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POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE

Chapter · November 2018

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 CHAPTER 6 POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT
OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE

Ratikanta Maiti1*, Ashok K. Thakur2, Anil Gupta2 and Debashis

Mandal3
1
Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Carr. No 85,
km 145, NL 67700 Linares, Mexico.
2
Department of Seed Science and Technology, Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of
Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni-173230, Solan, HP, India.
3
Dept. of HAMP, Mizoram University, Aizawl-796004, Mizoram, India.
*e-mail: ratikanta.maiti@gmail.com

Contents

6.1. Introduction
6.2. Harvesting
6.3. Market preparation
6.4. Pulping
6.5. Processing
6.6. Storage
6.7. Post harvest quality
6.8. Waste utilization
6.9. Transportation
6.10. Marketing and retailing
6.11. Summary
References

Abstract

The minimization of loss or wastage of agricultural produce remains the ultimate goal of
post harvest management strategies. The post harvest management has attained the
central stage in the present situation of increasing population and shrinking agricultural
land and other resources. Presently, the main global challenge is to ensure food security

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in a sustainable manner safe to mankind and environment. According to the FAO, food
production will need to grow by 70% to feed world population which will reach 9 billion
by 2050. Hence, there is need for thorough understanding of agro-ecosystem functions.
The production of agricultural crops have increased manifold during the recent years, but
the development and adoption of post harvest technology is lacking and resulting in huge
post harvest losses. Every year there is 16-36% post harvest losses in fruit crops by
mechanical, microbial and physiological losses. The highly perishable commodities like
horticultural produce need much more attention and strategies to ensure promotion of
processing and value addition. The value chain for processing has become a necessity to
improve the food safety and strengthen national food security. The value chain in
post-harvest management of horticultural crops mainly comprise of pre-harvest factors,
harvesting, market preparation (pre-cooling, sorting, grading, packaging and on-farm
storage), transportation, storage, value addition/processing and by-product waste
management.
Keywords: Agricultural produce, economics, harvest, post harvest management, quality,
waste utilization.

6.1 Introduction

Today, one of the main global challenges is how to ensure food security for a world
growing population whilst ensuring long-term sustainable development so it s a core
part of the concept of sustainable development. Because, according to the FAO, food
production will need to grow by 70% to feed world population which will reach 9 billion
by 2050. This concept requires a thorough understanding of agro-ecosystem functions.
Solving the persistent hunger problem is not simply a matter of developing new
agricultural technologies and practices. Most poor producers cannot afford expensive
technologies. They will have to find new types of solutions based on locally-available
and cheap technologies combined with making the best of natural and human resources.
the use of the best available technologies and inputs such as best genotypes, best
agronomic management practices and best postharvest technologies to maximize yields,
while at the same time minimizing or eliminating harm to the environment. Postharvest
losses are caused by external such as mechanical injury (bruising, cutting, breaking,
impact wounding), Parasitic Diseases (fungi, bacteria, other organisms) and internal
factors such as physiological deterioration, mineral deficiency, low or high temperature
injury, or undesirable environmental conditions. Postharvest losses which average
between 24 and 40% in developing countries, and between 2 and 20% in developed
countries are a major source of waste. High levels of waste result in higher prices for

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fresh produce, and the farmer increasingly facing poverty. Therefore, this review will be
focused on the postharvest physiology and management including harvesting, handling,
packing, storage, transportation and hygiene of fruits and vegetables to enhance using of
new postharvest biotechnology.
When fruit crops are harvested from the parent plant it begins to deteriorate. Every
year there is 16-36% post harvest losses in fruit crops by mechanical, microbial and
physiological losses. To reduce these losses we follow post harvest technology. These
mainly include cooling, cleaning, sorting and processing. These techniques avoid the
moisture loss and slow down undesirable chemical changes. Various methods and
techniques are followed for processing and various value added products are made.
These products are nutritionally enrich and also helps to increase the income of the
farmers. This includes drying, fermenting and beverage making of fresh produce. These
methods do not require tedious work and high labour charges. The various methods used
for processing are drying and dehydration, canning and fermentation. Out of these
techniques drying and fermentation are basic principles of processing from ancient time.
Now with advance technologies and machines this small scale industry has attained a
very big market place. The value added products are manufactured from these products
are jam, jelly, pickle, sauce, chutney, juices and wines. We can reduce these post harvest
losses by adapting these techniques. It prevents the losses and also open new market
opportunity and generate new jobs.
India is the second largest producer of fruits. Total production of fruits is 81285
thousand million tones and area 6982 thousand ha in India. Production of fruits in
Madhya Pradesh is 6.7 percent of total fruits production and 2.8 percent in total area of
India. Post harvest losses in fruits and vegetables are very high (20-40%). About 10-15%
fresh fruits and vegetables shrivel and decay results in cause lowering their market value
and consumer acceptability. Minimizing these losses can increase their supply without
bringing additional and under cultivation. Improper handling and storage cause physical
damage due to tissue breakdown. The post harvest losses of fruit in India are farmers
field (15-20%) packaging (15-20%) transportation (30-40%) marketing (30-4-%). Post
harvest losses occur because of poor transportation facilities, lack of knowhow poor
management and improper market facilities or due to careless handling of the produce
by farmers, market intermediaries and consumers. Present study to examine the losses in
Jabalpur regulated market in Madhya Pradesh. The maximum post harvest loss was
found in mango (1542.3q/yr) as compare to papaya (1470.5q/yr) and banana (1422q/yr).
Amongst the different fruits and the different operation the maximum losses found to in
banana during storage (43.4%) while in papaya (39.75%) and mango (38.3%).
Maximum post harvest losses observed during transportation (Gautam et al., 2017)

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 The ideal value chain for post harvest handling of horticultural crops is given in
Table 1. The value chain starts with harvesting, market preparations, transport, storage,
processing, value addition and waste management.

