№ 3.

The concept of culture

Intercultural communication is communication between representatives

of different cultures. Therefore, in order to understand the ICC, it is important
to understand what culture is and what is the role of culture in the
communication process.
The definition of culture given in the first topic is closest to the definition
of the English scientist Edward B. Tylor (Edward B. Tylor), one of the founders
of ethnography and anthropology, who understood culture as a "complex
whole,
which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs and any other
abilities and habits acquired a person as a member of society".This definition is
important and interesting insofar as it seeks to cover all the multi-figurative
components of what representatives of various sciences put into the concept of
culture, but this is also its main drawback: it is too broad. In order to analyze
culture in its specific manifestations, we need more a narrow definition.
According to various estimates, there are from 400 to 1200 different
definitions of culture. Within the framework of this manual, of course, it is
impossible to cover them all, so we will consider only three- the path to
understanding culture. The last two of them are normative and anthropological
— from our point of view, are the most suitable for solving applied problems
related to the analysis of situations intercultural communication.

An anthropobiological approach to understanding culture is interesting: the

formation of ethnic groups and ethnic differentiation in humans act as an
analogue of speciation in the development of cultures reflects and compensates
for the extinction of the process of biological adaptation and speciation.
Normative approach: culture consists of norms and rules governing people's
lives. If we consider culture as a set of norms, when analyzing a specific
situation of intercultural communication, we can identify those norms of each
of the interacting cultures that are important in this situation and analyze the
results of their interaction.
Culture is a set of norms that define human behavior and
communication, assimilated in the process of socialization and reproduced by
people in the course of social practices. In this definition, it is important that:
– culture is a set of norms, i.e. it defines what is allowed and what is not,
what is encouraged and what is prohibited. These norms are shared by a certain
society, assimilating these norms, a person becomes a part of it;
– culture is not innate, cultural norms are assimilated by man. An
important quality of culture is continuity: individual (identity of personality to
itself in the course of its development) and collective;
– culture is dual: it is both a result of- the volume of human activity, and
the mechanisms regulating this activity.
 Culture in this sense is far from being limited to a set of norms specific to
a particular ethnic group. That is, not only an Englishman and a German are
representatives of different cultures, but also, as already mentioned, you and
your parents are carriers of different sets of cultural norms, i.e. different
cultures. However, in the second case, the differences in cultural norms are
most likely less significant and noticeable than in the first.
Anthropological approach: the main meaning of culture is seen in
activity. Culture is the sum of values, norms and symbol systems of a society,
which are reflected in the thinking, ideas and behavioral features of its bearers.
At the same time, representatives of cognitive anthropology see culture as a
body of knowledge, i.e. as something immaterial that exists in the minds of
cultural bearers. For Cliff-Ford Geertz (Clifford J. Geertz), an American
scientist, the founder of interpretive anthropology, culture is not a system
of knowledge, but of mechanisms, "plans, methods, rules, instructions"
by which human behavior is regulated. And this kind of understanding is
especially important for us, because we want to learn to analyze situations of
intercultural communication, i.e. the behavior of people in these situations. And
culture in this sense is the mechanisms that determine such behavior.
In this course, culture is proposed to be understood as a system of norms
and mechanisms assimilated during socialization, enculturation and
acculturation, to some extent determining human behavior.
Since the beginning of the 20th century, there have been two approaches
in the sciences studying different cultures (in particular, ethnic ones):
evolutionist and relativistic. The first one goes back to the teachings of Darwin
and suggests that there is a certain unified scale of human development, and
each individual culture goes through a "standard", linear path of development
(i.e., according to this approach, cultures differ from one another in the degree
of development, there are-tours are more or less developed). This approach is
ethnocentric in nature.
The second approach, the relativistic one, assumes that each individual
culture is unique. According to this approach, it is necessary to investigate the
non-parallelism of the common cultural development, and the private nature of
each culture.
Each culture is independent, the peculiarities of cultural existence аll
peoples should be understood only in the context of their own history, religion
and social reality.

