Question: 1 The railroad controller represented in the figure below is supposed to be a safe solution for

two railroad circuits sharing a single bridge (Illustration of the circuits is given es well.)
(a) Four lines of code in the controller are redacted: write what those lines should contain. Explain the
reasoning (and the pitfalls of simplistic solutions for this problem!) .
(b) Draw the reachable subgraph of this controller. Discuss the difference between the full graph and this
subgraph, and explain what the subgraph proves
(c) For some peculiar reason, the railway company wants to add multiple circuits to this system in the
future, so that the bridge is shared by even more trains. Flow would you restructure the controller for that,
and what might be the sources of technical debt in such a system subject to scaling?

The controller needs to ensure that only one train can use the bridge at a time to avoid collisions.
Therefore, the code might involve checking the status of the bridge and allowing a train to cross only if
the bridge is clear. Here's a simplified pseudocode :
a)
Code:
# Sample pseudocode for the railroad controller
def cross_bridge(train_id):
if bridge_is_clear():
occupy_bridge(train_id)
# Code to move the train across the bridge
release_bridge(train_id)
else:
wait_for_clearance(train_id)

# Redacted lines might include functions like bridge_is_clear(), occupy_bridge(train_id),

release_bridge(train_id), and wait_for_clearance(train_id).

Reasoning: The controller needs to manage the access to the bridge, ensuring that only one train is on it
at a time. This involves checking the status of the bridge, occupying it, releasing it, and handling cases
where the bridge is not clear.
Pitfalls: A simplistic solution might overlook edge cases, such as multiple trains approaching the bridge
simultaneously, leading to potential deadlocks or collisions.

b)
Explanation of the Subgraph: The reachable subgraph essentially proves that, under normal operating
conditions, the system can transition between a specific set of states. It demonstrates the feasible
behaviors of the railroad controller and helps ensure that, during regular operations, the system remains
within a safe and controlled state space. By studying the reachable subgraph, developers and engineers
can gain insights into how the controller manages train movements, responds to events, and ensures the
safety of the railway system. It's a valuable tool for both analysis and validation of the control system's
behavior.

Code:
Initial State: {green, red} signalw
{green, red} signalE
west := red
east := red
nearw := 0
nearE := 0
Events: {arrive, leave} outw
{arrive, leave} outE
Transitions:
- From initial state to a new state based on the events and conditions.
State 1: {green, red} signalw
{green, red} signalE
west := red
east := red
nearw := 0
nearE := 0
Event: outE? arrive
Transition to State 2:
{green, red} signalw
{green, red} signalE
west := red
east := red
nearw := 0
nearE := 1
Event: outE? leave
Transition back to State 1.
Event: outw? arrive
Transition to State 3:
{green, red} signalw
{green, red} signalE
west := red
east := red
nearw := 1
nearE := 0
Event: outw? leave
Transition back to State 1.

C)
To enhance the railway system for future scalability, modularize the controller using a distributed,
scalable architecture. Adopt microservices, real-time communication, and scalable algorithms for efficient
train tracking and collision avoidance. Ensure redundancy, fault tolerance, and dynamic resource
allocation. Address potential technical debt by avoiding a monolithic design, improving algorithms,
documenting thoroughly, enhancing test coverage, and maintaining flexibility in data models and
configurations. Regular maintenance and adherence to best practices will mitigate the accumulation of
technical debt in the evolving system.
On a simplified model of a motorway, drivers choose their lanes according to the Information about the
expected duration of their trip: large displays inform them about estimated time of arrival for each of the
lanes, and they select accordingly (all lanes lead to the same destination).
(a) In terms of positive, negative feedback loops, and other systems theoretic concepts you have learned,
explain the dynamics of such a system: where will drivers go, what effects will they cause?
(b) Try proposing a solution for the motorway authority: what information the displays could show to
improve the routing of the cars on the motorway?
(c) Imagine, for a moment, a somewhat similar scenario. In a futuristic setup, flying mobile charging
stations for electric vehicles are deployed around Dublin by the following simple strategy: the higher the
density of traffic Is In a part of the city, the more flying charging stations are deployed there. What are the
advantages and disadvantages of such a scheme from the systemic point of view? What improvements to
strategy, If any, would you propose? What are the parameters the success of this deployment relies on?