Table 1: Ideal value chain for post harvest handling of horticultural crops
Issue Unit operation Remarks
Cultivars with better attributes, shelf life
Improved cultivars
and suitable for processing
Pre-harvest cultural practices like nutrition,
Cultural practices irrigation, water sprays helps in uniform
colour and size development
Pre harvest treatments to increase colour,
Pre harvest treatments
firmness and improve storage quality.
Harvesting
Maturity indices for fresh market, short and
Maturity indices for intended
long distance marketing, storage and
use
processing
Harvesting during cool hours (evening and
Time of harvesting
early morning) improve storage life
Harvesting methods and tools Mechanical harvesting is suitable for bulk
(manual/mechanical) handling
Pre cooling to remove field heat and
Pre-cooling
improve storage quality
Ripening chamber for mango, banana,
Ripening papaya etc for uniform ripening and
alternative for banned calcium carbide
Sorting/trimming to separate undesirable
Sorting/ trimming part and to select healthy and uniform
produce
Market
Grading with respect to size, colour and
preparation Grading
quality
Post harvest treatment

Washing of fruit/vegetable to remove any

Washing/cleaning dust, dirt or debris on the surface, soil in
case of tuber crops.
Polishing, waxing, pest or Helps to impart shine to the produce, slows
fungus treatments down respiration and checks spoilage

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Issue Unit operation Remarks
Coating, SO2 fumigation Treatments helps to extend shelf-life by
ethylene scrubber checking respiration, ripening and spoilage
Extends storage life in onion and potato,
Curing
etc
Packaging/wrapping
Polyethylene cushioning, Cushioning/wrapping reduces bruising
wrapping in polypropylene, impact during transportation and also
waxed paper etc extends storage quality
Corrugated fibre board box (CFB), wooden
box, plastic lined CFB
Packaging boxes
Reusable plastic crates for processable
produce.

On farm storage Storage at the farm and packing house.

Immediately after harvesting, loading

Time of transport
during night (cool hours)

Transport Loading/stacking Load gently to avoid bruising and impact

Transport with or without Refrigerated transport is preferred for

refrigeration perishables
Preferred for better storage quality of
Cold storage, CA storage,
perishables
Suitable for short term storage near
Storage Zero Energy Cool Chamber
farm/orchard
Unload produce at sanitized place to avoid
Handling at destination
losses
Processing for manufacture of value added
Utilize market surplus
products
Raw slices, pulps and juices at growing
Value addition
area/production catchments to reduce
/Processing Semi finished products
losses during transportation and their
manufacturing
utilization for finished product
manufacturing.

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Issue Unit operation Remarks
Solar tunnel drier or solar cum gas fired
drier for continuous drying and safe storage
Drying
of dried products to prevent insect damage
and spoilage
Popularization for commercial adoption for
selected fruits
Osmotic drying
Development of method for left over syrup
utilization protocol
Fruit juice based carbonated beverages
Carbonated juice & beverages from citrus, apple, grapes etc to replace
aerated waters
Development of method to utilize peel rich
High flavonoids rich products
in polyphenols in product manufacture
Mechanization for adoption at production
Pickling
catchments
Minimally processed Development, refinement and
fruits/vegetables popularization of the technology
Finished products like jam,
jelly, candies/preserve, puree, Mechanization for commercial adoption at
sauce, ketchup, canned and production catchments
bottled products etc
Juice, squash, ready to serve (RTS) drinks,
Juices and Beverages
nectar, appetizers etc
Development of protocol and equipment
Concentrated juices/pulps for juice concentration for cottage scale
entrepreneurs
Development of processes for fruit and
Extruded products
vegetable based extruded products
Utilization of marketable surplus for
Fermented products preparation of fruit based low alcoholic
beverages

Industrial alcohol, pectin, Utilization of food industries waste and

By-product
dietary fibre, oil, starch, crop residue like pomace, peel, seed/pit and
and waste
candies, vinegar, biocolour, waste for value addition and checking
utilization
bio-flavonoides environmental pollution

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6.2 Harvesting

Harvesting operation has a pivotal role in post harvest life and quality of produce. To
understand the fact the understanding of maturity of produce to be harvested is essential.
Moreover, the method of harvesting also plays an important role in postharvest
management of the produce. The different maturities of agricultural produce have been
described below:

6.2.1. Type of Maturity

7.2.1.1. Physiological maturity: Attainment of full development of stage just prior to
ripening or ripening in non climacteric fruits. Examples; Fruits and vegetables produced
for seed production.
7.2.1.2. Horticultural /Commercial maturity: stage at which growth and
development is optimum for specific use (stage acceptable for consumers/market
oriented). Examples; Fresh vegetables for canning/ dehydration/ IQF (Individual Quick
Frozen)/ harvesting for local or distant market. Horticulture maturity is classified into 3
different groups.
Physiological immature
Firm and mature
Harvest ripe
6.2.2. Harvest Maturity Indices
Maturity at harvesting is the most important determinant of storage life and final fruit
quality. Fruit picked either pre-mature or too late, are more susceptible to post-harvest
physiological disorders and diseases than those picked at proper stage of maturity.
Maturity indices developed for mangoes (Dashehari, Chausa, Langra and Mallika), guava,
date palm, apple, aonla, Nagpur mandarin, acid lime, sweet oranges, pomegranate, grapes,
ber, litchi, capsicum and stone fruits can be used to harvest fruits at optimum maturity
(Table 2). Many leafy vegetables and immature fruit vegetables like cucumber, green
beans, peas and okra attains optimum eating quality prior to reaching maturity, but are
often harvested late and consequently result in low quality produce. Various maturity
indices are number of days from fruit set, visual indicators, size of fruits, shape of fruit,
colour of fruit, appearance (external), texture, lenticel number, specific gravity, starch
content, soluble solids, sugar acid ratio and oil contents etc.

