UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, BANGALORE

DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE, GKVK

Course: HRT 321 - Post Harvest Management and Value Addition of Fruits and Vegetables (1+1)

SYLLABUS
Theory: Importance of post-harvest processing of fruits and vegetables; Extent and possible causes of
post-harvest losses; Pre-harvest factors affecting postharvest quality, maturity, ripening and changes
occurring during ripening; Respiration and factors affecting respiration rate; Harvesting and field
handling; Storage (ZECC, Cold storage, CA, MA and Hypobaric); Value addition concept; Principles and
methods of preservation; Minimal processing; Intermediate moisture foods- Jam, Jelly, Marmalade –
Concepts and Standards; Fermented and non-fermented beverages; Drying/ Dehydration of fruits and
vegetables – Concept and methods; Canning - Concepts and Standards, Packaging of products.

Practicals: Containers for shelf life extension; Effect of temperature on shelf life and quality of produce;
Chilling and freezing injury in vegetables and fruits; Extraction and preservation of pulps and juices;
Preparation of Jam, Jelly, RTS, Nectar, Squash, Wine, Fruit bar, Candy, Tomato products; Quality
evaluation of products- physico-chemical and sensory; Visit to processing unit/ industry.

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Srivastava, R. P. and Sanjeev Kumar, 2003, Fruits and Vegetable preservation - Principles and
Practices, III Edn., International Book Distributing Co., Lucknow.
2. Jacob John, P., 2012, A Hand book on Post Harvest Management of Fruits and Vegetables, Astral
International Private Ltd., New Delhi
3. Swati Barche and Kamal Singh Kirad, 2014, Post Harvesting Handling of Fruits, Vegetables and
Flowers, Jain Brothers, New Delhi
4. Giridhari Lal, Siddappa, G. S. and Tandon, G. L., 2009, Preservation of fruits and vegetables,
Popular Prakashan, Mumbai
5. Ranganna, S., 2017, Handbook of analysis and quality control for fruit and vegetable products. II
Edn., McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd., Bengaluru
6. Sudheer, K.P. and Indira, V., 2007, Post harvest technology of Horticultural Crops, New India
Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
7. Verma, L.R. and Joshi, V.K., 2002, Post harvest technology of fruits and vegetables: Handling,
processing, fermentation and waste management, Vol. 1 & 2, Indus Publishing Company, New
Delhi
8. Satish Kumar Sharma, 2009, Post harvest management and processing of fruits and vegetables –
Instant Notes, New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
9. Satish Kumar Sharma and Nautiyal, M.C., 2009, Post harvest technology of horticultural crops:
Practical manual Series - 2, New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
10. Guleria, S. P. S. and Anil Kumar Verma, 2010, Question Bank on Post Harvest Technology, New
India Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
Course: HRT 321 - Post Harvest Management and Value Addition of Fruits and Vegetables (1+1)

Though India produces large quantity of horticultural produce in the world, per capita consumption is
very low for our over a billion population. Major portion is being wasted at various stages of from
production till it reaches end-user and its mainly due to inadequate facilities for processing.

Harvest: is a specific and single deliberate action to separates the food stuff with or without non edible
portion from its growth medium.
Eg. - Plucking of Fruits and Vegetables, Reaping of cereals, Lifting of fish from water, lifting of tuber or
roots from soil etc.

Postharvest – all the succeeding action after harvest are defined as post-harvest technique.
Eg. - pre cooling, cleaning, washing, trimming, sorting, grading, packaging, transportation, storage
Extending the PH life of horticultural produce requires knowledge of all the factors that can lead to loss
of quality or generation of unsalable material. The field of study that adds to and uses this knowledge in
order to develop affordable and effective technologies that minimizes the rate of deterioration is known
as postharvest technology.

Post-harvest handling is the stage of crop production immediately following harvest, including cooling,
cleaning, sorting and packing. The instant a crop is removed from the ground, or separated from its
parent plant, it begins to deteriorate. Post-harvest treatment largely determines final quality, whether a
crop is sold for fresh consumption, or used as an ingredient in a processed food product. Effective
handling decreases post-harvest losses.