2. Enculturation and socialization

The process of assimilation of culture by an individual is called
enculturation, or inculturation (entry into culture). Culture is assimilated in the
process of ontogenesis (individual development) of a person. Ontogenesis is the
process of development of an individual organism. This process splits into two
interrelated, inseparable parts: enculturation and socialization.
Socialization is "a two—way process of (1) constant transmission by
society and (2) assimilation by the individual throughout the entire his life of
social norms, cultural values and patterns behavior that allows an individual to
function in a given society." The result of socialization is "an individual who
has mastered a specifically human way of activity (cultural) that distinguishes
him from all other living beings." Enculturation is the process of introducing an
individual to culture, assimilating existing habits, norms and patterns of
behavior peculiar to this culture. The result of enculturation is a personality
(person) with specific cultural traits that distinguish people from each other. It
is clear that the processes of enculturation and socializations are interconnected
and impossible without one another thing: there is no "average" society that
does not have any culture — but only in such a possible there would be
socialization without inculturation; inculturation without socialization is also
impossible — it is impossible to master culture without becoming a member of
human society, i.e. not having mastered the specifically human ways of activity
that distinguish us from animals. Some consider socialization and inculturation
as two sides of the same process, the process of inculturation.
Melville J. Herskovits (author of the term "enculturation") identified two
stages of enculturation:
The first stage (begins at birth) is the stage of assimilation of norms,
language, etiquette. At this stage, the individual is deprived of the right to
choose and evaluate, he cannot "resist" entering the culture in which he grows
and develops, and only learns the previous one- the ethnocultural experience
that led to his birth.
The second stage is a conscious stage at which it is possible to discuss
and evaluate the norms accepted in society. At this stage it becomes possible to
change these norms. There are sub-cultures that do not affect the core of the
culture. Thus, enculturation in Herskovitz's understanding is a process that not
only ensures the reproduction of culture by man, but also contains a mechanism
for implementing changes.

3. The acculturation process

Adaptation of an individual or group to a new culture — this is the
process of acculturation.
Previously, anthropologists understood the term "acculturation"
to be the result of prolonged contact between ethnic groups belonging
to different cultures. Currently, acculturation is most often understood as the
result of the adaptation of an individual or a relatively small group of people to
life in a foreign environment, which is expressed in a change of value attitudes,
transformation of a set of social roles (and, consequently, social role behavior),
a change in personality identity. At the same time, the culture that is
undergoing change is called culture is the recipient, and the culture to which the
first one is exposed is the donor culture. Acculturation is carried out through
communication.
The concepts of acculturation and enculturation should be distinguished
(inculturation). The first term refers to the secondary processes of changing an
individual's cultural norms, whereas the term "enculturation" refers to the
acquisition of primary cultural norms. Thus, each of us goes through the
process of enculturation, since we all belong to one culture or another.
But only a few are faced with the need to acculturation related to a
change in the original cultural norms or adaptation to the norms of another
culture.
In the process of acculturation, a person is faced with two main problems
are the preservation of his cultural identity and the need to exist in a new
culture for him.
Accordingly, there are four acculturation strategies:
1. Assimilation — a person is completely included in a new culture, while
losing touch with his culture, abandoning it. This strategy is most often
followed by people who voluntarily move to another country (region) for a long
time or forever.
2. Separation is the refusal to accept the norms of another culture and preserve
identification with one's own culture. In this case, representatives of a cultural
minority tend (as far as possible) to avoid contact with representatives of the
dominant culture — they settle separately from them, create communities. This
strategy is typical for refugees who are forced to leave their homeland against
their will. If representatives of the dominant culture insist on such isolation, this
is called segregation.
3. Marginalization — loss of primary cultural identic and lack of identification
with the new culture. This situation arises due to the loss of contact with one's
(original) cultural group, the inability to maintain one's own identity, and the
unwillingness to integrate into a new culture. Marginalization is often the result
of discrimination by the host culture.
4. Integration is perhaps the most successful strategy acculturation. It involves
entering a new culture without loss of primary cultural identity. It is possible
only with the mutual desire of both sides (representatives donor culture and
recipient culture) to cooperate, if their mutual respect and understanding of the
need to preserve the unique features of each of them.
The most important result and goal of acculturation is long-term
adaptation to life in a foreign culture. Adaptation in this case means the
inclusion of an individual in new systems of social and professional relations (
including the assimilation of a new system of social roles), as well as a process
aimed at such inclusion. There are two types of adaptation:
"1. Psychological adaptation is an achievement- psychological comfort in the
new society.
2. Socio-cultural adaptation consists in the ability to freely navigate in a new
culture and society, to solve everyday problems in the family, at home, at work
and at school. Since one of the most important indicators of successful
adaptation is the availability of a job, satisfaction with it and the level of one's
professional achievements and, as a result, one's well-being. In the new culture,
researchers have recently identified economic efficiency as an independent
aspect of adaptation.- adaptation is the ability to be economically successful
in new social and cultural circumstances."
1. Alienation, or alienation, is the loss of one's culture and the
unwillingness/inability to accept someone else's. Alienation correlates with
marginalization.
2. Reorientation — transition to a new culture and acceptance of it.
Reorientation is an obvious consequence of assimilation.
3. Nativism (nativism) is a return to the native culture and a constant defense of
the old foundations. Nativism is most often attributed. There is a separation
strategy.
4. Reconstruction — the acquisition of some new ideals and the creation of
some new culture that did not exist before. There is a connection between
integration and restructuring, but it seems obvious that this strategy does not
always lead to restructuring. In addition, it is difficult to determine what can be
considered a new culture. However, it is precisely as a result of restructuring
that humanity is enriched by new cultural groups.