(a) Dynamics of the Motorway System:

 Positive Feedback: Drivers choosing less congested lanes reduce traffic, leading to faster travel
times and encouraging more drivers to switch lanes.
 Negative Feedback: As more drivers shift to a faster lane, congestion may increase, equalizing
travel times among lanes.
 Systems Theoretic Concepts: This resembles a self-organizing system where drivers adapt
based on real-time information, causing emergent patterns in traffic flow.
(b) Proposed Solution for the Motorway Authority:
 Display real-time traffic density, not just estimated time of arrival.
 Incorporate historical data for more accurate predictions.
 Suggest lane changes to balance traffic, preventing overloads and promoting smoother flow.
(c) Flying Mobile Charging Stations:
 Advantages:
 Addresses charging demand dynamically.
 Reduces congestion around fixed charging points.
 Supports electric vehicle adoption in high-density areas.
 Disadvantages:
 Airspace congestion and safety concerns.
 Energy consumption for station mobility.
 Infrastructure costs and potential visual pollution.
  Improvements:
 Optimize station deployment algorithms for efficiency.
 Consider alternative charging strategies based on traffic patterns.
 Address environmental and safety regulations.
 Success Parameters:
 Accurate traffic density data.
 Efficient station mobility algorithms.
 Regulatory support for aerial infrastructure.
 Effective public communication to gain acceptance.

Question: 3 Consider a bouncing ball system, In which you are observing the one-dimensional dynamics
of a ball falling from a given height, bouncing off a surface, falling to the surface again, etc. (a) Write a
pseudo-code that would compute the position of the ball x(t) by using the spring bouncing approxlmatIve
model. You can assume that differential equations are solved once you write them into the code (like In
Acumen). Discuss the modelling choices you make (parameters, forces to include, etc). (a) Pseudo-code
for Bouncing Ball System:

# Bouncing Ball Pseudo-code

gravity = 9.81
ball_mass = 0.1
spring_constant = 100.0
damping_coefficient = 0.1
initial_height = 1.0
initial_velocity = 0.0
time_step = 0.01
total_time = 10.0
position = initial_height
velocity = initial_velocity

for t in range(int(total_time / time_step)):

gravitational_force = ball_mass * gravity
spring_force = -spring_constant * position
 damping_force = -damping_coefficient * velocity
acceleration = (gravitational_force + spring_force + damping_force) / ball_mass
position = position + velocity * time_step + 0.5 * acceleration * time_step**2
velocity = velocity + acceleration * time_step

if position < 0:
position = -position
velocity = -velocity

print(f"Time: {t * time_step:.2f}s, Position: {position:.4f}m, Velocity: {velocity:.4f}m/s")

(b) In part (a) you were supposed to include some ordinary differential equations (ODE) governing the
motion of the ball. We often make the point that ODE can be replaced with transfer functions in
modelling: this is not necessarily the case for this problem. Why would a transfer function not be a good
model paradigm here?
some ordinary differential equations (ODEs) that govern the motion of the ball in the bouncing
ball system. We'll use a simple spring-damping model for the ball's motion, considering the
gravitational force, spring force, and damping force. The ODEs can be expressed as follows:
md
2
x / dt2 = −mg – kx − cdx / dt
Here:

 m is the mass of the ball,

 g is the acceleration due to gravity,
 x is the displacement of the ball from its equilibrium position,
 k is the spring constant representing the stiffness of the surface,
 c is the damping coefficient representing damping effects.

A transfer function is not a suitable model paradigm for the bouncing ball problem because transfer
functions are generally applicable to linear time-invariant systems, while the dynamics of a bouncing ball
involve non-linearities. The interaction between the ball and the surface introduces discontinuities during
collisions, violating the assumptions of linearity. Transfer functions are effective for systems with smooth
and continuous responses to inputs, making them inadequate for capturing the abrupt changes in motion
associated with the bouncing ball. Therefore, ordinary differential equations (ODEs) are a more
appropriate choice for modeling this non-linear and discontinuous behavior.

(c) (c) Assume now the existence of a robotic arm swinging a paddle and hitting the ball. Ignoring the
problems of control, aim, etc, write the pseudo-code that would estimate the power consumption of this
robotic arm. Discuss the Inputs that you need to have and assumptions that you have to make (Acumen
ping pong model does a very similar computation).

# Pseudo-code for Estimating Robotic Arm Power Consumption

# Note: This is a simplified representation, and actual implementation may involve more complex
considerations.
PseudoCode:
# Constants
efficiency_factor = 0.9 # Efficiency factor of the robotic arm (percentage)
gravitational_force = 9.81 # m/s^2, acceleration due to gravity
ball_mass = 0.1 # kg, mass of the ball
ball_drop_height = 1.0 # m, height from which the ball is dropped
ball_impact_velocity = 5.0 # m/s, velocity of the ball at impact with the paddle

# Calculate kinetic energy of the ball before impact

initial_kinetic_energy = 0.5 * ball_mass * ball_impact_velocity**2

# Calculate work done by the robotic arm (assuming conservative forces)

work_done = initial_kinetic_energy + ball_mass * gravitational_force * ball_drop_height