Post-harvest technology is inter-disciplinary "science and technique" applied to horticultural/agri

produce after harvest for its protection, conservation, processing, packaging, distribution, marketing, and
utilization to meet the food and nutritional requirements of the people in relation to their needs.
Hence thorough understanding of the structure, composition, biochemistry and physiology of
horticultural produce is essential for PH technologist. Post harvest Shelf Life - Once harvested, produce
are subject to the active process of senescence. Numerous biochemical processes continuously change the
original composition of the produce until it becomes unmarketable. The period during which
consumption is considered acceptable is defined as the time of "post harvest shelf life".

1. Importance of post harvest technology in horticultural crops

1. Worldwide post harvest fruit and vegetable losses are as high as 30-40%. Thus, the postharvest
technology helps in reduction of losses in handling, packaging, transportation and storage with
modern infrastructure, machinery through processing into a wide variety of products and home scale
preservation with low cost technology.

2. Use of thermal processing, low temperature, drying, chemical and biological reactions coupled with
other preservation techniques are applied to enhance the storability.

3. Containers and packaging materials confer portability, enhance quality of produce as well as extend
the shelf-life.

4. It helps to make available a large quantity of food by avoiding losses and provide better quality food
and nutrition, more raw materials for processing, thus ensuring better returns to the farmers.
5. Value addition to the horticulture produce through processing units is a boon for the welfare of the
horticulture growers as they can save their crop from wastage and at the same time their produce
becomes a more valuable, price fetching commodity with suitable postharvest treatment, packaging
and by processing into various products.

6. Processing of the horticultural crops contributes to the economy through the availability of
commodity, machinery and equipments and other raw materials required for the industry to develop.

7. Processing industry has the unenviable role to make fruits and vegetables available throughout the
year in a prime condition by deploying modern technologies like ripening manipulation,
refrigeration, freezing, modified atmospheric storage and packaging, drying and irradiation
.
8. Export of processed products earns valuable foreign exchange. E.g.: Brazil is the largest exporter of
fruit juices. Papaya is supplied by India, Malaysia, Taiwan, Mexico and Brazil.

9. Postharvest technology helps in employment generation. It offers ample opportunities to self-

employment, casual labour, cottage scale units, and large scale processing units.

10. The processed products and ready-to-serve foods are especially useful to the urban people as there is
a paucity of time to cook the food or other delicious items. Thus, processed foods add taste, variety
and provide the required nutrition for the working masses.

11. The processed foods are of special attraction to the children and those who need specific nutritive
products like infants, women and the old.

12. The processing industry can convert even the waste from agriculture/horticulture sector into value
added products and thus, can stabilize the economy of the processing unit.

13. Post-harvest technology through the processed fruit and vegetable products is helping to meet the
needs of defense forces, astronauts and also in the home scale preservation of various foods.

14. As a science, postharvest technology is employing various disciplines like food microbiology, food
biochemistry, food chemistry, applied physics, food engineering, horticulture, plant physiology,
genetics and plant breeding, computer application, statistics, economics and management and
psychology through the technological convergence of all these disciplines.

15. There are about 4000 small and large scale processing units in the country which process only about
2.5% of the total fruit and vegetable as against 40-85% in developed countries (Eg: Malaysia-83%,
Phillippines-78%, Brazil and USA-70%).