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 Table 2: Harvest maturity indices of various highly perishable crops
Fruits/ Vegetables Maturity indices or characteristics
FRUITS
Almonds splitting of hull, separation of hull from shell, development
of abscission zone
Apple
Golden Delicious 12% SSC, 18 lb firmness
Red Delicious 11% SSC, 18 lb firmness
Asian Pears skin colour change from green to yellowish green
Pathar Nakh 145 days after fruit set
Baggugosha 135 days after fruit set
Banana disappearance of angularity in a cross section of the finger
Ber Colour break stage (when light yellow colour appear)
Cherry TSS = 14-15%, light red colour
Grapes minimum soluble solids 14 to 17.5% depending on cultivars
Guava colour break stage (skin colour changes from dark to light
green)
Lemon 30% or more juice by volume
Lychee/litchi TSS: total acid ratio of 30-40, bright red in colour
Kinnow TSS/acid ratio 12:1 to 14:1
Kiwi fruit TSS 6.5%, Firmness = 14 lbs
Mango changes in shape (increase fullness of cheeks or bulge of
shoulder), flesh colour yellow to yellowish-orange
Papaya skin shows yellowing
Peaches ground colour change from green to yellow
Plums skin colour changes to yellowish red to dark colour
Pomegranate minimum 1.85% TA and red juice colour
Strawberries 2/3 of berry surface showing pink or red colour
VEGETABLES
Beans Pods are filled, seeds immature
Brinjal Immature, glossy skin, 40days from flowering
Broccoli Adequate diameter, compact, all florets should be closed
Cabbage Firm head Cantaloup ¾ to full slip under slight pressure
Carrot Immature, roots reached adequate size
Cauliflower Mature and atleast 6 in diameter, compact
Cucumber Immature and glossy skin

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 Fruits/ Vegetables Maturity indices or characteristics
Garlic Well filled bulbs, tops dry down
Ginger 8-9 months after planting
Melon Ground colour change to white with greenish tint, slightly
waxy peel
Mushroom Caps well rounded, partial veil completely intact
Okra Pod 2-4 long, not fibrous, tips of pods pliable
Onion (dry bulbs) When 10-20% of tops fall over.
Pepper Fruit size and colour (depends on intended market)
Potatoes Harvest before vines die completely, cure to heal surface
wounds
Radish 45 to 70 days after planting
Tomatoes Colour changes to pink, seeds fully developed
Watermelon Flesh colour 75% red, TSS = 10%
Source: Kader, (1983); Dhatt and Mahajan (2007)

6.2.2.1 Importance of maturity indices

The proper maturity of agricultural and horticultural commodities at harvesting is very

important. The harvesting of commodities at improper stage results in monetary losses
and also affects the post harvest life. Fruit picked either pre-mature or too late, are more
susceptible to post-harvest physiological disorders and diseases than those picked at
proper stage of maturity. Apples picked late (126 Days after full bloom) were found
more sensitive to rot with a mean rot of 76.21 percent. Different post harvest diseases
were noticed due to late harvesting whereas; early harvesting resulted in minimum
rotting of fruits (12.81%). The optimal harvest stage raises a possibility of harvested
fruits less predisposed to rots and post harvest diseases (Kumari et al., 2017).

6.2.3. Method of harvesting

The methods of harvesting (manual or mechanical) significantly affect the post-harvest
quality of fruits and vegetables. Mechanical injuries (bruising, surface abrasions and cuts)
during harvesting can accelerate loss of water and vitamin C resulting in increased
susceptibility to decay causing pathogens. Most fresh fruits and vegetables in India are
harvested by hand. However, commodities meant for processing like tomatoes and
potatoes can be mechanically harvested. Different fruits require different methods of
harvesting. For example, mangoes are manually harvested with the use of bamboo poles
to which a net is attached and are lowered to the ground in a basket. Different mechanical
harvesters developed for harvesting of fruits are:
145
 Mango harvester.
Bael fruit picking platform.
Strawberry harvester cum holding tool.
Sapota harvester.
Semi-mechanized hydraulically operated oil palm harvesting device.
Ber and jamun fruit harvester along with fruit saver device.
Harvesters of different sizes with respect to economic feasibility and affordability
of farmers are required to be developed in view of difficult hilly terrains in most of the
fruit growing areas.

6.3. Market preparation

Pre-cooling, ripening, sorting, grading, packaging are the important componenet

operations for preparing the produce for marketing.

6.3.1. Pre-cooling
Immediate cooling of the produce to its optimum storage temperature for removal of
field heat is the most effective and well established tool for extending storage life of
fresh horticultural perishables. It is now considered as the most accepted treatment but
rarely used in actual practice in India.
Protocols optimized for pre-cooling of mango, apple, banana and stone fruits etc
need to be refined further for commercial adoption.
Packing the produce with crushed or flaked ice to provide rapid cooling along
with high RH.
Keeping produce under shade can also be used in farmers fields.

6.3.2. Ripening
Considerable information exists on the physical and chemical changes that occur during
fruit ripening, particularly with respect to polysaccharide hydrolysis and role of ethylene
etc.
Artificial ripening of banana with 500 ppm etheral dip or spray and keeping at
18-20oC has been found to impart uniform ripening in Cavendish group of
banana. The treatment appears to be good substitute for smoking or carbide
treatment presently practiced by many wholesalers in artificial ripening of
mango and banana.
Ripening in sapota is hastened by the application of etheral, 2, 3, 5-TP and
maleic hydrazide.

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 Ripening chambers are needed to develop for checking the use of banned
chemicals like calcium carbide.
Very few large scale enterprises use ripening chambers for uniform ripening of
banana yet such facilities are beyond the reach of small growers.

6.3.3. Sorting and grading

Mostly, manual grading of fruits on the basis of size is done in India. Growers generally
employ trained packers who also grade the fruit on the basis of their experience.
Few mechanical graders developed in the country like expanding belt type
grader, mechanized sorting, washing, wax coating and size grading unit for
Nagpur mandarin, mosambi and kagzi lime.
Mechanical grader for black pepper and raw cashewnut.
Onion halving and spherical fruit grader.
Mango fruit grader and sapota fruit grader.
All these graders need to be popularized among the farmers after taking into
account their affordability.
Development of complete packaging line with size grader, de-saping unit, hot
water treatment unit, washing, sponging, waxing, dehydration and packaging
for mango can be used to reduce losses and to ensure good returns.

