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Record: 1
Broadcast radio: Technology, challenges and opportunities in the twenty-first century. By: Hallett, Lawrie. Interactions: Studies in
Communication & Culture. Apr2021, Vol. 12 Issue 1, p17-37. 21p. Abstract: This article focuses on the considerable scale and
pace of change in broadcast radio over the first two decades of the twenty-first century, an on-going process showing little sign of
abating. Developments in digital broadcasting, the increasing consumption of audio via internet protocol and the arrival of the
smart speaker are all major factors impacting the future of radio broadcasting. No longer a stand-alone medium, this article
argues that the future of broadcast radio rests on the way in which it addresses the various challenges and opportunities offered
by its use of new technologies and multiple platforms. Change is not simply being driven by technological and regulatory
developments within the industry (although there have been plenty of those over the past two decades). Equally importantly,
change is also being driven by external factors and by wider societal pressures. Arguably, today, radio faces greater levels of
challenge and competition than at any time in its century, or so, long history. Any process of change creates both winners and
losers. In the medium term, which side of that equation radio broadcasting finds itself on will be determined by its response to the
changes, challenges and opportunities encountered over the next few years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] DOI:
10.1386/iscc_00034_1. (AN: 155650338)
Database: Communication & Mass Media Complete

Broadcast radio: Technology, challenges and opportunities in the twenty-first century

This article focuses on the considerable scale and pace of change in broadcast radio over the first two decades of the twenty-first century, an on-going process showing
little sign of abating. Developments in digital broadcasting, the increasing consumption of audio via internet protocol and the arrival of the smart speaker are all major
factors impacting the future of radio broadcasting. No longer a stand-alone medium, this article argues that the future of broadcast radio rests on the way in which it
addresses the various challenges and opportunities offered by its use of new technologies and multiple platforms. Change is not simply being driven by technological
and regulatory developments within the industry (although there have been plenty of those over the past two decades). Equally importantly, change is also being driven
by external factors and by wider societal pressures. Arguably, today, radio faces greater levels of challenge and competition than at any time in its century, or so, long
history. Any process of change creates both winners and losers. In the medium term, which side of that equation radio broadcasting finds itself on will be determined by
its response to the changes, challenges and opportunities encountered over the next few years.

Keywords: radio; broadcasting; digital; DAB; DAB+; multi-platform; hybrid radio; smart speaker

Introduction
Broadcast radio has evolved considerably over the first two decades of the twenty-first century and such change shows little sign of abating. Change has not simply
been driven by technological and regulatory developments within the industry (although there have been plenty of those over the past two decades). Equally
importantly, change is also being driven by external factors and by wider societal pressures. Arguably, today, radio faces greater levels of challenge and competition
than at any time in its century or so, long history. In any period of change, there are both winners and losers. In the medium term, the side of that equation on which
radio broadcasting finds itself will be determined by how it responds to the challenges and opportunities encountered over the next few years.

From the perspectives of both the broadcaster and the listener alike, this article considers some of the key developments in radio broadcasting in the United Kingdom
that have occurred over the past two decades. Whilst some elements of this article are somewhat 'UK-centric', others have wider application across broadcast radio
internationally. Such developments include various technical advances within broadcasting, collectively bringing with them both challenges and opportunities. There is
also the wider audio media environment to consider and the ways in which radio might be challenged by and/or benefit from the increased competition for listeners.
Finally, this article considers the concept of 'hybrid radio', the development of converged audio delivery and reception. How might proper integration of today's separate
audio platforms impact delivery and even change the nature of tomorrow's broadcast radio services?

Expansion mergers and stability

The changes in broadcast radio over the past two decades have been considerable. In the United Kingdom, the number of radio services has dramatically expanded
due to a large increase in the number of Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) only services and due to the arrival of some 300 community radio services: a tier of
broadcasting previously well established in Ireland, but existing only in temporary (short-term) forms in the United Kingdom at the turn of the twenty-first century.
Commercial radio has become highly conglomerated over the same period, with two media groups (Global and Bauer) now dominating and independent operators
teetering on the verge of extinction. In terms of public service broadcasting, the BBC's radio provision has remained largely stable over the period but is, arguably, in a
weaker financial position today. The corporation finds itself operating in a distinctly more hostile political environment and with an increased degree of external
regulatory and policy oversight by both the British regulator Ofcom and by central government.

Technological changes
In 2000, FM transmissions were the dominant delivery platform for radio broadcasting. Alongside gradually declining AM use, DAB deployment and uptake was steadily
increasing. In nascent form, audio streaming did exist, but this was by no means part of the mainstream, not least because of the comparatively slow internet
connection speeds of the day. Podcasting and listen-again were both concepts yet to be defined, let alone implemented, and the invention of the so-called 'smart
speaker' was still well over a decade away.