Problems of Post Harvest Management

1. Lack of quality planting material for horticultural crops
2. High cost of establishing plantation crops and fruit orchards which require a long gestation for
production
3. Low educational level coupled with poor technical training/extension facilities available to
farmers
4. Poor production technologies – rain-fed cultivation, improper planting, poor nutrition, irrigation
systems, plant protection and IPM management
 5. Limited knowledge of maturity indices – stages of maturity, time and method of harvest
6. Sorting and grading is done on a very limited scale, and is generally based on visual inspection
7. Limited availability of pre-cooling facilities. Pre-cooling facilities are generally available for
produce such as fruits (grapes, strawberries, and mango) cut flowers (rose, gerbera, carnation,
anthuriums), and vegetables (potato, onion, tomato, capsicum) which are destined for export
8. Lack of availability of transportation facilities dedicated to the horticultural sector
9. Fresh produce shipped both within the country and overseas is improperly packed and transported
10. Lack of a cold chain, inadequate storage and infrastructural facilities from the site of production
to the point of consumption
11. Lack of a network of local markets, and poor access to market information, results in
unprecedented and unregulated arrivals in the local markets
12. The unavailability of land for the large scale cultivation of fruits and vegetables has been a major
deterrent in the organized sector.
13. India has a good resource base, but adequate research and development infrastructure and
excellence in several areas of horticultural are required

Scope/Prospectus
1. Magnitude of PH losses in fruit and vegetable is still to be minimized by proper cultural
operations, harvesting, and transportation and storage facilities.
2. Through the establishment of cold storage and other amenities at the growers and retailers level,
there is a greater scope for fruit and vegetable processing industry. Presently mango, pineapple,
citrus, grapes, tomatoes, peas, potatoes, cucumber are being processed on a major scale.
3. There are about 4000 small and large scale processing units in the country which process only
about 2.5% of the total fruit and vegetable as against 40-85% in developed countries (Eg:
Malaysia-83%, Phillippines-78%, Brazil and USA-70%).
4. A variety of fresh fruit and vegetable in India can be made available in plenty due to favourable
agro-climatic situations. Hence there is no dearth for raw material for processing.
5. Product profile being developed in India at present is limited to few fruit and vegetable. Eg.
Mango, Pineapple, Grapes etc. But there is a wider potentiality for processing of papaya, sapota,
banana, jack, guava, aonla, carambola and other minor fruits.
6. Similarly there is a greater scope for processing cauliflower, carrot, bitter-gourd onion, garlic,
watermelon, muskmelon etc.
7. Production and postharvest processing activities within the country have, therefore, been
changing at a rapid rate. The demand for horticultural produce in India is on the rise, owing to
increasing populations, changing food habits, the nutritional value of horticultural crops and a
greater emphasis on postharvest management, processing and value addition.
8. Advantages of growth can be harnessed with well planned strategies, so as to ensure a positive
future outlook. Food safety is of growing importance in food production, processing and
marketing. Investment in food safety, while assuring risk-free ventures related to horticulture, will
increase the cost of fresh produce and the processing of fruits and vegetables.
9. Efforts geared toward improving production technologies for fruits and vegetables will become
meaningful only if the effective postharvest technology is developed and wastage is reduced.
10. Furthermore, unless the horticultural industry is linked directly with the processing industry,
neither the consumers nor the producers can benefit. Thus, proper growth of postharvest
technology of fruits and vegetables is vital for development of India’s economy
NATURE AND CAUSES OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES
Losses occur after harvesting is known as post-harvest losses. It starts first from the field, after harvest, in
grading and packing areas, in storage, during transportation and in the wholesale and retail markets.
Several losses occur because of poor facilities, lack of know-how, poor management, market dysfunction
or simply the carelessness of farmers.

(a) Extent of post-harvest loss: The wastage during post-harvest handling accounts for 20-30% of the
losses at different stages of storage, grading, packing, transport and finally marketing as a fresh produce
or in the processed form. According to Chadha, India loses about 35-45% of the harvested fruits and
vegetables during handling, storage, transportation etc. leading to the loss of Rs. 40,000 crores per year.