6.3.4. Packaging
Packaging is an integral element in the marketing of fresh horticultural produce as it
provides an essential link between producer and consumer.
Fruits and vegetables are generally packed in the field without any
pre-treatment.
Some are even transported without any packaging like tomatoes.
Due to large volumes of non-edible portions of vegetables such as cauliflower,
peas etc are transported to wholesale markets from the field.
Removal of these non-edible portions prior to marketing would reduce both
transportation costs and environmental pollution.
Traditional forms of packaging such as bamboo baskets, wooden baskets and
gunny bags for packing of many fruits like citrus, mango, cull apples and
vegetables like beans, peas, onion, garlic, okra, potato, etc are widely used.
Corrugated fibre board boxes are also used for packaging apples, oranges,
grapes, stone fruits, sapota etc to reduce load on the forests.
The principal benefit of packaging is to provide protection against physical
damages through inadequacies in handling and transport of a fresh produce. There are

147
additional benefits, which can be derived from packaging:
Barrier protection, to prevent contamination of produce by undesirable
environmental agents such as dust and micro-organisms;
No utilization of produce, to create relatively small units of produce, which are
easier and quicker to handle than unpacked goods. It also gives better utilization
of space during storage and transport.
Trading aid, to provide a standard size unit for market trading and thereby
eliminating the need to weigh or count all items of produce being traded.
Marketing aid, through the display of basic market information and attractive
designs on the package.

6.4. Pulping

For extraction of pulp, the fruits like apple, pear, apricot, guava, plums, tomato etc after
preliminary treatment (crushing with or without heating), are passed through the pulper.
With the action of blades/flights in the pulper, the fine pulp is forced through the
openings of the screen/sieve which is collected at one end, while, seeds, skin and core is
forced through other end of the pulper. Depending upon the type of fruit, various types
of pulper like baby pulper, tomato pulper, mango pulper etc can be used.

6.5. Processing

6.5.1. Primary processing

Simple primary processing operations like sorting, trimming, grading, washing, surface
drying and packaging can be used to prepare fruit and vegetables for immediate
marketing. The available equipment and technologies for various unit operations of
primary processing include farm level fruit and vegetable washing machine, basket
centrifuge, shrink packaging of fruit and vegetable and hydro cooler-cum-washer for
fruits and vegetables, vegetable dryer, tamarind dehuller and deseeder, pomegranate aril
remover cumin cleaner-cum-grader, turmeric washing and polishing machine etc.

6.5.2. Secondary processing

6.5.2.1. Juice extraction

For juice extraction, the fruits and vegetables like apple, pear, carrot, aonla etc are grated
in fruit grater to reduce their particle size. The grated mass is then pressed through
basket press/hydraulic press to extract juice. The composition of juice is unaltered
during preparation and preservation while for fruit beverages like drinks, squashes,
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cordial etc the fruit juice or pulp, sugar, acid, colour, lavor etc are mixed in appropriate
proportions to a desirable taste. Apple juice, orange juice, mango squash, guava drink,
pineapple juice and squash, mixed fruit drink, mango nectar etc are the commercial
products available in the market.

6.5.2.2. Drying

Drying is the oldest and cheapest method of preservation of horticultural produce.

Drying involves the removal of water with minimum damage to the food. Evaporators
will concentrate the food 2-3 folds or more while driers take the foods very close to total
dryness that is to 97-98% solids. Driers are used to prepare well known products like
milk powder and instant coffee. Subdivision of a liquid is the basic principle behind the
widely used spray driers. However, medicinal and aromatic plants can be dried in solar
drier, poly tunnel solar drier or mechanical drier. Sun and solar drying, atmospheric
dehydration including stationary or batch processes (kiln, tower, and cabinet driers) and
continuous processes (tunnel, continuous belt, belt-trough, fluidized-bed, explosion
puffing, foam-mat, spray, drum, and microwave-heated driers) are used. Vacuum shelf,
vacuum belt, vacuum drum and freeze driers are the type of driers that can be used for
drying and dehydration of products. Pre-treatments of fruits like peeling, slicing,
blanching, sulphuring, etc, are used for preparing fruit and vegetables for drying.

6.5.2.3. Osmotic dehydration

Osmotic dehydration consisting of partial removal of water by dipping in sugar syrup

prior to washing in a mechanical dehydrator is now a standard accepted practice for
preparation of intermediate moisture products with acceptable sensory qualities. Some
fruits not otherwise fit for drying owing to inherent high acid and astringent taste can
also be dried by using this technique. Fruits suitable for osmotic dehydration include
pineapple slices, mango slices, banana slices, sapota, apricot, apple and grapes etc.

6.5.2.4. Processing of lesser utilized fruits

Large quantities of lesser utilized horticultural crops like bael, aonla, jack fruit, aloe vera
etc cannot be consumed in fresh form without processing. They are known for many
therapeutic/medicinal and nutritive properties. Processing of such crops can play an
important role in satisfying the demand for nutritious, delicately flavoured and attractive
natural foods of high therapeutic value.
Bael fruit having hard shell and mucilaginous texture is popularly consumed as
a dessert fruit in India.

149
 Kokum and hill lemon are not acceptable in the fresh form owing to their high
acidity, while fresh aonla has a strong astringent taste.
The products prepared from such fruits include unripe mango drink, (mango
pana) high fiber and anti-oxidant rich.
Cashew apple powder fortified with 2% cereal flour.
Bael products like ripe bael drink, squash, RTS drink, jam, bael dry powder.
Aonla preserve, candy, shreds, chayawanprash, squash, dehydrated powder,
aonla beverages, toffees etc.
Aloe vera gel and beverages.

6.5.2.5. Value addition

The fruit and vegetables which can not be sold in the fresh market can be utilized for
preparation of different value added products. The value added products include juice,
concentrate, fruit based carbonated juices, canning, pulp extraction, pickling, chutney
and sauce, preserves and candies, beverages like squashes, RTS drinks and appetizer etc
from different fruits and vegetables.

6.5.2.6. Fermented products

Production of alcoholic drinks like cider, wine, vermouth, vinegar etc is now an
accepted practice for utilization of different fruits.
Manufacture of champagne (sparkling wine), still wine and brandy from grapes
is commercially practiced in the country.
Other fermented beverages include cider, wine and vermouth from apple, plum,
apricot, wild apricot, peach, strawberry, banana etc.