External factors
The arrival of the smartphone in 2007, coupled with the increasing speed and capacity of mobile phone networks, introduced the opportunity for audio content streaming
to portable devices, whilst more recently, the introduction of smart speakers has provided an additional route for the delivery of such content to fixed devices in the
home and work environments. Underpinning these specific developments, the capabilities of fixed internet connections have increased in terms of ubiquity, speed and
capacity, with dial-up connections replaced by various types of 'always on' broadband connectivity. Mobile networks have been through several iterations over the past
few years. 3G systems, only introduced in 2003 (Braggs 2013), are now on their way out ([45]), being replaced with internet protocol (IP)-based 4G and 5G systems,
offering greatly increased data-carrying capacities and full integration with wired IP-based networks. In the professional environment, the Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN) line, which was almost ubiquitous in studios at the turn of the century, is now effectively obsolete. Even the humble dial-up phone line is moving to fully
IP-based operation over the next few years ([26]; [14]).

Regulation

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Broadly, the early twenty-first century has been dominated by a continuation of policies established towards the end of the preceding century. In broadcasting, just as in
other sectors, a push for deregulation reflects and has been driven by a broader political impetus to promote more laissez-faire approaches within economic policy. As a
result, compared to the situation as it was at the turn of the century, commercial radio in particular has become increasingly lightly regulated. Even community radio,
introduced within a framework of regulatory constraints, designed to ensure its distinctiveness and to protect the privileges of the commercial radio sector, has seen its
regulation gradually reduced and, not for the first time, the BBC finds its position being challenged for being out of step with the ideology of a Conservative government
([23]).

Broadcast distribution platforms and other technologies

The number of platforms that are relevant to radio broadcasting has increased dramatically in the twenty-first century. A look back at 'Digital broadcasting: Challenges
and opportunities for European community radio broadcasters' ([16]) shows both the pace and the scale of change over the intervening years alone. This journal article,
written just over a decade ago, considered delivery platforms in terms of issues such as: flexibility, simplicity, independence, cost and accessibility ([16]: 154) and
argued for the continued availability of analogue spectrum in the context of a drive for broadcast digitization, which, at the time, did not appear capable of
accommodating the needs of smaller-scale broadcasters in particular.

DAB+, which has since begun to offer a potential solution to this issue, was something of a niche technology back in 2010 and was referred to only briefly. Other
nascent technologies at the time, such as podcasting and listen-again services, both of which have rapidly become important mainstream platforms in their own right,
were not referred to at all. Such is the current pace of change that the smart speaker, front-and-centre in current debates about the future of radio broadcasting and
perhaps the most disrupting technology of all, simply did not exist a decade ago.

Digital Audio Broadcasting

Digitization has been at the heart of debates over the future of broadcast radio since before the century began. The arrival of DAB in the mid-1990s went a long way
towards addressing the perennial issue of spectrum scarcity, but only for larger public service and commercial broadcasters. However, public acceptance of DAB has
been slow. In Q1 2020 (the most recent period for which data are available), a quarter of a century since the first full-time services were launched in the United
Kingdom, the platform accounted for some 58.6 per cent of all real-time radio listening. As Table 1 shows, analogue consumption of live radio has almost exactly halved
since early 2008, whilst digital listening (not just to DAB/DAB+ alone, but also including listening via digital television [DTV] platforms and online) has more than tripled.

Table 1: Digital listening hours (Q1 2012–Q1 2020) (RAJAR).

Digital listening hours (Q1 2012–Q1 2020)

Year (Q1)Tot. hours DAB DTV Online
PercentageHoursPercentageHoursPercentageHours

2020 578m 69 397m 8 43m 24 138m

2019 577m 72 413m 8 51m 20 113m
2018 521m 72 377m 9 49m 18 95m
2017 483m 71 346m 12 56m 17 82m
2016* 444m 70 310m 12 55m 18 79m
2015 403m 65 264m 12 49m 17 69m
2014 379m 65 245m 14 51m 17 66m
2013 355m 66 233m 15 51m 14 52m
2012 311m 65 203m 15 47m 14 42m
1 Source: RAJAR.

2 * As of Q1 2016 a 'Platform Attribution' model was applied by RAJAR to eliminate any 'unspecified' listening.

Given that DAB was described from the outset as 'a potential replacement for analogue FM radio' ([19]: 152), concerns about the relatively slow uptake of the
technology have been around since soon after its launch. For example, as early as the spring of 1999, an article by Franc Kozamernik, in the European Broadcasting
Union Technical Journal, noted that: 'The roll-out of Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) in Europe is at an advanced stage – but is much slower than expected' ([18]: 1).

PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 1: Live radio listening by platform (Q1 2008–Q1 2020) (RAJAR).

By 2008, the situation in the United Kingdom had become critical in some quarters, with the then Chief Executive of the GCAP Commercial Radio group (now part of
Global Radio), Fru Hazlitt, announcing its 'withdrawal as far as possible from DAB digital broadcasting', because 'DAB is not an economically viable platform for the
company' ([50]: n.pag.). Perhaps, however, this announcement marked the nadir for DAB in the United Kingdom. Although concerns continued to be raised, see for
example, 'DAB: A very British failure: Taxpayers to subsidise the digital radio flop?' ([32]: n.pag.) and 'The long, slow birth of DAB' ([ 2]: n.pag.), the GCAP
announcement, together with wider industry concerns, prompted the then Minister for Culture, Communications and Creative Industries, Ed Vaizey, to launch the United
Kingdom's 'Digital Radio Action Plan' in 2010. The first version of this document recognized the emerging reality that a full transition to digital only radio broadcasting
was still a great way off: 'The purpose of this Action Plan is not to implement a transition to digital radio, but to provide the information to allow for a well-informed
decision by Government on whether to proceed with a radio switchover' ([ 5]: 3).