(b) Important sites of post-harvest losses:

• Farmer’s field (15-20%)
• Packaging (15_2004)
•. Transportation (30-40%)
• Marketing (30-40%)

(c) Estimated loss of fruits

Papaya 40-100%
Grapes 27%
Banana 20-28%
Citrus 20-95%
Avacado 43%
Apple 14%

Estimated loss of Vegetables

Onion 25-40%
Garlic 08-22%
Potato 30-40°
Tomato 5-347%
Cabbage & cauliflower 7.08-25.0%
ChIli 4-35,0%
Radish 3-5%
Carrot 5-9%

(d) Causes of post-harvest losses

Horticultural crops not only provide nutritional and healthy foods to human beings, but also generate a
considerable cash income for growers. However, horticultural crops typically have high moisture content,
tender texture and high perishability. If not handled properly, a high value nutritious product can
deteriorate and rot in a matter of days or hours. The causes of postharvest losses can be divided into
different categories:

1. Metabolic: All fresh horticultural crops are live organs. The natural process of respiration involves the
breakdown of food reserves and the aging of these organs.
2. Mechanical: Owing to their tender texture and high moisture content, fresh fruits and vegetables are
very susceptible to mechanical injury. Poor handling, unsuitable containers, improper packaging and
transportation can easily cause bruising, cutting, breaking, impact wounding and other forms of injury.
3. Developmental: These include sprouting, rooting, seed germination, which lead to deterioration in
quality and nutritional value.
4. Parasitic diseases: High post-harvest losses are caused by the invasion of fungi, bacteria, insects and
other organisms. Micro-organisms attack fresh produce easily and spread quickly, because the produce
does not have much of a natural defense mechanism and has plenty of nutrients and moisture to support
microbial growth.
5. Physiological deterioration: Fruits and vegetable cells are still alive after harvest and continue their
physiological activity. Physiological disorders may occur due to mineral deficiency, low or high
temperature injury or undesirable atmospheric conditions, such as high humidity, physiological
deterioration can also occur spontaneously by enzymatic action leading to over-ripeness and senescence,
a simple aging phenomenon.
6. Lack of market demand: Poor planning, inaccurate production and market information may lead to
over production of certain fruits or vegetables which can’t be sold in time. This situation occurs most
frequently in areas where transportation and storage facilities are inadequate. Produce may lie rotting in
production areas, if farmers are unable to transport it to people who need it in distant locations.
7. Consumption: These losses can be due to inadequate preservation methods at home, methods of
cooking and preparation such as peeling, consumption styles etc.
8. Others
 Lack of clear concept of packing house operations.
 Lack of awareness among the growers, contractors and even the policy makers.
 Lack of infrastructure.
 Late realization of its importance,
 Inadequate technical support.
 Wide gap in technologies available and in vogue.
 Inadequate post-harvest quality control.
 Unorganized marketing.
 Absence of pre-cooling and cold storage.
 Inadequate market facilities, market intelligence and market information service (MIS)
 Poor storage facilities.

(e) Impact of post-harvest losses: Post harvest losses of horticultural crops affect both the nutritious
status of the population and economy of the country.

Nutrition: Fruits and vegetables are rich source of vitamins and minerals essential for human nutrition.
These are wasted in transit from harvest to consumer represent a loss in the quantity of a valuable food.
This is important not only in quantitative terms, but also from the point of view of quality nutrition.

Economy: Careless harvesting and rough handling of perishable bruise and scar the skin, thus reducing
quality and market price. Such damaged produce also fails to attract the international buyers, and bring
the exporting country less profit and bad name. This ultimately results in huge economic losses to the
country.
For improving the situation, it is essential to create awareness among growers, farm workers, manager’s
traders and exporters about the extent of losses being incurred and their economic consequences. These
groups of people involved in the fruit industry also need to learn the basic principles of fruit handling and
storage. In addition, the government needs to provide basic infra-structure like storage, handling, grading,
packing, transport and marketing facilities and technical expertise. This could be carried out by the public
and private sectors.
(f)Technologies for minimizing the losses: Fruits and vegetables are perishable in nature. Scientific
harvesting and handling are the practical way to reduce the losses due to physical damage, spoilages, due
to insect damages and microbial growth. Various protocols are standardized and available for adoption to
get the best result, which will give economic benefits. Similarly, proper storage conditions, with suitable
temperature and humidity are needed to lengthen the storage life and maintain quality once the crop has
been cooled to the optimum storage tempera Lure. Greater emphasis need to be given on the training of
farmers, creation of infrastructure for cold chain with common facilities for sorting, grading, packing and
post-harvest treatments in all major markets.