6.5.3. Recent Processing Technologies

The high quality low cost food nutrients can be targeted for malnourish community
suffering about thirty percent of total population in the India or under malnourished.
Soybean can be used whole in both traditional and modern kitchen as therapeutic food
source for communities.
For the preparation of osmotically dehydrated jackfruit cube, independent
variables were Salt concentration (1-15%), Time (30-240 minutes) and Ca(OH)2
concentration (0 and 1%), and the response variable were Water loss (%), Mass
reduction (%), Change in dry matter content (%),Water activity and
Rehydration ratio. For this experiment the highest amount of water loss
(90.54%) was observed in Run 13, Mass reduction was highest (91.61%) in Run
18, highest amount of Change in dry matter (37.26%) was found in Run 19 and

150
Rehydration ratio (3.77) was in Run 10.The lowest amount of Water activity
(0.724 aw), was observed in Run 15. For the evaluation of storage study of
immature jackfruit cube, Water activity, Rehydration ratio and Total plate count
were estimated as experimental parameter and was recorded for 6 month at 1
month interval (Chattopadhyay et al., 2017).
Turmeric is valued mainly based on its curcumin content which fixes its market
price hence making it an important quality parameter. Curcumin has been
valued as an antioxidant which has been implicated to its various
pharmacological activities. Lowering of lipid peroxidation has been reported by
enhancing the activities of antioxidant enzymes. In the conventional method of
boiling turmeric reduces curcumin content due to leaching of curcumin in water.
The best quality of turmeric in terms of Curcumin content was obtained at
46.43% degree of starch gelatinization (Farzana et al., 2017). An air tight
blanching vessel with 100 kg capacity was developed which is insulated to
avoid any heat losses making it thermally efficient and compared with the
existing methods of boiling. With the improved turmeric boiling vessel the
turmeric retained the curcumin content 7.73%, oleoresin content 12.7% and
essential oil 10% with colour value of L=53.7 4, a=S.16 and b=58.46 which is
better in quality compared to the open steaming method used by the famers. The
degree of starch gelatinization obtained was 49.46% with radical scavenging
activity of 22.7% (Farzana and Pandiarajan, 2017).
Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin) is fragrant herb produce essential oil, known as
patchouli oil having high economic importance. Patchouli oil is widely used in
food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Oil recovery increased from 1.8
to 2.43% (w/w) as processing time increased from 4 to 8 h. The extraction of
essential oil should be carried out at combination of 15% moisture (db) and 7 h
of processing time intervals for better recovery and quality of oil (Parganiha et
al., 2017)
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) is one of the most important cash crops and
principal spice of India and abroad which is known for its vast medicinal as
well as therapeutic properties. Among the different pulp combinations, ginger
and apple pulp in the ratio of 50:50 with sugar, glucose cocoa powder, pectin,
milk powder and ghee concentrated to 76°B TSS was rated best on the basis of
organoleptic evaluation. Nutritionally, ginger apple peda comprised of 18.24%
moisture, with 31.54 mg/100g of total phenols, 48.33 % antioxidant activity,
0.68% crude fibre and 0.96% of total ash (Kashyap et al., 2017). Ginger has a
long history of use as a remedy and medicinal purposes due to its therapeutic

151
and functional properties which were harnessed for the development of ginger
appetizing tablets (gingoli) and ginger fruit bar. Gingoli was prepared by the
wet granulation method, where the organoleptic acceptable formulation
contained 25g ginger powder in the standardized recipe with pear pak as
binding agent. The supplementation of ginger for the preparation of ginger
appetizing tablets and ginger fruit bar possessed significantly higher antioxidant
activity, total phenols and crude fibre thus enhancing its functional properties
and potentiality for market acceptability (Kaushal et al., 2017).
Persimmon (Diospyros kaki) fruits have a very short life and are highly
perishable in nature. Hence, its processing becomes essential to reduce the post
harvest losses and to make it available for a longer period of time which can be
managed by value addition of the fruits. Persimmon can be made into fruit
spread by combining the fruit pulp with orange juice and honey and cooking it
over medium heat to a thick consistency. The spread will have high quality in
respect to both sensory and nutritional attributes and finds application in bread
sandwiches and other snack items (Joshi and Awasthi, 2017).
Aloe vera (0, 25, 50 and 75%) applied to mango, results showed that at 13°C
temperature, aloe concentrations significantly increased the shelf life evidenced
by reduced percentage weight loss, fruit firmness and totals soluble solids
concentration and pH were also maintained for longer periods. In case of
Papaya, the Aloe vera coated fruits survived the storage period of 15 days at low
temperature whereas all the uncoated controls decayed within 10 days. Aloe
vera gel extended storability of pineapple by seven weeks. It also delayed
softening, Ascorbic acid, and maintained the quality of pineapple fruit. When
studies were done of grapes, it was found that the storability could be extended
up to 35 days at 1°C. Oranges have also been used for study and it was found
that Aloe Vera coating in oranges resulted in decrease in weight loss, increase
in titrability of acids and higher TSS. Thus, Aloe vera gel is being increasingly
studied as edible coating in fruits, which would be an innovative and interesting
means for commercial application and an alternative to the use of harmful
chemical treatments leading health hazard (Adhikary et al., 2017).
Neem oil treated cowpea seeds enhanced seed germination and vigour. The
seeds stored in plastic container was very effective for extending the seed
longevity and maintaining the storability as compared to cloth bag (Susmitha
and Rai, 2017).
Shrink film packaging of kinnow fruits with 125 micron and 25 micron
maintained high fruit firmness (1586.02g and 1524.46g compression force,

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 respectively); minimum spoilage (1.09% and 1.59%, respectively); high TSS
(10.98% and 10.55%, respectively); high titratable acidity (0.55% and 0.53%,
respectively); high ascorbic acid (19.63 mg/100g and 19.09 mg/100g,
respectively) and total sugar content (6.39% and 6.14%, respectively). The
shrink film packaging materials of 125 micron and 25 micron also extended
shelf-life of fresh kinnow mandarin fruits with minimum loss in nutritional
value (Singh et al., 2017).
Sprouting is one of the most important aspects during storage. Sprouting phase
is a complex process that depends mainly on genetic background, storage
conditions like temperature, humidity, gas composition and packaging material.
Kufri Sadabahar stored in nylon netted or mesh bags showed the least sprouting
compared to other combinations studied (Brar et al., 2017)
The development of new storage technique is the important consideration to
reduce the storage losses in green gram being the third most important pulse
crop in the Indian subcontinent. The grain stored in hermetic Super bag showed
a lower degree of infestation than Gunny bag. Green gram grain stored at
10-12% moisture in hermetic Super bag under ambient condition retained better
quality (Yeole, 2017).