# Estimate power consumption (assuming 100% efficiency is not achieved)

power_consumption = work_done / efficiency_factor

# Print or store the estimated power consumption

print(f"Estimated Power Consumption: {power_consumption:.2f} Joules")
The provided pseudo-code estimates the power consumption of a robotic arm swinging a paddle to hit a
ball. It incorporates constants such as efficiency factor, gravitational force, ball mass, and initial
conditions. The calculation involves kinetic energy, work done, and power consumption, considering a
simplified model with conservative forces. The efficiency factor represents the arm's effectiveness,
assumed constant. Known constants include gravity and ball properties. Work done is calculated based on
kinetic energy change and work against gravity. The estimation of power consumption considers the
efficiency factor and acknowledges potential challenges like friction and air resistance, though the model
simplifies dynamics for clarity.
Question: 4 In this scenario, Dublin drone (UAV) urban traffic is limited to drones going from point A to
point B (see figure below). There are two designated lanes for drones going from A to B, one with the
optimal carrying capacity C1, other with carrying capacity C2. There is also a return path for the drones,
with a much larger carrying capacity C3, and It Is outside of the urban area. You can assume that drones
are constantly flying on a cycle A-B-A-... during daytime, and there are no flights atnight time.

a) You are In charge of designing a solution for the management of drones flying from A to B, they
would be charged a toll for the route they are about to choose at departure, and the toll would change
dynamically based on the number of the drones already flying on the route. In other words, the toll T, for
the lane 1 would be a function of the number of drones on the lane 1, and the carrying capacity C1.
(number of drones lane 1 can take without causing congestions)—same for lane 2. Suggest a mechanism
for this. Explain what type of feedback loop it is. Sketch plots of drone numbers per lane with respect to
time under your proposed scheme.
(a) Proposed Toll Mechanism:
The toll mechanism can be designed as a congestion-based pricing model, where the toll dynamically
adjusts based on the number of drones on each lane. The toll T1 for Lane 1 and T2 for Lane 2 can be
calculated using a formula that takes into account the current drone count and the carrying capacity of
each lane. Let's define n1 as the number of drones on Lane 1, n2 as the number of drones on Lane 2, C1
as the carrying capacity of Lane 1, and C2 as the carrying capacity of Lane 2.
The toll function for Lane 1 (T1) and Lane 2 (T2) could be defined as:
T1 – k1 .1 – n1/c1
T2 – k2 .1 – n2/c2
where k1 and k2 are constants that determine the rate at which the toll changes with respect to the drone
count. This mechanism ensures that as the number of drones on a lane approaches its capacity, the toll for
that lane increases, encouraging drones to choose the less congested lane.
Time 

b) When Implementing your proposed scheme, the programmer accidentally switched the signs, so the
toll was getting cheaper when It was supposed to get more expensive and vice versa. The investor,
however, liked the end result and decided to keep it as is. What could be the reason for this? Sketch the
plots of drone numbers per lane again, and discuss the type of feedback loop.
Reason for Investor's Decision: The positive feedback loop might have created a situation where the
lane with cheaper tolls attracted more drones, leading to higher revenues despite congestion. The investor
may have seen this as a profitable outcome, even though it may not be sustainable or efficient in the long
run. The decision to keep the switched signs might be driven by short-term financial gains at the expense
of potential congestion-related issues.
Question (a) What can be said about the parameters of the PID controller for which the plant achieves the
response shown in Figure 1.1?
The PID controller parameters affect the system response and the typical plots involved.
1. Actual Output (c(t)) vs. Desired Output: In a PID-controlled system, the actual output (c(t)) is
compared to the desired output. The controller adjusts the system to minimize the error
(difference between actual and desired output).
2. Steady State: The steady state is the condition when the system has reached a stable, constant
output. In an ideal PID-controlled system, the steady-state error should be minimized, resulting in
the actual output closely tracking the desired output.
3. c(t) at Y-Axis vs. t at X-Axis:
The plot of c(t) (actual output) against time (t) is known as the response of the system. It provides
insights into how the system behaves over time under the influence of the PID controller.

PID Controller Parameters and System Response:

A higher Kp generally leads to a faster response to changes in the desired output but may
introduce overshoot and oscillations.
Integral Gain (Ki):
Ki eliminates steady-state error and improves the system's ability to track the desired output.
However, too much Ki can lead to instability and oscillations.
Derivative Gain (Kd):
Kd helps dampen oscillations caused by proportional control and improves the system's response to
rapid changes in the desired output.
(b) Automatic Door Sensors:
Ultra-sonic Sensor: First Option: Ultra-sonic sensors are commonly used for detecting the distance to
objects. They are reliable and can provide accurate distance measurements, making them suitable for
detecting people approaching the door.
2. Second Option: Infrared sensors detecting the presence of objects between the transmitter and
receiver can be a good secondary option. However, they may not provide accurate distance
measurements and can be affected by environmental conditions

3. Infrared Thermal Camera:  Third Option: Infrared thermal cameras can detect the heat emitted
by a person. While they are less affected by ambient light, they might be less precise in providing
distance information compared to ultra-sonic sensors.