4. Description of the culture

Is it possible to create a scientific description of culture? And if so, what
should the description algorithm look like? One of the most popular answers to
this question is the John and Beatrice scheme John and Beatrice Whiting,
presented in the work "Children of six cultures. A psycho-cultural analysis».
The description of this scheme is given according to the book by A. A.
Belik "Cultural (social) anthropology": "In the process of individual the
formation of a person (ontogenesis) is simultaneously influenced by substantial
systems (most significantly, the type of economy- gender and occupation, the
peculiarities of the division of labor between men and women, the type of
marriage and, accordingly, family), and design systems (to a greater extent, this
concerns the peculiarities of religion, magic, rituals, games). In the process of
an individual's entry into culture, during his growing up, all aspects of both
systems affect the forms of behavior of a child to one degree or another, and
then an adult.
Natural factors play a fundamental role, and not only for traditional
societies, in the formation of personal qualities factors. They act on people's
psychological characteristics in various ways. The totality of the natural
features of the place of residence of the society (climate, flora, fauna, presence
of mono-culture) It significantly affects the choice of daily work, its
parameters, features, etc. In daily activities predetermined by natural factors,
certain personal qualities are selected. In other words, natural conditions can
indirectly (through the type of occupation) influence the formation of special
personality traits. More directly the features of perception and cognitive styles
are influenced by the landscape — open (plain, steppe, tundra, semi-desert,
savannah) and closed (forest, jungle, mountain systems); homogeneous (tundra
in winter, semi-desert) and heterogeneous (temperate climatic zones). Extreme
climatic conditions can also affect the character and behavior of people (high
mountains, extreme temperature conditions, sudden changes day and night). It
is also very important to influence the entire culture as a whole by the presence
of any agricultural industry - of a native culture (or rich mineral reserves), as
well as the dietary intake of representatives of different cultures, which can
determine the physical capabilities of stereo behaviors and the general style of
response (energy-consuming, energy-saving).
All these groups of factors, existing in the form of individual elements of
culture, natural conditions, historical circumstances and the organic diversity of
individuals, determine the characteristics of human activity, thinking, cognition,
perception and emotional and psychological states in different cultures.
The question of the quality of the description of culture is no less
important. How should I describe it? How complete is it? And what does it
mean to "fully describe culture"? The English philosopher Gilbert Ryle
proposed to call the description of a certain culture, which boils down to the
expression (verbal or non-verbal) of certain actions, phenomena, facts, the
creation of the so-called "unsaturated description" (thin description). An
"unsaturated description", thus, is a record of the text behind the informant, a
description of a certain rite, etc.
The "unsaturated description" concerns only the form of the phenomena
described. The "rich description", according to Ryle, implies a description of
the phenomenon and the whole variety of its meanings, or at least an attempt at
such a description (in detail about the "saturated" and "unsaturated" description
by G. See Rila in K. Geertz's book "Interpretation of Cultures", pp. 9-42). Thus,
the subject of the description of culture is a stratified hierarchy of meaningful
structures (i.e., it is a structured description of cultural phenomena).
To interpret a person's behavior, it is important to take into account their
cultural affiliation. At the same time, one should not overestimate the influence
of culture on human behavior: personality is not defined by a set of learned
cultural norms; we conduct one way or another, it is not because we are
Russians, belong to one generation or another, etc. Culture influences a person's
behavior and worldview, but does not completely define it. Human behavior
and interaction are determined by a variety of factors, not all of which are
cultural.