6.6. Storage

Storage losses of fruits and vegetables are high due to large variation in temperature and
humidity between growing fields to the place of marketing in case of distant marketing.
The lowest temperature that does not cause chilling injury is the idle storage temperature
for fresh fruits and vegetables. Optimum refrigerated storage requirement for different
fruits have been worked out as 1.7-3.3oC for apples, 12.8oC for banana, 0-1.7oC for
grapes, 8.3-10oC for guava, mango & pineapple and 5.5-7.2oC for oranges. When
combined with low temperature, controlled or modified atmospheres appreciably retards
respiratory activity and delays softening, senescence and changes in quality of stored
product. The recommended temperature for different commodities is detailed in Table 3.

Table 3: Recommended Temperature and RH conditions

Name of commodity Temp (oC) RH (%) Approx. Shelf-Life

Fruits
Apple -1-4 90-95 10-12 months
Apricot 0-1 90-95 1-3 weeks
Asian pear 0-1 90-95 2 months

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 Name of commodity Temp (oC) RH (%) Approx. Shelf-Life

Banana 13-15 90-95 1-4 weeks

Ber 7.5 90-95 2 weeks
Grape -0.5-0 90-95 2-8 weeks
Guava 6-8 90-95 2-3 weeks
Kiwi 0 90-95 3-5 months
Lemon 10-13 85-90 1-6 months
Litchi 1-2 90-95 3-5 weeks
Mandarin (Kinnow) 4-5 90-95 2 months
Mango 13 85-90 2-4 weeks
Papaya 7-13 90-95 1-3 weeks
Peach 0-1 90-95 2-4 weeks
Pear -1.5-0.5 90-95 2-7 months
Strawberry 0 90-95 7-10 weeks
Sweet cherries -1-0.5 90-95 2-3 weeks
Vegetables
Asparagus, green 1-2 95-100 2-3 weeks
Beans 4-7 90-95 7-10 days
Broccoli 0 95-100 10-14 days
Cabbage 0 90-95 3-6 weeks
Cauliflower 0 90-95 3-4 weeks
Ginger 13 65-70 6 months
Lettuces 0 90-95 2-3 weeks
Bell Pepper 7-10 90-95 2-3 weeks
Tomato 10-13 90-95 1-3 weeks
Watermelon 10-15 90-95 2-3 weeks
Source: Hardenburg et al. (1986); Kitinoja and Gorny, (1998)

6.6.1 Effect of Pre and Post harvest treatments for storage

The treatment with 1-MCP@ 250 ppb is an effective tool for quality improvement and
extension of shelf life in persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.) fruit harvested in orange stage
of ripening having the most desirable organoleptic attributes had been developed on tree
(Kumar and Thakur, 2017). The custard apple fruits can be stored at 12°C for 10 days
with MAP (5% O2 and 10% CO2) allowed conservation of fruits with highest quality
parameters. The stored custard apple fruit can be marketed for extended period and used
for making various products (Baraily et al., 2017). Rapid loss in viability of onion seeds

154
during seed storage is a major problem. The refrigerated stored seeds of onion (Allium
cepa L.) showed maximum germination percentage (94%) while seeds accelerated aged
for twelve days gave least germination percentage (62%). Ageing of seed is an
irreversible damage in the quality of seeds. All the ageing treatments resulted in
membrane damage, as is evident from higher solute leakage in aged seeds. Besides,
physiological changes, significant changes in biochemical parameters were also
observed due to ageing. There was a reduction in the activity of enzymatic and
non-enzymatic antioxidants, viz., peroxidase, catalase (enzymatic) and ascorbic acid,
a-tocopherol (nonenzymatic) (Paul and Bedi, 2017).

6.7. Post harvest quality

6.7.1. Seed
Germination and vigour of okra seeds pelleted with turmeric powder@ 300g per 200g
seeds and turmeric powder + clay powder @ 150 g each per 200g seeds decreased with
increase in storage time, however, the rate of deterioration of pelleted seeds was lower
than the unpelleted control (Thakur and Kumar, 2017).
The germination percentage (96.00 %), seedling length (31.05 cm) seedling dry
weight (77.62 mg), seed vigour index-I (2980.48) and seed vigour index-II (7451.34)
were highest in the fresh cowpea seeds (0 month) pelleted with Rhizobium culture
(Thakur and Singh, 2017).
The carrot seeds with MC of 5.5±1 % to 5.8±1 % stored in the esiccators
containing drying beads or silica gel and stored in refrigerator (-5.9°C) with RH of
30.36±5% or cold room (-15.7°C) with RH of 56.76±5%, can maintain seed viability
upto 12 months under IMSCS. It was also inferred that, under ambient temperature
conditions (-29.4°C) at RH of 37.2±5% with MC of 6.7±1 %, the carrot seeds can be
stored for 12 months if packed in the cloth bag. Thus, it was concluded that the best
treatment to maintain the seed viability of carrot seed is esiccators with drying beads
when placed in cold room and refrigerator temperature (Kaur and Bassi, 2017)

6.7.2. Fruits
The data reveals that fruits coated with citrashine (2.65%) in stafresh (2.76%) can be
stored for 45 days under ambient conditions with good acceptable quality as compared
to control which maintained storage life of 30 days only (Beniwal et al., 2017).
Pre-harvest sprays of Hexaconazole (0.1%) at early stages of fruit development,
thrice at 15 day interval at fruit maturity play important role in postharvest anthracnose
management as compared to spray at early stages of fruit development. Hot water

155
treatment at 52°C for 10 minutes (HWT) is the best to minimize postharvest fruit rot
(Shukla and Gundappa, 2017). The CPPU 5ppm applied as a fruit dip treatment after 10
days of petal fall recorded higher amounts of total carbohydrates, ascorbic acid, organic
acids and nutrients viz., nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium
(Babita and Rana, 2017)

6.7.3. Food products

Extrusion process parameters viz., barrel temperature, screw speed, feed moisture, feed
speed, etc., play an important role in the development of extruded RTE snack foods and
its quality. The product moisture content, carbohydrates and protein content are
significantly affected by variation in barrel temperature, screw speed and feed moisture
content but fat and crude fiber content of the product were found to have insignificant
variation. The regression equations for product moisture, protein and carbohydrate were
found to describe significantly. The values of product moisture, protein, fat,
carbohydrate, and fiber content determined to be 6.14-9.78%, 13.96-16.81%,
0.49-1.07%, 64.99-72.98% and 2.48-3.36%, respectively (Sahu and Patel, 2017).