By the time the final version of the 'Digital Radio Action Plan' was published in January 2014, it had been through no fewer than ten iterations ([ 6]). In the end however,
there was not much 'action' to come out of the plan, at least not immediately. In a speech to the industry-convened GO Digital Conference, late in 2013, the minister
noted that 'now is not the time to switchover' ([51]: n.pag.).

The minister listed three criteria, or 'benchmarks' that needed to be met 'before the transition to digital can be completed' ([51]: n.pag.):

[that digital] listening should be at 50 per cent;

coverage needs to be built out towards FM equivalence – with coverage matching FM in place for all stations that need to switchover;

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shifting new cars to digital and migrating more in-car listening.

Over the intervening eight or so years, the first of these objectives has clearly been met and there has been considerable progress in terms of the third. More work has
also been done in terms of building out DAB coverage to achieve equivalence with FM, but any idea of switching off analogue FM and AM broadcasting seems as far
away today as it did back in 2014, when the final version of the Digital Radio Action Plan was published. As Ed Vaizey observed in his 2013 speech, 'radio is very
different from television and [so] the process of a major transition for radio needs to be carried out over a different timescale' ([51]: n.pag.).

It should be mentioned that the notion of 'digital listening' is no longer synonymous with the use of DAB/DAB+ receivers, if indeed it ever was, given the established
consumption of radio services via satellite and terrestrial DTV platforms. The rapid expansion of listening via IP, through mobile phone apps and smart speakers, etc.,
certainly provides new and convenient ways to consume radio content, but at the cost of additional infrastructure and operational overheads for broadcasters.

Framing the concept of a switch to digital for broadcast radio in a wider context perhaps explains the lack of urgency. Elsewhere in his 2013 speech, the minister noted
that the government would 'reserve a part of the FM spectrum for as long as it is needed' ([51]: n.pag.). When the earlier switch-off for analogue terrestrial television was
announced, a major driver was the value of the spectrum that would be released to other users, such as the mobile phone industry. Put bluntly, there was money to be
made for government through the auctioning of former television broadcast spectrum to the highest telecommunications bidder. In comparison, FM (and AM) broadcast
spectrum lacks such value and, thus, there is little material opportunity cost associated with its continued use for broadcast radio transmissions.

For broadcasters, just as there are additional costs associated with IP delivery of content, so too are there unavoidable additional costs related to the continued
operation of dual broadcast platform networks (analogue and digital). This is increasingly the case, as much of the established analogue transmission network
infrastructure is now reaching the end of its economically viable operational lifespan. Thus, encouraging the uptake of digital platforms continues to be a priority and,
although no formal timescale has yet been proposed for the cessation of analogue broadcasting, there is little doubt that the setting of analogue switch-off dates (most
likely phased both in terms of individual networks and geographical locations) will ultimately be of financial benefit to broadcasters as a whole.

Over recent years, ownership of DAB receivers has increased, such that by Q1 of 2020 some two thirds of adults claimed to own a DAB Radio, up from under 5 per
cent back in 2004, as Figure 2 shows. This increase in DAB receiver ownership by consumers has helped facilitate a considerable increase in digital listening hours, but
the rate at which DAB uptake has increased does appear to be showing some signs of slowing, particularly since Q1 of 2019. Although the figures currently available
cannot yet be said to represent a clear trend, anecdotal evidence suggests that DAB receiver sales are becoming increasingly squeezed by the rapid uptake of smart
speaker purchases.

PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 2: UK DAB receiver ownership (adults 15+) (Q1 2004–Q1 2020) (RAJAR).

By early 2020, DAB listening accounted for 69 per cent of digital live radio listening, almost doubling in terms of listening hours since early 2012, but growing only
marginally in terms of the percentage of total digital live radio listening attributed to the platform. Meanwhile, live radio listening via DTV platforms declined in terms of
both hours listened and as a percentage. However, the key growth story concerns the increase in online consumption, which has more than tripled in terms of listening
hours since 2012 and has increased its share of total digital live radio listening hours by 10 per cent over the same period. Moreover, the rate at which online
consumption is increasing does appear to be speeding up, as Table 1 shows.

COVID-19 restrictions caused a break in the quarterly collection of RAJAR audience research data from early 2020, with the first new set of data expected to be
published in the final quarter of 2021. If the trends noted in Table 1 continue, it can be expected that online listening will have increased considerably over the past
eighteen months. RAJAR's research into Lockdown Listening ([39]) noted a further increase in online listening and, more recently, Ofcom's Media Nations Report noted
that 50 per cent of adults claimed to have a smart speaker in their home ([28]) and that:

The most popular activity by those who used smart speakers in 2021 was listening to music via a streaming service, at two-thirds of UK adults, followed by listening to
live radio (60 per cent) and getting weather reports (45 per cent).