5. Cross-cultural (intercultural) research. Typologies of cultures

Intercultural research is based on the study of two or more ethnonational
or regional cultures according to certain parameters in order to establish both
universal principles and patterns of culture, as well as their specific features and
differences. Special attention is paid to the study of contexts, situations in
which cultural differences between representatives of different ethnic groups
and national states are most noticeable. These studies are conducted within the
framework of the comparative-cultural studies, ethnography, the theory of the
ICC and other sciences.

Typologies of cultures
In the theory of the ICC, due to its initial practical orientation, it has
become traditional to group cultures depending on various parameters. It is
worth noting that in theory the ICC of culture is most often classified
depending on those parameters that are relevant in professional communication
(attitude to time, mono/multitasking, etc.). Here are a few common typologies:
– classification of corporate cultures in Hofstede;
– E. Hall's classification;
– classification of R. Lewis.
The classification of Dutch sociologist Geert Hofstede is one of the most
famous typologies of corporate cultures. The typology of organizational
cultures in Hofstede was developed in the early 1980s based on the results of a
large-scale study conducted in various departments of the multinational
company IBM (116 thousand people were interviewed employees in 40
countries). Hofstede proposed 6 parameters for each culture (country):
– distancing from power,
– individualism — collectivism,
– masculinity — femininity,
– acceptance — non-acceptance of uncertainty,
– pragmatism,
– restraint.
The country (culture) receives points for each parameter (from 0 to 100).
The classification is useful in analyzing the interactions of representatives of
different cultures (countries) in the professional field, another advantage of it is
that many countries are described.
Edward T. Hall proposed dividing cultures, depending on the nature of
their use of space and time, into high-context and low-context, as well as
cultures with a predominant monochrome or polychrome use of time.
Highly contextual cultures are characterized by density social
connections (status and reputation apply to all spheres of life), personal life is
not separated from professional life. Countries with a high cultural context
include France, Spain, Italy, the Middle East, Japan and Russia.
Representatives of the low-context type of culture do not just separate private
and public life, but also consider each sector of their lives separately.
Moreover, status and reputation do not automatically extend to all spheres of
life. Examples of low-context culture countries: USA, Canada, Holland,
Scandinavian countries, Germany, etc. Representatives of monochrome cultures
tend to clearly plan their schedule and do things consistently, and begin to
perform a new task only after completing the previous one. In these cultures,
interpersonal relationships are less important than completing a task—at least in
the business sphere.
The USA, England, Germany, and Scandinavian countries are considered
monochrome. Representatives of polychrome cultures are more likely to do a
lot of things at the same time, they do not make clear schedules, or at least they
are not too willing to find fault with them. They are living. Friendships can be
more important than deadlines, and interpersonal relationships can be placed
above the interests of the case. E. Hall attributed the cultures of Latin American
and Arab countries, as well as Russia, to polychrome cultures.
 The third classification is the Richard Lewis classification (Richard D.
Lewis) — has a lot in common with classification. The classification is based
on the organization of the figure-people's differences in time. Cultures are
divided into:
– monoactive (Linear-active): 1 unit of time = 1 task.
Punctuality and diligence are important; completing
the task is above all. Examples: German, American, English culture;
– polyactive (Multi-active). They are characterized by
emotionality, flexibility, and orientation towards interpersonal
relationships. Examples: Italian, Spanish, Brazilian
cultures;
– Reactive. They are focused on preserving
the reputation. They are characterized by politeness, non-conflict,
and patience. Examples: Japanese, Chinese, Korean culture.
R. Lewis (b. 1930) is still successfully engaged in consulting in the field
of intercultural communication, heads the Richard Lewis Communications
company, whose services are used by many large international companies. R.
Lewis also runs a blog dedicated to various topical issues of intercultural
communication: http://blog.crossculture.com/.
We have considered only three classifications of cultures according
to various parameters; in general, there are a great many of them. It must be
remembered that any such classification is a kind of a kind of simplification of
reality. For example, it does not take into account the multiculturalism of
societies, whereas it is quite obvious that in each country there are many types
and subtypes of business cultures, and the classification is designed to find
what unites them all. At the same time, she describes in each specific case a
certain "ideal", average culture, which may differ greatly from real behavioral
norms.
The above classifications can nevertheless be useful if you know how to
apply them correctly: for example, use the classification of cultures depending
on the relation to time in the analysis of the situation, for the understanding of
which the monochromacy/polychromacy of the culture of the participants really
matters. At the same time, it is very important to remember that a person is not
just a carrier of a certain culture (cultures), it is a person
who has a very complex "structure".