6.7.4. Gum Karaya (Sterculia urens Roxb.)

The quality of Gum Karaya (Sterculia urens Roxb.) is determined in terms of various
physico-chemical and rheological properties. The values of different physical and
chemical properties were determined by Sahu et al. (2017) depected the following
values:

Table4: Various physico-chemical and rheological properties of Gum Karaya

(Sterculia urens Roxb.)
roperty Values
Moisture Content 17.47 ± 0.44 (% wb)
Bulk Density 0.79 ± 0.02 (g/cm3)
True Density 1.50 ± 0.17 (g/cm3)
Tap Density 0.90 ± 0.04 (g/cm3)
Bulkiness 1.26 ± 0.03 (cm3/g)
Porosity 46.76 ± 6.12 (%)
Hausner s Ration 1. 14 ± 0.06
Carr s Compressibility Index 12.31 ± 4. 19
Angle Of Repose 47.27 ± 2.91°
Coefficient Of Friction
Glass 0.24 ± 0.03 N

156
 roperty Values
Mild Steel 0.43 ± 0.04 N
Plywood 0.28 ± 0.01 N
Rubber 0.47 ± 0.04 N
Ash Content 4.62%
Ph 4.26
Refractive Index 1.336
Water Activity 0.651
Water Holding Capacity (Per 100 Ml) 84.76
Nitrogen (%) 0.16
Protein (%) 1.06
Source: Sahu et al. (2017)

Gum Karaya is soluble in hot and cold water but insoluble in acetone, chloroform
and ethanol. The viscosity of 1% Gum Karaya solution was found to be varied from 619
to 1286 cp in the spindle rotational speed range of 20 to 100 revolutions per minute at
room temperature of 24 -26°C (Sahu et al., 2017).

6.8. Waste utilization

Fruit processing plants generate large volume of by-products in the form of pomace,
seeds, stones/pits skin, peel which is thrown as a waste. Though such left over produce
still contain good proportion of nutrients which can be utilized to prepare large number
of value added products for industrial uses.
Apple pomace can be used for extraction of pectin, dietary fibre and
industrial alcohol.
Oil extracted from fruit stones/seed left after processing of stone fruits pulp
can be used for cooking of foods, pharmaceutical and cosmetic purposes.
Vinegar extracted from mango peel.
High fiber containing biscuits from aonla and apple pomace.
Peel oil, pectin powder, peel candy and animal feed are some of the citrus
peel products.
Macaroni with 8.0% incorporation of mango peel powder increased the total
dietary fiber content from 7.9 to 18.6%, polyphenols from 0.39 to 1.92mg/g
and carotenoid content from 9 to 86µg/g of. The mango peel incorporated
macaroni products exhibited improved antioxidant properties (Tokas and
Kwatra, 2017).

157
 Beta-carotene extraction from pomace by cold extraction method was
encapsulated using maltodextrin as a wall material in a spray drier. The
encapsulated mango peel powder had a ~ carotene content of 92.00 mg/kg,
while the pomace powder contained 75.00 mg/kg. This encapsulated powder
was used for the development cookies, bread, vermicelli and noodles and the
products had highly acceptable consumer quality attributes (Gurumeenakshi
et al., 2017).

6.9. Transportation

Almost all horticultural produce are transported in non-refrigerated trucks to distant

markets leading to loss in quantity as well as quality. Temperature management during
transportation of fresh fruits and vegetables over long distances is critical. Some of the
important points needed to be kept in mind during transportation are:
Loads need to be stacked to enable proper air circulation, in order to facilitate
the removal of heat from the produce as well as to dissipate the incoming heat
from the atmosphere.
Simple intervention like immediate transportation of produce after packaging
and loading.
Movement during cool hours preferably during night.
Optimum stacking provisions for proper aeration in the truck.
Cushioning to check vibrations impact etc for safe transportation.
Transportation in refrigerated vehicle can also be used to reduce post harvest
losses of highly perishable produce.

6.10. Marketing and retailing

Marketing is the last operation of post harvest system. Although, produce can be
marketed at different points in the agro-food chain particularly from the growing place
(orchard), stores, wholesale markets and retail markets. Fresh fruit and vegetables in
excessive delays in marketing at wholesale markets during gluts lead to losses in
quantity as well as quality. Thus, the duration between harvesting, storage and marketing
should be as short as possible.

6.10.1. Case Study in Aizawl, Mizoram, India

Fruits, the delicate and attractive horticultural produce, have abundant food,
nutraceutical and therapeutic values in it and thus required for sound human health.

158
Aizawl, a small city; however, the capital of the state Mizoram is having much of its
population centric to it and has an important market catering the need of the people
living out here. Further, the location of this market is quite unique as it s the principal
market of the state that is surrounded or nearby international countries and boundaries
like Myanmar, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and China. This strategic location had the
trade possibilities with these neighbouring countries also. Further, being a small capital
city, it has probable trade relationship with the adjoining Indian states like Assam,
Meghalaya etc. However, there is no systematic information regarding fruit trade in
Mizoram and that to Aizawl. Therefore, a detailed survey has been designed and
performed during June, 2016-2017; to have an overview of Aizawl fruit market with the
objectives to identify the sellers involved, seasonal distribution, fruit wise market
information, trade, trade route, volume, income generation; fruit spoilage and about
storage facility of Aizawl fruit market. Result showed that three types of seller viz.
permanent (51 numbers), street (44 numbers) and floating seller (67 numbers) were
involved in fruit trading. Banana, grape, mango, apple, lemon, papaya was the mostly
traded fruits. There were only two non air conditioned godowns for fruit storage. It was
estimated annually 445.85 metric tones of different fruits worth Rs.438.423 Lakhs
traded in Aizawl fruit market with a spoilage percentage of 16.03% (Mandal et al.,
2017).