([29]: 96)

Although only minimal at the time of writing, currently available evidence does suggest that the rise of online listening continues apace and that the effects of the
COVID-19 pandemic could well have hastened that trend. Thus, for many, it may be the case that the use of the DAB platform in the United Kingdom may well be
reaching its high water mark, if indeed it has not done so already.

DAB in Ireland
Finally, in relation to the development of the DAB platform, it is worth noting that in Ireland, aside from in the six counties of Northern Ireland, the experience has been
very different. Following various tests that began in the late 1990s, RTÉ launched a permanent DAB multiplex in 2006 ([ 1]). Having persevered for some fifteen years,
these transmissions ended in early 2021:

Until March 2021, national public broadcaster RTÉ operated a full-service Multiplex across a five-transmitter network covering 52 per cent of the population in the main
cities.

On 31 March 2021, RTÉ switched off its DAB transmissions for three main factors – the fact that DAB was the least utilised platform in Ireland; that RTÉ is the only Irish
broadcaster on the DAB system, and cost avoidance.

([53]: n.pag.)

Although there are no longer any licensed DAB transmissions in Ireland, following a long-established tradition there, DAB remains available in an unlicensed 'pirate'
form. According to its website: 'FreeDAB continues to provide a much needed service across all major cities in the Republic of Ireland' ([15]: n.pag.).

Alternative platforms
The recent rapid increase in online listening represents a fundamental shift in consumption patterns for the radio medium, although the phenomenon is by no means
new. From the early days of radio broadcasting, programme content was made available by means other than the wireless receiver. Wired delivery provided an
alternative method of reception in areas where broadcast signals were not available or were subject to unwanted impacts of local interference. In the United Kingdom,

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the once famous name of Rediffusion began life as a distributor of broadcast radio services, indeed the company behind the Rediffusion name, 'The Broadcast Relay
Service Limited' ([43]) was formed in 1928, long before the arrival of television ([44]) and, 'by December 1946 nearly 750,000 homes received their broadcast [radio]
programmes by wired systems' ([43]: n.pag.).

Modern analogue and, later, digital cable distribution of radio services first emerged in the so-called 'new towns' of England, established in the mid-twentieth century.
From the mid-1970s, these cable systems began to carry early examples of dedicated cable radio services, the beginnings of what soon came to be called community
radio, such as Radio Basildon and Radio Thamesmead ([20]: 232). Although the arrival of internet delivery has decreased their importance, cable, satellite television
(Sky/Freesat) and terrestrial digital television (DTV/Freeview), all continue to carry live radio content today.

Cable and television-based delivery of broadcast radio has essentially been limited to the duplication of mainstream radio transmissions, perhaps with a little more low
capacity data and still pictures. However, the arrival of internet streaming, particularly in the early years of the twenty-first century, has provided space for considerable
innovation as to what constitutes broadcast radio beyond the provision of real-time 'curated' audio programme content.

Broadcasters have been relaying their live programme feeds over the internet since the mid-1990s (around the same time as DAB was first launched). Virgin Radio
began streaming its entire live output as early as 1996 ([36]), becoming the first major broadcaster in the United Kingdom to take such a step.

The capacity and capabilities of the internet now allow broadcasters to do much more than simply relay a copy of their broadcast output in real-time, linear, form.
However, as can be seen in Table 1, the greatest increase in online live radio consumption has occurred over the most recent five-year period, which coincides with the
arrival of smart speaker technologies from Amazon, followed later by Google, Apple and others. That said, other factors are also likely to have influenced the increased
uptake of online, IP-based, live broadcast radio consumption, such as the arrival of the UK RadioPlayer (radioplayer.org), BBC Sounds ([ 3]), as well as other, provider-
specific services, which are increasingly making use of IP connections in the home, office and via mobile devices (phones and tablets, etc.).

Another factor behind the increased use of IP-based devices for live broadcast radio reception is likely to be the increasing carrying capacity of mobile phone networks
coupled with the decreasing cost of data contracts on mobile phones in the United Kingdom. A similar situation applies in relation to domestic asynchronous digital
subscriber line (ADSL) and fibre to the cabinet (FTTC)/fibre to the premises (FTTP) broadband connections, which, coupled with improved in-home wi-fi network
connectivity, have also become more useful in terms of streaming audio in general and for the delivery of live broadcast radio in particular.

Mobile listening
The only place where IP-based audio delivery has yet to make major inroads is in road vehicles, where various factors may be inhibiting growth. Although mobile phone
networks in the United Kingdom provide reasonable geographical coverage for voice communications, their ability to reliably deliver live-streamed content remains less
robust, particularly outside major conurbations and away from motorway corridors and major trunk roads.

There is a key fundamental difference between broadcast networks and cellular mobile phone networks in terms of how connections are made with listeners. In
traditional radio broadcasting, provided sufficient signal exists for reception, there is no practical limit on the number of listeners that can make use of the signal.
Essentially, there is no marginal cost of listening to a broadcast radio service; it is a 'one-to-many' service that costs the broadcaster just as much to provide for one
listener as it does for several thousand. The downside of broadcasting when compared to IP-based systems is the former's lack of a simple and effective return-path –
broadcasting is inherently uni-directional (i.e. the connection only goes one-way from the broadcaster to the listener, with no intrinsic return-path).

