity at the downstream of rotor 2 (velocity 0.013) which represents
more flow energy lost from rotor 1 due to the larger amount of trapped
water at the downstream of the turbine. Fig. 20 shows power coefficient
variation with rotor angle of rotation at the last revolution for rotor 1
and rotor 2 at tip speed ratio 0.63 and 0.6, respectively. This tip speed
ratio represents the maximum value of power coefficient for the two
rotors. As shown in the figure, the minimum value of power coefficient
at an angle 180◦ for the two rotors. So that performance analysis will be
introduced at this position to show the effect of negative torque on the
performance of the turbine.
Figs. 21 and 22 show total pressure distribution (static and dynamic
pressures) along the upstream and downstream of rotor 1 and rotor 2
diameters, respectively. As shown in the figures, the difference between
the total upstream pressure and total downstream pressure represents
the harnessed power by the turbine and the area between the lines
represents the total pressure difference which converted into mechani­
cal power by the turbine. By subtraction the total downstream pressure
from the total upstream pressure for the two rotor profiles, total pressure
difference distribution along blade diameter may be plotted for each
turbine.
As shown in Fig. 23, the pressure difference along rotor 2 is more
uniform than the pressure difference along rotor 1.
On the other hand, the back pressure effect on the lower tip of rotor 2
may be noticed in Fig. 23. This back pressure may be considered as more
extracted power from the flow because it affects in the direction of the
positive torque of the turbine and this increases the net averaged torque
from the turbine and this is an additional advantage of rotor 2. The effect
of pressure distribution on the performance of the turbine is illustrated
in power and torque coefficients for each rotor at different tip speed
ratios as shown in Fig. 24. It is obvious that a torque performance
characteristic of rotor 2 is higher than that of rotor 1 and this increase in
torque coefficient of rotor 2 leads to the increase of power coefficient of
rotor 2 as shown in Fig. 25. The maximum power coefficient of rotor 2 is
0.15 at tip speed ratio 0.6 and for rotor 1 is 0.137 at a tip speed ratio 0.63
with 10% percent increase of power coefficient. The increase in power
coefficient resulted from the effective action of pressure difference dis­
tribution on the more uniform area of the blade profile which is
appeared in more power extraction from the water flow and increased
power coefficient and torque coefficient.
Based on the previous results, rotor 2 showed better performance
characteristics than rotor 1. Moreover, numerical model showed the
importance of pressure difference distribution on rotor performance and
how it increases power coefficient by decreasing vortices formation
around the rotor.
5.2. Experimental results
According to the previous section of simulation, an experimental
investigation is performed to compare the two different blade profiles
for verifying and insure from the simulation output. Experiments are
performed inlined irrigation canal at constant Reynolds number 1 × 105.
The torque coefficient and power coefficient of the two rotor profiles are
plotted versus tip speed ratio as shown in Figs. 26 and 27. The maximum
power coefficient of rotor 2 is 0.1285 at a tip speed ratio 0.61 and the
maximum power coefficient of rotor 1 is 0.1157 at a tip speed ratio 0.62
with a relative increase of power coefficient rotor 2 by nearly 12%.
To simplify these results, assume the two blades are fixed in the
water stream as shown in Fig. 28 and every blade is opened in the
A. Ramadan et al.
Fig. 28. The Difference between rotor 1 and 2 on the basis of momentum conversion.
Fig. 29. Pressure distribution on the upstream and downstream of the turbine without deflectors.
concave side in the transverse direction of the blade in the furthest point
from the diameter in the blade. Therefore, the flow will pass freely in the
bucket. The effect of acceleration inside the bucket is illustrated by
applying continuity equation between two planes, the first plane at the
inlet of the concave side of the blade and the second plane at the last
plane before the exit from the concave side:
A1 V1 = A2 V2 (22)
X1 H V 1 = X 2 H V 2
Where H is the height of the turbine in the transverse direction. X1
represents the width of the concave side at the inlet, which is the bucket
diameter and will be constant for the two blades. V1 represents the ve­
locity inlet into the concave side and may be considered the same for the
two blades if the deceleration effect of the convex side is considered the
same for the two blades. X2 is the width of the concave side at the last
plane before the exit from the bucket. This value will be 0.45 times of
bucket diameter d for rotor 2 and 0.52 times of bucket diameter for rotor
1. The exit velocity from the concave side will be expressed in the form:
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Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587
V1 X1
V2 =
X2
Vd
= = 2.22 V for ​ rotor ​ 2
0.45 d
Vd
= = 1.92 V for ​ rotor ​ 1
0.52 d
The second effect is shifting planes of torque action from the center of
rotation. If the drag force in the concave side works in parallel planes.
The first plane is the plane crosses the diameter of the bucket and the
drag force is summited in each plane to act in the center of each plane.
The action line of drag force in the first plane is the center of the bucket
diameter for the two blades at a distance 0.5 d from the center of rota­
tion and the action line of drag force in the second plane (which is the
same plane studied in the continuity equation) for rotor 1 is 0.5 d from
the center of rotation and for rotor 2 is 0.75 d from the center of rotation.
The overlapped effect of these two parameters may be illustrated in
the momentum equation between the inlet and exit from the concave
side. Assume the mass flow rate passes in the two buckets is the same.
The momentum equation may be expressed in the form:
A. Ramadan et al. Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587

Fig. 30. Pressure distribution on the upstream and downstream of the turbine with deflectors.