6.10.2. Case study of Rapeseed and Mustard Marketing in Jaipur district

of Rajasthan, India
Rajasthan is one of major rapeseed and mustard producing state in India. The state,
followed by other states viz; Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat,
predominantly cultivate Indian mustard (Brassica juncea). The present study was
conducted in Jaipur district of Rajasthan. In the study per hectare marketed surplus was
found out to be highest (2,212.50q) on medium groups of farmers, followed by
1142.BOq and 145.50q on small and marginal groups, respectively, as the marketed
surplus was higher than marketable surplus for all groups of farmer. Two marketing
channels were identified channel I (Producer-consumer) and channel II
(Producer-Retailer-Consumer). Pattern of disposal showed that channel II was the most
effective for marginal, small and medium group, where they transacted 80.34, 71.50 and
77.25 per cent of their marketed surplus through this channel. The cost incurred by
intermediaries was 27.29 per cent of the total marketing cost in channel II. The price
spread analysis on different marketing channels in rapeseed and mustard crop, showed
that producer share in consumer rupee was higher in channel I (94.33 per cent) as
compared to channel II (91.73 per cent). It was also found in Jaipur district that higher

159
efficiency in channel I was because of the fact that there was absence of intermediaries
in the channel (Yadav et al., 2017).

6.10.3. Case study on gram in Bastar Plateau of Chhattisgarh, India

The study on economic analysis of black gram cultivation was fulfilled with the specific
objectives to estimate costs and return in black gram cultivation and constraints faced by
the farmers in cultivation of black gram was conducted in Bastar plateau during the year
2014-2015. A representative 100 sample farmers were interviewed by using a well
structured schedule. The findings of the study revealed that the average farm size of
sample farmers was registered to be 2.45 ha. Overall, cost of cultivation of black gram
was accounted Rs/ha 17060.3, which comprised of 58.25 percent of labour cost followed
by input materials cost (22.60%) and power used cost (15.28%) respectively. Overall,
yield of black gram was registered to be 4.64q/ha as a main product and obtained
by-product to be 4.12 q/ha. The gross return was obtained to be Rs/ha 22131.72by
sample black gram growers in study area. Average net return came to Rs/ha 5071.72The
average cost on per quintal production of black gramwasRs/q 4500and the average input
output ratio was 1:2.3 respectively. The major constraints in the production of black
gram were the higher inputs costs followed by seed quality and irrigation respectively
(Nishad et al., 2017).

6.10.4. Case study of Sugarcane in Surajpur District of Chhattisgarh,

India
An attempt has been made in this study to examine the following objective: To find out
the marketing and disposal pattern of sugarcane in the surajpur district of Chhattisgarh.
The study was conducted in Pratappur and Surajpur blocks in Surajpur district of
Chhattisgarh state. 150 farmers were selected randomly from two blocks. The study
required primary data for fulfillment of objectives of the study. The primary data were
collected from the sample households. That the per farm marketable surplus in
sugarcane being marginal farm 336.73 qt., followed by small, medium and large 633.30
qt, 1160.48 qt. and 2135.78 qt. constituting 90.49, 91.18, 91.95 and 92.49 per cent to
their total production as farm size respectively. Marketable surplus was higher on large
size group (92.49 per cent) as compared to small farms (90.49 per cent). Overall the
marketable surplus in sugarcane was worked out 1445.06 qt. constituting 92.24 per cent
to total production. About 7.30 per cent of sugarcane was retained for seed purpose and
consumption and others purpose retained 0.46 per cent. Marketable surplus of sugarcane
was fully utilized for making of Sugar. The major findings of study revealed that, the
quantity of sugarcane produced at field level 92.24 per cent was sold out by farmers to

160
sugar factory and remaining 7.76 per cent quantity of sugarcane was used for seed and
consumption purpose. The disposal pattern of sugarcane in the study area, it was
interesting to note that the total quantity of sugarcane produced were disposed in the
direct sugar factory in Surajpur district because there was no marketing channel
available (Jaiswal et al., 2017).

6.11 Summary

In India, agriculture system along with value chain framework has not been conceived as
a main strategy to bring more efficiency, productivity and earnings. There has not been
enough emphasis on the growth and development of efficient agricultural value chains in
India. Through the development of modern agriculture value chains at national and
regional-levels, farmers in India can gain from increased knowledge, data, and
information and communication technologies. Growth and development of agricultural
value chains for local and external markets can be considered as a powerful tool for
poverty reduction and to fight against the challenge of food-security in developing
countries like India.
Food provides not only essential nutrients needed for life but also other bioactive
compounds like neutraceuticals or antioxidants for health promotion and disease
prevention. Consumption of fruits and vegetables has been strongly associated with
reduced risk of CVD, Cancer, Diabetes, and age related functional decline. The right to
food is one of the most basic rights of human being, as no living creature can live
without food. Undoubtedly, India is one of the key food producers in the world. India is
the largest producer of milk, pulses, sugarcane and some spices. It is the second largest
producer of fruits, vegetables, wheat and rice. The level of agro processing and value
addition in India is about 30-40% and 11% respectively against 70-100% in developed
countries. In our country, a number of factors are associated for the post-harvest losses
of horticultural crops like perishability of the commodities, poor economic condition of
the farmers, lack of production planning, poor infrastructural set up of cultivation,
storage and packaging operations, and lack of adequate post harvest handling facilities.
Value addition is an inter-disciplinary science and technique applied to agricultural
produce after harvest for protection, conservation, processing, packaging, distribution,
marketing and utilization leading to meet the food, nutritional and livelihood security of
the people in relation to their needs. Value addition deals with chain of operations right
from harvesting till utilization by the consumer. In broader vision, it deals with variety
of operations like deciding economic maturity standards, grading, post-harvest
processing, waste management, fortification, packaging, labeling, storage and

161
marketing.

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