4. Standard Camera:  Fourth Option: Standard cameras are less suitable for this application as they
may have limitations in low-light conditions, and image processing for detecting approaching
persons may be complex.

Trade-offs:
Cost: Ultra-sonic sensors are generally cost-effective, while infrared thermal cameras can be
more expensive.
Environmental Factors: Different sensors may be affected differently by environmental
conditions such as lighting and temperature.
Accuracy: The choice depends on the required accuracy for detecting and measuring the
 presence of a person.

(c) In three guest lectures related to use cases this year we discussed: (1) acoustic noise pollution
originating from the drones (2) possibility to use drones for extending cellphone coverage (3) possibility
to use drones for urban delivery Discuss the different relationships of (1) with (2) and (1) with (3). What
are the trade-offs involved?
1. Acoustic Noise Pollution (1) with Cellphone Coverage (2):
 Trade-off: Drones for cellphone coverage may contribute to noise pollution.
 Mitigation: Implement noise reduction tech or schedule flights during non-peak hours.
2. Acoustic Noise Pollution (1) with Urban Delivery (3):
 Trade-off: Urban delivery drones may contribute to noise pollution.
 Mitigation: Use quieter designs, optimize flight paths, and adhere to noise regulations.
3. Cellphone Coverage (2) with Urban Delivery (3):
 Synergy: Drones for cellphone coverage and urban delivery may share infrastructure.
 Advantages: Shared infrastructure leads to cost savings and more efficient drone
deployment.
Overall Trade-offs:
 Balancing: Consider environmental impacts, regulatory compliance, and public acceptance.
 Optimization: Minimize negatives with optimized drone technologies and operational strategies.

Question 5 In this new scenario, Dublin drone (UAV) urban traffic has one lane for drones going
from point A to point B, and one for drones going in the opposite direction (see figure 4.1
below). The local authority allowed only a single lane in one part of the city—between points
W(est) and E(ast), which forced the placement of a traffic light system for drones at points W
and E. The main security concern is that at any given point In time, only drones travelling In one
direction (A to B or B to A) should be allowed on the WE segment. The engineering team
decided to repurpose a system from the national railway company for this purpose—a system
that was supposed to govern trains with the same railway scheme as the one planned for drones
(bridge shared between two rail lines)
 The system in Figure 4.2 is not suitable for trains either: it could cause two trains to end up on
the bridge together, while travelling in opposite directions. Prove that can happen.
(a) Unsuitability of the System for Trains: The given system has a potential issue that could allow
two trains traveling in opposite directions to end up on the bridge together. This situation can
occur during the transition of the traffic lights from red to green. Let's analyze the scenario: 1.
Initially, both signals are green, allowing trains from both directions to proceed. 2. A train is on
the WE segment heading from W to E. 3. The signal at W turns red, indicating that no more
trains should enter the WE segment. 4. Simultaneously, the signal at E turns green, allowing
trains to enter the WE segment from the opposite direction (E to W). As a result, there is a brief
moment when both signals are red, and trains from both directions might be on the bridge
simultaneously.
(b) Repairing the System for Trains: To address this issue, we need to ensure that the signals
change in a way that prevents simultaneous access from both directions. One way to achieve
this is by introducing a buffer time during the transition between red and green signals. The
repaired system could look like this
 if outE ? leave then west := green;
if outw ? leave then east := green;
if outE ? arrive then
west := red;
wait_for_buffer_time();
east := green;
else if outw ? arrive then
east := red;
wait_for_buffer_time();
west := green;
The wait_for_buffer
(c) Repurposing for Drones: To repurpose the system for drones, we need to consider the differences in
the behavior and dynamics of drones compared to trains. Drones are more agile and can change
direction quickly. Therefore, the safety mechanisms need to be adapted. The main difference lies in the
fact that drones can quickly change direction, while trains have more inertia and cannot change tracks
rapidly. In the drone scenario, we can simplify the system: if outE ? leave then west := green; if outw ?
leave then east := green; if outE ? arrive then west := red; if outw ? arrive then east := red; In this
simplified system, drones arriving at the WE segment are immediately stopped, and the traffic light
system only controls departures. Drones can change direction rapidly, so there is no need for a buffer
time as in the train scenario.

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