Conversely, the economics of cellular mobile networks are based on individual 'one-to-one' connections; essentially, each being monetized in terms of the amount of
data downloaded or consumed. Technically therefore, the vast majority of data connections on cellular networks are 'unicast' (one-to-one) connections, each consuming
data capacity over the network and within the cell to which the device is connected. A cell's finite data-carrying capacity is used both to deliver data to connected
devices and for the provision of 'error correction' information, used to ensure that the data delivered to a particular device arrive as intended. The further away a device
is from a given transmitter, the more error correction may be required to ensure that data are delivered correctly. Thus, the amount of capacity a cellular transmitter can
deliver to a device declines as the distances involved increase, such that the number of concurrent connections that can be made varies according to where connected
devices are in relation to the particular cellular transmitter concerned. Unlike in broadcasting, at some point, a cell will run out of capacity and some connections will
either not be available in the first place or may be dropped as a result.

At present, car data connectivity tends towards a hybrid model with some dedicated connectivity (particularly in high-end vehicles) as well as connectivity through
mobile phones linked to in-car entertainment (ICE) systems. Consumption of previously downloaded audio (music/podcasts, etc.) is, of course, not dependent upon
network connectivity and 'buffering' of content streamed to a vehicle can overcome temporary drops in connectivity. However, such live streaming will ultimately fail in
locations where either there is no signal or the network infrastructure lacks sufficient data-carrying capacity to create and maintain connectivity. Thus, although it is
sometimes perfectly possible to use web-based services, such as RadioPlayer or Tune-In to listen to live radio in a vehicle, the experience can be variable and certainly
lacks the reliability and robustness of content delivery via established broadcast networks. As the European Technical Standards Institute noted in 2018:

Broadcast technologies and business models are currently unable to reach out to mobile devices due to several challenges, including the low penetration of broadcast
technologies in mobile devices. Mobile unicast technologies and business models cannot deliver audio-visual services to mass audiences at fixed costs.

([13]: 8)

Two years earlier, a report commissioned by the British government's National Infrastructure Commission examined how to create an infrastructure to support the
'connected car', not just in terms of entertainment provision but also for driver assistance and vehicle management, etc. ([41]: 13). The report quotes Mike Bell, the
connected car director of car manufacturer, Jaguar Land Rover, as observing:

The UK's mobile phone network has been built around population centres and making voice calls, rather than the routes between these urban areas and data
communication. [...] There are a significant number of roads with not even 3G speeds on them.

([41]: 19)

The level of infrastructure required to achieve a given level of capacity varies from location to location, because: 'The density of devices and users, can vary from low
levels in rural areas through to many thousands per square kilometre in urban areas' ([41]: 11). However, the key requirement for mobile reception of real-time

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broadcast radio is not the absolute available data rate. Rather it is the availability, geographical coverage, consistency and reliability of a much lower data rate
(streaming audio typically running at anywhere between approximately 50 and 350 kbps).

A European Union Directive, The European Electronic Communications Code ([52]), was adopted into United Kingdom law as part of the Road Vehicles (Approval)
Regulations 2020 ([52]: 5), which makes the fitting of a DAB car radio mandatory in any domestic vehicle supplied with a radio receiver. However, as noted by Motoring
Research: 'Where a car comes without any radio fitted at all, the new legislation will (sensibly) not compel manufacturers to install a DAB receiver' ([42]: n.pag.).

Mobile broadband connectivity is likely to become an increasingly important way for broadcasters to gain access to vehicles as some car manufacturers are already
moving away from the automatic provision of broadcast reception in their vehicles. For example, the Tesla website for the United Kingdom currently offers an
Infotainment Upgrade for its vehicles (costing between £1400.00 and £1700.00), which '[r]‌emoves AM, FM and DAB Radio'. There is an option to return the radio
reception capabilities, merely at the expense of a further £470.00! ([49]: n.pag.).

Given the rapid uptake of broadcast radio listening via internet-based platforms in fixed environments, it seems likely that uptake of such platforms will increase in the
mobile environment as infrastructure capacity and capability allows, but it is currently difficult to predict how quickly such an uptake may occur.

Small-scale DAB
Historically, British regulators tended towards a 'squirrel mentality', not allocating some broadcast frequencies today, using the justification that these might prove useful
for something else in future. More recently, Ofcom's drive for spectrum efficiency has seen a more pragmatic approach emerging, one reflected in policy decisions
around small-scale DAB (SSDAB) since the first trials of open-source DAB systems in 2012 ([22]; [40]) and supported by central government. In his previously referred
to speech to the GO Digital Conference in late 2013, Ed Vaizey observed:

I have for some time wanted to see progress on new solutions for small stations to have a route to DAB which meets their needs. I can announce today that we will be
providing new funding to Ofcom over the next two years to build on the work of its Brighton pilot to develop small-scale DAB solutions, to allow smaller radio stations to
go digital.

([51]: n.pag.)