Pre-harvest factors affecting quality on post harvest shelf life of fruits and vegetables
The pre-harvest factors that affect the quality of fruits and vegetables with respect to their post
harvest shelf life are as follows.

I. Genetic factors/ variety – Varieties with shorter shelf-lives are generally prone to higher post harvest
losses. Varieties with thick peel, high firmness, low respiration rate and low ethylene production rates
would usually have longer storage life. The cultivars that have ability to withstand the rigors of marketing
and distribution will have lesser losses after harvest. Varieties with resistance to low temperature
disorders and/or decay-causing pathogens can be stored well for longer duration with minimum storage
losses. Hence, while growing horticultural crops, one must choose such varieties that inherently have got
good quality and storage potential in addition to the higher yields and pest resistance.

II. Environmental factors

1.Light – Light regulates several physiological processes like chlorophyll synthesis, phototropism,
respiration and stomatal opening. The duration, intensity and quality of light affect the quality of fruits
and vegetables at harvest. Most of the produce needs high light intensity (3000-8000 foot candles).
Absorption of red light (625-700 nm) through pigments, phytochrome, is essential for carbohydrate
synthesis which determines the shelf life of the produce.
Citrus and mango fruits produced in full sun generally had a thinner skin, a lower weight, low
juice content and lower acidity but a higher TSS. Citrus fruits grown in the shade may be less susceptible
to chilling injury when subsequently stored in cold storage.
In tomatoes, leaf shading of fruits produced a deeper red colour during the ripening than in the
case of those exposed to light. The side of the fruit that have been exposed to sun will be generally firmer
than the non exposed side. In general, the lower the light intensity the lower the ascorbic acid content of
plant tissues. In leafy vegetables, leaves are larger and thinner under condition of low light intensity.

2. Temperature – All type of physiological and biochemical process related to plant growth and yield
are influenced by the temperature. The higher temperature during field conditions decreases life and
quality of the produce. At high temperature, stored carbohydrates of fruits, vegetables and flowers are
quickly depleted during respiration and plant respires at the faster rate. For example- high temperature
during fruiting season of tomato leads to quick ripening of fruits on and off the plant.
Orange grown in the tropics tend to have higher sugars and TSS than those grown in sub tropics.
However, tropical grown oranges tend to be green in colour and peel less easily and it is due to the lower
diurnal temperature that occurs in the tropics.

3. Humidity – High humidity during growing season results in thin rind and increased size in some
horticultural produce and this produce is more prone to high incidence of disease during post harvest
period. Humid atmosphere may cause the development of fungal and bacterial diseases, which damages
produce during storage and transport. Damaged produce remove water very quickly and emit a larger
concentration of ethylene than healthy ones. Reduced transpiration leads to calcium and other elemental
deficiencies.

4. Rainfall - Rainfall affects water supply to the plant and influences the composition of the
harvested plant part. This affects its susceptibility to mechanical damage and decay during subsequent
harvesting and handling operations. If root and bulb crops are harvested during heavy rainfall, the storage
losses will be higher.