Fig. 31. Power coefficient variation with obstacle angle only and deflector
angle combined with best obstacle angle.

Fig. 33. Velocity contours around the blade diameter without shielding plates.

Fig. 34. Pressure contours around the blade diameter with two shield­
ing plates.

Fig. 32. Velocity contours around the blade diameter with two shield­
ing plates.

18
A. Ramadan et al. Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587

Fig. 35. Pressure contours around the blade diameter without shielding plates.

Fig. 37. Power coefficient variation with different tip speed ratios for the rotor
with and without deflectors.

Table 4
Summarized data and comparison output results.
Re No. Cp Tip Speed ratio
max. (λ)

Ramadan et al. (2020) (rotor 2) 1.6 × 0.18 0.8

105
Golecha et al. (2011) 2 stages and deflector 1.3 × 0.22 0.82
(rotor 1) 105
Present Work 1 × 105 0.24 0.7

5.3. Effect of shielding plates on the performance of the rotor 2

From the obtained experimental results, rotor 2 has higher perfor­

Fig. 36. Torque coefficient variation with different tip speed ratios for the rotor
with and without deflectors.
T = ṁ(r2 V2 − r1 V1 )
= ṁ(0.75d * 2.22V − 0.5D * V) = 1.165ṁVd for ​ rotor ​ 2
= ṁ(0.5d * 1.92V − 0.5D * V) = 0.46ṁVd for ​ rotor ​ 1
mance characteristics than rotor 1. This is the kick off point to find a way
to maximums the power coefficient using a deflector in front of the
turbine. Mohamed et al. (Mohamed, 2011) investigated the effect the
two of shielding plates in the upstream of the modified Savonius rotor in
the air as the working fluid. He obtained the following coordinates of the
shielding plates, which are shown in Fig. 10 for optimum performance:
Xd1/d = − 0.41882 Yd1/d = 1.24505
Xd2/d = − 0.3433 Yd2/d = 2.29074
(23)
Xo1/d = − 1.2828 Yo1/d = − 0.4037

The increase in the obtained torque may be expressed in the form: Xo2/d = − 1.27654 Yo2/d = − 1.16339
Trotor 2 1.165ṁVD
= = 2.53 (24) Length of deflector plate ld/d = 1.048 length of obstacle plate lo/d = 0.7597
Trotor 1 0.46ṁVD
The main goal of the two guiding plates at the entrance of the turbine
This result shows the effect of blade fullness on the performance of is the improvement of performance of the rotor. This improvement is
the savonious rotor. In actual, this value will be smaller due to the effect obtained by:
of rotation and turbulence and the net average torque is the difference
between the drag force acting on the concave side and the convex side • Increasing the positive drag forces acting on the advancing blade by
which may be illustrated as follows: increasing the flow velocity at the entrance of this blade which in­
Cm2 CP2 /λ2 creases the positive moment of the rotor;
= = 1.13 (25)
Cm1 CP1 /λ1