The early technical trials of SSDAB in Brighton, which were designed to prove the technical viability and reliability of low-cost open-source digital broadcasting solutions,
were followed by a wider operation test of ten trial small-scale multiplexes, which began in 2015 ([24]). Originally intended to last a mere six months, several of these
pilot projects continue to operate on extensions of their original licences today, as requested by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) ([30]).

In essence, SSDAB as a concept was attractive to the United Kingdom government and to Ofcom because it offered a solution to the problem of how to accommodate
community radio services and smaller commercial stations in the digital broadcasting domain. Previously, such services ran the risk of being left on analogue platforms
(FM or AM), the so-called 'Analogue Backwater', as listening continues to shift to digital, as discussed above.

For a number of reasons, the economics of SSDAB are also fundamentally different from those of larger scale DAB. SSDAB has the advantage of considerably lower
capital and running costs. Partly, this is because such services tend to operate from relatively low-cost urban sites, such as the tops of residential tower blocks, but it is
also because it can make use of open-source software approaches (see e.g. the Open Digital Radio website [[31]]), as the intellectual property rights associated with
the original DAB standards and associated digital audio coding standard have all now expired. More broadly, in the 30 years or so since DAB was originally developed,
the costs of the required networking and computing hardware required have also reduced in real terms, not least because of the development of the Software Defined
Radio (SDR), essentially computer programmable hardware that can be configured to create a very low-power DAB multiplex signal, which can then be amplified and
transmitted for reception by the general public.

Depending on the economic model of the DAB multiplex operator, it has proven perfectly possible for small-scale broadcasters to operate very cost effectively on
SSDAB multiplexes. The capital and recurrent operational costs of the multiplex are typically shared across anywhere between around ten to 25 broadcasters, such that
per station annual DAB transmission costs can be as low as in the region of £100.00–£200.00 per month. Some multiplex operators offer reduced or even zero carriage
fees for local non-profit-maximizing community radio services, effectively subsidizing their operations through income from commercial stations that are also carried.

The success of the ten trial multiplexes was recognized in a report by Ofcom, published in 2016, which concluded that:

On the basis of the trials so far and the other conclusions of this report, we believe that there is a significant level of demand from smaller radio stations for small scale
DAB, and that a wider roll-out of additional small scale services into more geographic areas would be both technically possible and commercially sustainable.

([25]: 2)

The impacts of DAB+

A particularly useful outcome of the SSDAB trial services was the widescale adoption of the DAB+ standard, previously unused in the United Kingdom. This updated
version of the DAB standard allows a digital multiplex to carry an increased number of services whilst maintaining a sufficient degree of perceived audio quality ([12]).
For listeners, this provides the opportunity to receive a wider range of services, whilst broadcasters can find it easier to gain access to broadcast spectrum in otherwise
crowded urban areas. For multiplex operators, DAB+ allows, the potential at least, for greater income security. Carriage charges made to broadcasters can be spread
across a greater number of client stations, such that the DAB multiplex operator is not overly dependent upon a smaller number of broadcasters for its income.

One issue with the transmission of stations by using DAB+ is that older DAB radios (those on sale before approximately 2010) were not designed to accommodate the
newer DAB+ standard and so cannot resolve the audio of such services. However, all DAB radios that can receive DAB+ services are 'backwards compatible' and can
also receive stations transmitted using the original version of DAB.

According to Digital Radio UK, by early 2020, the technology championed by the small-scale multiplex operators, DAB+, had begun to move into the mainstream, being
adopted by a number of national broadcasters, such that there were:

[O]‌ver 180 stations broadcasting on DAB+ in the UK, including 19 national stations – Fun Kids, JazzFM, Union Jack, JACK Radio, Forces BFBS, Love Sport Radio,
Virgin Radio Anthems, Chilled and Groove, Smooth Extra, Heart Extra, Heart Dance, Heart 90s, Heart 80s, Heart 70s, Capital XTRA, Capital XTRA Reloaded, LBC

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News and Gold, and a number of local commercial stations, plus around 150 ultra-local community and commercial stations on small-scale DAB.

([ 8]: n.pag.)

To date, the BBC has tended to stick with the original version of the DAB standard. Although moving one or more BBC service(s) on its national multiplex might allow for
improved audio quality, it would also disenfranchise listeners using older DAB receivers. Moreover, a wholesale move to DAB+ on the BBC national multiplex could
result in there being unused capacity in excess of that required by the BBC to deliver its various services. Potentially therefore, a change by the BBC to using DAB+
could ultimately lead to demands for unused capacity to be offered for use by additional non-BBC services in the longer term.

However, it should be noted that the corporation is not entirely averse to using the newer DAB+ standard. It is, for example, being used to deliver BBC Radio Jersey and
BBC Radio Guernsey along with BBC Radio Jersey Extra and BBC Radio Guernsey Extra on the recently launched Channel Islands local multiplex ([38]).

Wider social and technological factors

Over recent years, the arrival of SSDAB and the use of the more recent DAB+ standard have clearly provided a fillip for DAB in the United Kingdom. Concurrently,
perhaps an even more important development for broadcasters has been the arrival of the 'smart speaker'. For broadcasters, this device might be thought of as
something of a 'double edged sword'. On the one hand, it provides a new and easy way for broadcast radio content to be listened to, whereas on the other hand, it also
provides an easy route to the consumption of other audio content, be that non-broadcast radio, music services, such as Spotify, podcasts or other forms of non-linear
audio.