III. Cultural factors

1. Mineral nutrition – Balanced application of all nutrient elements is necessary for maintaining growth
and development of plants. The application of fertilizers to crops influences their post harvest respiration
rate. Excess or deficiency of certain elements can affect crop quality and its post harvest life. Numerous
physiological disorders are also associated with mineral deficiencies which ultimately lead to post harvest
losses.
a. Nitrogen - High N fertilization reduces while moderate to high K improves PH life and quality of
horticultural produce. Application of K in water melon tend to decrease the PH respiration. High levels
on N tend to decrease flavor, TSS, firmness and color of the fruit and in stone fruits it increases
physiological disorders and decrease fruit colour.
Generally, crops that have high levels of nitrogen typically have poorer keeping qualities than
those with lower levels. High nitrogen increases fruit respiration, faster tissue deterioration thereby
reducing their storage life.
b. Phosphorous - Application of phosphorous minimizes weight loss, sprouting and rotting in bulb crops
compared with lesser application. The respiration rate of low-phosphorous fruits will be higher than that
of high phosphorous fruits during storage.
c. Potassium - Potassic fertilizers improves keeping quality, its deficiency can bring about abnormal
ripening of fruits and vegetables. Potassium helps in reducing some physiological storage disorders, e.g.
superficial rind pitting in oranges.
d. Calcium - The storage potential of the fruits is largely dependent on the level of Ca and it is associated
with produce texture. The higher level of N, P and Mg and low levels of K and Bo lead to the Ca
deficiency in fruits and reduce its storage life.
Physiological disorders of storage organs related to low Ca content of the tissue are bitter pit in
apples, cork spot in pears, blossom end rot in tomato, tip burn in lettuce, hallow heart in potato, red
blotch of lemons etc.
Calcium inhibits the internal browning, retarded respiration, and reduces the metabolism of
endogenous substrates.
e. Zinc - Zn is known to act as vehicle for carrying ions across tissue and increase Ca content of the fruit.
f. Boron - Adequate supply of Bo improves the mobility of Ca in the leaves and the fruits and
subsequently increases fruit firmness, TSS, organic acids and reduce the incidence of the drought, spot,
bitter pit and cracking disorders and impart disease resistance.

2. Water relation and Irrigation – Stress due to excessive or inadequate water in the medium reduce
the longevity of the produce. In general, <5 % of water absorbed in the plant system is utilized for the
development of different plant components. Moisture stress increases the rate of transpiration over the
rate of absorption and irregular irrigation leads to fruit/vegetable cracking (potato and pomegranate
cracking). Higher level of moisture stress affects both yield and quality by decreasing cell enlargement.
Crops which have higher moisture content generally have poorer storage characteristics. An
example of this is the hybrid onions, which tend to give high yield of bulbs with low dry matter content
but which have only a very short storage life. If fully matured banana is harvested soon after rainfall or
irrigation the fruit can easily split during handling operations, allowing micro organism infection and PH
rotting. Excess water supply to plants results in cracking of fruits such as cherries, plums, and tomatoes.
In green leafy vegetables, too much rain or irrigation can result in the leaves becoming harder and
brittle, which can make them more susceptible to damage and decay during handling and transport.
Generally, crops that have higher moisture content or low dry matter content have poorer storage
characteristics. Keeping quality of bulb crops like onion and garlic will be poor if irrigation is not
stopped before three weeks of harvesting.

3. Canopy Manipulation
a. Fruit thinning – Increases fruit size but reduces total yield. It helps in obtaining better quality
produce.
b. Fruit position in the tree – Fruits which are exposed to high light environment possesses higher TSS,
acidity, fruit size, aroma, and shelf life compared to which lies inside the canopy. Hence better training
system should be practiced to circulate optimum light and air.
Eg.: Grapes, Mango, peaches, kiwifruits
c. Girdling - Increases the fruit size and advance and synchronized fruit maturity in peach and nectarines.

4. Seasons / Day and day length – Seasonal fluctuation and time of the day at harvest will greatly affect
the postharvest quality of the produce. Generally produce harvested early in the morning or in the
evening hours exhibits longer PH life than produce harvested during hot time of the day.
If long day Onions (temperate) are grown during short day (tropics) condition it leads to very
poor storage quality.
5. Use of Agro chemicals – Use of chemicals on the plants to prevent the pathogen will have direct
impact on extending the postharvest life. Hence, certain pre-harvest chemical applications are found to
enhance storage life of fruits and vegetables.