19
A. Ramadan et al.
• Decreasing the negative forces acting on the returning blade by
shielding the flow from the returning blade. So, the negative moment
acts in the adverse direction of rotation will decrease.
In this part, rotor 2 with deflectors is inspected in water as working
fluid with the same procedure explained in section 4. Figs. 29 and 30
show pressure distribution along the upstream and downstream of the
rotor without deflectors and rotor with deflectors, respectively. As
shown in the figures, the difference between the upstream pressure and
downstream pressure represents the harnessed power by the turbine and
the area between the lines represents the pressure difference, which is
converted into mechanical power by the turbine. As shown in the two
cases the fluctuation of the upstream pressure at the lower half of the
turbine and the downstream pressure at the upper half of the turbine
may be noticed. This fluctuation for the rotor with deflectors is less than
that of the rotor without deflectors. Moreover, the downstream pressure
at the upper half of the turbine with deflectors is more uniform than the
turbine without deflectors. This is due to the flow concentration effect of
the two-deflector plates at the entrance of the turbine. However, the
back pressure effect on the lower tip of the two cases may be noticed in
Figs. 29 and 30. This back pressure may be considered as more extracted
power from the flow because it affects in the direction of the positive
torque of the turbine and this increases the net averaged torque from the
turbine and this is an additional advantage of rotor 2.
On the other hand, the backpressure effect on the lower tip of the two
cases may be noticed in Figs. 29 and 30. This back pressure may be
considered as lost power because it affects the adverse direction of the
mean flow and this minimizes the net averaged torque from the turbine.
In addition, it is found that the magnitude of the angle θ is 100 in a
clockwise direction and for angle ϕ is 50 in a counterclockwise direction
measured from the vertical axis for the optimum orientation of the two-
deflector plates Fig. 31.
Figs. (32)–(35) show velocity contours and pressure contours for
rotor 2 with and without the two shielding plates at the entrance of the
rotor. As shown in Figs. 32 and 33 the velocity distribution is more
uniform in the upstream of the rotor with guiding plates than the rotor
without guiding plates. This is coming from increasing the flow intensity
by guiding the flow with the plates. As shown in Figs. 34 and 35, the
pressure distribution in the downstream of the rotor with two guiding
plates is more uniform than the rotor without guiding plates and this
resulted in the uniform pressure difference distribution along the blade
diameter shown in Figs. 29 and 30. Uniform pressure difference distri­
bution on the upstream and the downstream of the turbine with the
deflector plates may be considered as the reason of the increase of
performance of the rotor. This uniform pressure difference permitted
better momentum exchange between the rotor and water flow without
attenuations of pressure difference effect on the rotor due to reduction of
vortices formation around the rotor. Moreover, the rotor with deflectors
can operate on larger velocities range near the best efficiency point and
this gives an important feature to operate the turbine at different angular
speeds without great reduction in efficiency.
Fig. 36 shows the variation of the torque coefficient of the turbine
with and without shielding plates and compared with Golecha et al.
(2011) and Ramadan et al. (2020) with the tip speed ratio. It is obvious
that a torque performance characteristic of the turbine with two
Nomenclature
Cm The torque coefficient
Cp The power coefficient
T The average aerodynamic torque; N.m
ρ The density of the water kg/m3
Re Reynolds number
Uw The approaching water speed; m/s
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Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587
deflectors is higher than that of the turbine without deflectors. The
power coefficient also compared with same work of Ramadan et al. and
Golecha et al. (2011, Ramadan et al., 2020) for the variation with the tip
speed ratio is shown in Fig. 37. The maximum power coefficient of the
turbine without deflectors is 0.13 at a tip speed ratio of 0.6 and for the
turbine with two deflectors is 0.24 at a tip speed ratio at 0.7 with 84%
percent increase of power coefficient than without deflector. This is due
to the uniform pressure distribution on the upstream and the down­
stream of the turbine with the deflector plates. Table 4 is summarizing
the data out from Figs. 36 and 37.
6. Conclusion
The current paper investigates experimentally and numerically two
different Savonius rotor profiles inline irrigation canal in Toshka,
Aswan, Egypt and the performance of conducting shield plates. The
results indicate the following:
• Experimentally, the maximum power coefficient of rotor 2 is 0.1285
at a tip speed ratio 0.61 and the maximum power coefficient of rotor
1 is 0.1157 at a tip speed ratio 0.62 with a relative increase of power
coefficient rotor 2 by nearly 12%.
• Numerically, the maximum power coefficient of the turbine without
deflectors is 0.13 at a tip speed ratio of 0.6.
• The velocity distribution is enhanced more by the uniform in the
upstream of the rotor with guiding plates than the rotor without
guiding plates, and lead to increasing the flow intensity.
• The rotor with deflectors can operate on larger velocities range near
the best efficiency point and this gives an important feature to
operate the turbine at different angular speeds without great
reduction in efficiency.
• It is found that the obstacle angle θ is 100 in a clockwise direction and
for deflector angle ϕ is 50 in a counterclockwise direction measured
from the vertical axis for the optimum orientation of the two-
deflector plates.
• The performance is enhanced for the turbine with two deflectors to
be 0.24 at a tip speed ratio at 0.7 with 84% percent increase of power
coefficient than without deflector.
• These premium results are the motivation to work more to enhance
and optimize the efficiency to get the optimum profile and efficiency
for this turbine.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
A. Ramadan: Conceptualization, Methodology. M. Hemida: Visu­
alization, Investigation, Writing - original draft, preparation. W.A.
Abdel-Fadeel: Supervision. W.A. Aissa: Supervision. M.H. Mohamed:
Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
A. Ramadan et al. Ocean Engineering 227 (2021) 108587

A The frontal area of the turbine; m2

R The rotor radius; m
ω The angular speed of the rotor; s− 1
λ The tip speed ratio of the turbine
υ kinematic viscosity; m2/s
D The blade diameter; m
Javil The available power density
Jcap The captured power density

Abbreviations
VAT vertical axis turbine
WCSE water current stream energy

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