The rapid uptake of this device (which puts the comparatively slow uptake of DAB to shame) suggests that it will play a major role in the future delivery of audio content,
including that of broadcast radio. The Rogers Adoption Curve (or diffusion process) as applied to new innovations ([47]) suggests that in just seven years this product is
already approaching the 'late majority' uptake phase, with approximately 50 per cent of adults in the United Kingdom claiming to own one or more such devices ([29]).
According to Mukul Devichand, the Executive Editor for Voice and AI at the BBC, when speaking to the UK Press Gazette, smart speakers already represent: '[A]‌
"revitalisation for radio" with smart speakers reaching a different demographic to the "classic radio heartland" and so presenting an opportunity to bring the BBC's audio
reporting to a new audience whom it might not otherwise have reached' (cited in [21]: n.pag.).

Indeed as Table 2 shows, in just seven years smart speaker penetration into the home is already approaching that which it took DAB some two decades to achieve.

Table 2: Smart speaker ownership in the United Kingdom (2018–21) (Ofcom Technology Tracker).

Smart speaker ownership in the United Kingdom

Year Adults (16+) (%)16–24 (%)25–34 (%)35–44 (%)45–54 (%)55–64 (%)64–75 (%)75+ (%)
202150 55 52 53 54 45
202022 25 28 32 24 19 13 8
201920 27 28 26 24 16 9 5
201813 16 16 19 14 11 7 0
3 Source: Ofcom Technology Trackers 2020 and 2021 (in the Ofcom Communications Market Report 2020 and Ofcom Communications Market[38]).

At the moment, the various smart speaker gatekeepers (Amazon, Google and Apple, etc.) do not charge for the carriage of broadcast radio content. However, as the
quote below from the European Broadcast Union and others suggests, concerns are beginning to emerge from broadcasters that the current business model could
change, particularly if the smart speaker becomes a dominant platform for audio consumption:

Access to broadcasters' content via voice assistants is an important paradigm shift that will radically change our relationship with listeners. Historically, radio
broadcasters have enjoyed a secure position in the audio value chain, where licences for broadcast have been granted by regulators, and broadcasters have owned or
leased their own transmitters to reach their audiences, without any interference by third parties. [...] The case for regulating voice assistants [...] is not just economic. It
is also crucial to safeguard media pluralism and the provision of trusted information.

([11]: 1–2)

Platform convergence
So far, this article has been concerned with individual methods of broadcast content delivery, each operating largely in its own separate silo. However, on the evidence
to date, it is clear that the future of radio broadcasting will continue to involve multiple delivery platforms, as the announcement of the terms of reference for the, soon to
be completed, DCMS Digital Radio and Audio Review noted:

Previously, radio's future has been seen in terms of a transition from analogue to digital broadcasting. But with the growth of smart speakers in homes and online audio
platforms, the UK audio market is rapidly changing and there is no longer simply a binary choice between analogue and digital audio broadcast (DAB) platforms.

([ 7]: n.pag.)

Defining hybridity
The theoretical concept of hybrid approaches to broadcasting date back to at least the first years of the twenty-first century (see, e.g. [17]). Practical approaches for its
delivery have been part of industry discussions for over a decade, as publicity materials published by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) for the 2011 International
Broadcasting Convention in Amsterdam show ([ 9]). The key justification for a hybrid approach is made by one of its key players, Radio DNS: 'Hybrid Radio seamlessly
combines Broadcast radio and the Internet [...] It's an app-like experience of broadcast radio' ([34]: 1). Taking an open standards based approach, the objective is 'to
create an experience of radio that is better than can be delivered by using either technology in isolation' ([35]: 7).

Specifically, the benefits of hybrid radio cover: the provision of 'glance-able' content to enhance the user experience (headlines, weather, advertisements, etc.); the use
of metadata to provide background information; the ability to automatically switch listening seamlessly between platforms to ensure best reception, plus; interaction in
terms of providing a personal return-path, something which is not available via traditional broadcasting platforms alone ([34]).

The multi-platform stepping stone

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At present, traditional radio broadcasting and other forms of linear audio delivery are perhaps best described as being on closely parallel tracks: concurrent content
delivery rather than converged or integrated delivery. Multi-platform devices, such as the Roberts i94 ([46]), bring broadcast radio and internet delivered content
together in the same box, but there is little in the way of genuine integration, or hybridity, between the individual platforms it can access. Today, the majority of
broadcasters, large and small, deliver content over both traditional broadcast platforms and via the internet, but they struggle to take full advantage of the potential
synergies that, when linked, these two platforms can provide in tandem.

The greatest progress towards hybridity has been made in the mobile sphere. As the number of connected cars on the road increases, vehicle manufacturers are able
to gain evidence-based and increasingly accurate understanding of the performance of IP connectivity in the mobile environment. This knowledge has encouraged them
to introduce hybrid radio receivers into their vehicles in order to counter the limitations of IP connectivity on the move, the primary objective being to meet driver
expectations of the listening experience in terms of reliability.