6. Pest and Diseases – Infection by fungi, bacteria, mites and insects reduces the longevity as well as
consumer acceptability. Tissue damage caused by them show wilting and produce ethylene which leads
to early senescence. Generally, if produce has suffered an infection during development, its storage or
marketable life may be adversely affected. Banana which suffers a severe infection with diseases such as
leaf spot may ripen pre maturely or abnormally after harvest and in mango, infections results in rapid
postharvest loss.

HARVEST FACTORS
Maturity at harvest stage is one of the main factors determining compositional quality and storage
life of fruit, vegetables and flowers.
1. Stage of Harvest – The optimal stage of produce development for harvest depends on the
 Plant species. Varieties, Seasons, the market distance, & Consumer preference
 The flowers are harvested at the immature stage-
Roses are harvested at tight bud stage / cracked bud stage than the half open or full open stage.
Cut flowers with long stem have higher PH life than short stem because shorter stem have less
CHO reserves.
 Tomatoes are harvested at mature but not ripen (breaker stage) to the long distance market and at
advanced stage for local market.
 Beans, okra, brinjal, cucumber, bitter gourds etc. are harvested at immature stage.
 While citrus and others non-climacteric fruits and vegetables are harvested at ripe stage.
2. Time of Harvest - optimum time of harvest defend on the type of plants and climatic condition.
 It is advisable to harvest produce when temperature is mild, because high temperature causes
rapid respiration rate and excessive water loss.
 Flowers should be harvested in the morning or evening hours.
 These effects have been attributed to higher levels of CHO from photosynthesis during the
daytime, and translocation and respiration during the night causes reduction in the levels of CHO
in the flowers cut in the morning.
 In the tropical and sub tropical climates, for quality and longest PH life winter was found more
suitable.

3. Methods of Harvest – always produce should be harvested by suitable methods. Sharp tools/ secateur
/harvester/hand gloves/digger/vibrater/ trimmer/ any such items should always been used to detach the
fruits/vegetable/flowers from the mother plant/ once over harvest.
• While cutting cut flowers care should be taken to give slant cut and not to crush, slant cut helps in
facilitating the maximum surface area to absorb water at rapid rate.
• The hard and lignified stem which lying very close to the ground should not be cut as they show lesser
vase life due to lower water absorption.
Example: Stems of chrysanthemum should be harvested at least 10 cm above the ground level
and for rose it should be cut leaving at least two compound leaves on the stem.
Maturity indices
Definition of maturity: Maturation is a stage of development of fruit or vegetable leading to attainment
of peak acceptable quality for a given purpose
Importance of maturity indices
• Help to judge the stage of harvest so that marketing can be staggered safely
• The quality of the product is ensured
• Produce have optimum size and shape required by the market
• Avoids harvesting at inappropriate maturity that causes physiological disorders
• Avoids over ripening of fruits as they are prone to bruising and decay and not suitable for
transportation
• Ensures peak acceptable quality and adequate shelf life of harvested produce

Types of maturity
1. Physiological maturity - Attainment of full development of stage just prior to ripening/ ripening in
non climacteric fruits. (plant or plant part continue to develop even after detachment) E.g.: Fruits and
vegetables produced for seed production
2. Horticultural/ Commercial maturity – Stage at which growth and development is optimum for
particular specific use (stage acceptable for consumers/ market oriented) E.g.: Fresh vegetable for
canning/ dehydration/ IQF – Individual Quick Frozen/ harvesting for local or distant market