In the fixed receiver environments, however, the benefits of the hybrid radio concept are less obvious to listeners, because the difference between IP and broadcast
reliability is minimal. Thus, although devices that seamlessly bring together broadcast content with additional content delivered over IP are appearing in vehicles,
otherwise they have yet to impact consumers to a material degree.

Organizations, such as the EBU, have created all the elements for broadcasters to create and deliver hybridity and interaction. Although vehicle manufacturers are
delivering hybridity, mainstream domestic receiver manufacturers find this a more challenging 'sell' and have therefore yet to fully engage and create consumer products
that take advantage of the synergies offered.

The impact of smart speakers

The rise and rise of the smart speaker has already been referred to (above). Critical to the debate, however, is the degree to which these devices provide a step change
in terms of content accessibility and operational ease of use. A generation is growing up with the expectation that interaction with entertainment and information
systems should be verbal and not via physical controls or even phone apps. Some DAB receivers, such as the Pure StreamR ([33]), do provide smart speaker
capabilities, but once again, such features are limited because the broadcast elements of the device, especially its DAB capabilities, are not fully integrated with the
smart speaker elements, which themselves rely on Pure's smartphone app and Bluetooth for connectivity and functionality.

As far back as 2018, the EBU, working with the American National Association of Broadcasters (NAB), demonstrated how it was possible to include commercial smart
speaker functionality into an existing domestic radio design ([10]). EBU Project Manager, Ben Poor noted that:

Radio reaches 85 per cent of European citizens every week, overwhelmingly through free-to-air broadcast FM and DAB+. But smart speakers and other voice-controlled
devices are becoming an important platform for innovation in radio. By demonstrating that combining the best of broadcast and the internet generates value for both
content producers and audiences, the EBU and NAB are working to ensure that the vital role of radio and its benefits for communities and societies are maintained.

([10]: n.pag.)

The problem is economics. Adding smart speaker capabilities to a domestic radio receiver unavoidably adds additional costs to the design. Radio receiver
manufacturers are inevitably competing for sales against smart speakers, which are heavily marketed by the likes of Amazon and Google, etc. Furthermore, the up-front
capital costs of these devices can be subsidized by suppliers against the potential revenue streams their subsequent use can generate. No such potential revenue
return opportunities exist for radio manufacturers.

Conclusion
Not only does the prospect of hybrid radio maintain the economic benefits, coverage and portability of traditional broadcasting, but it also offers the ability to benefit from
a return-path over IP delivering enriched multimedia content and personalization, not to mention new ways of interacting with audiences, measuring satisfaction and
conducting audience research.

Clearly, the concept of hybrid radio is one with tremendous potential to enhance the broadcast radio listening experience. However, without proper receiver integration,
in other words the wide availability of hybrid radio receivers that seamlessly interweave broadcast content reception with smart speaker capabilities and personalized
additional content delivered over IP, such benefits remain largely elusive. Specifically, in relation to smart speakers and voice control, a pessimist might question what
future stand-alone broadcast receivers might have if they continue to lack such capabilities in a world where listeners have come to expect to be able to interact verbally
with their content devices.

As this article has shown, traditional broadcast radio has enjoyed some notable successes over the first two decades of the twenty-first century. However, unless it can
keep up with enhancements offered by other audio providers, particularly through the provision of the ease-of-use features available on smart speakers, it runs a
serious risk of being side-lined as the future of audio content delivery continues to evolve.

Footnotes
1 Lawrie Hallett has asserted their right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the author of this work in the format that was submitted
to Intellect Ltd.

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Suggested Citation
Hallett, Lawrie. (2021), 'Broadcast radio: Technology, challenges and opportunities in the twenty-first century', Interactions: Studies in Communication & Culture, 12 : 1,
pp. 17–37, https://doi.org/10.1386/iscc_00034_1

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~~~~~~~~
By Lawrie Hallett

Reported by Author

Dr Lawrie Hallett is a senior lecturer in radio and journalism at the University of Bedfordshire. A former radio journalist, presenter and programme producer at various
stations in the United Kingdom as well as elsewhere in Europe, he went on to run a broadcast engineering and design company, before becoming a broadcast
consultant specializing in technology and community-based broadcasting. Before moving into higher education, he was part of Ofcom's Radio Team for several years,
where he developed and implemented policies around community radio and digital audio broadcasting in particular. Alongside academic and research responsibilities at
university, Lawrie continues to engage in professional and community practice. He is a trustee of his local community radio service in Norwich, Future Radio, and a
director of the city's not-for-profit small-scale DAB multiplex operator, Future Digital Norfolk Limited. A specialist industry journalist for over 30 years, and a long-standing
evaluator for the Broadcast Authority of Ireland's Sound and Vision Scheme, he continues to act as an industry consultant, for example, to the UK Community Media
Association, where he has recently completed work, on behalf of the UK Government's Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), in support of small-
scale DAB development. Contact: University of Bedfordshire, Park Square, Luton, LU1 3JU, UK.

Copyright of Interactions: Studies in Communication & Culture is the property of Intellect Ltd. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to
a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

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