Further Horticultural maturity is classified into different groups

1. Physiologically immature - Vegetables such as cucumber/ peas/ beans/ carrot / beetroot/ baby corn/
okra are harvested when they are tender, crisp and fiber free
2. Firm and mature - Fruits and vegetables which attained characteristic size, shape and maturity are
harvested. E.g.: Apple, Apricot, Annonaceous fruits, Banana, Guava, Mango Papaya, Tomato etc.
3. Harvest at ripe – In non climacteric fruits, maturity is referred as full ripening E.g.: Citrus sp., grape,
pineapple, cherry etc.
Judging the maturity in fruits crops
1. Culinary Maturity : For cooking, fruits like papaya, jack fruit, tomato, figs, bread fruit, when used
as vegetable, harvesting is done at immature/ suitable stage
2. Dessert Maturity: For local market and fresh consumption E.g.: Jack fruit, watermelon, mango and
orange
3. Shipping Maturity: For long distance transportation, fruits will be harvested much earlier than for
local consumption (before ripening) which prolongs shelf life. E.g.: Mango, banana, papaya
4. Processing Maturity: For processing, harvest time depends on the distance of orchard from the
processing units and the type of fruit/ vegetable and product to be prepared

Different methods to estimate maturity indices of fruits and vegetables

Computational methods
1. Calendar date: It is reasonable and accurate provided flowering and the weather during growing
season is accurate. Eg. Mango harvesting period (April -July)
2. DFFB (Days from Full Bloom to harvest): It is reliable but varies greatly from year to year and
location to location and needs night temperature correction for 15 days following full bloom. For every
1oF (32oF=0oC and with increase in every 1oF, there is increase of 0.55oC) variation from an average
night temperature, a correction of one day is made in the standard figure from full bloom.
Alphanso variety of mango will take 110-125 days for ripening(flowering to harvest).
3. Mean heat units/ Degree Days: Optimum maturity is computed by the sum of mean daily
temperature, above base temperature for a period concerned. The number of degree-days to maturity is
determined over a period of several years. 10oC is the temperature at which growth occurs for apple and
base temperature varies with crop.
A Heat unit is calculated by Average temp – Base temp x No. of Days (flowering to harvest).
Base temp for tomato, spinach and pumpkin is 15o, 2o and 13oC respectively (flowering to harvest).
Heat requirement for various crops
Crop Cultivars Base temp Degree Days
Apple Red delicious 18oC 1659-1705
o
Grape Thompson seedless 10 C 1600-2000
Bangalore Blue 3562
Gulabi 3508
o
Mango Banganapalli 18 C 1426
o
Banana - 9.8 C 1930
o
Asparagus - 10 C 120-410
o
Peas Early Wisconsin 4.4 C 1319
Alaska 1200

4. T- Stage: T- Stage is the point at which the angle formed by the fruit receptacle and pedicel reaches
90o. The angle between pedicel and receptacle is >90o early in the growing season and less than 90o late
in the season in apple.
Physical methods
1. Fruit retention strength/ ease of separation - The force required to pull the fruit from the tree which
indicates the maturity status of the fruit.
2. Acoustic/sound tests - The sound of a fruit as it is tapped sharply with a finger knuckle, ripe fruit
gives dull sound. E.g.: Watermelon
3. Fruit size and surface morphology - The change in size of crop as it is growing are frequently used
to determine when it should be harvested. E.g.: Green beans, okra, etc.
4. Shape - The shape referred to the design of the fruit. This shape of fruit can change during maturation.
Eg. Banana - individual fingers become more rounded on maturity from angular shape.
5. Weight
6. Specific gravity - As fruit mature their specific gravity increases. Fruits that float on the water will be
less mature than those sink. E.g.: Cherries, watermelon, potatoes, mango, etc.
7. Colour (Skin, flesh and seed) - In most of the fruits, green colour changes into yellow/ red/ purple/
violet during ripening after the optimum maturity. The assessment of harvest maturity by skin colour
change usually with the judgement of the harvester, but colour charts are used for some cultivars of
apple, chilli, peach and tomato. The chlorophyll fluorescence spectrometer or colorimeter used to detect
the loss of chlorophyll.
8. Firmness/solidity: Used for assessing harvest maturity in many leafy vegetables. Here harvester
slightly presses vegetables such as cabbage and hearting lettuce with his thumb and finger. The firmness
may be detected by following ways:
a. Destructive test methods: Pressure testers, Tenderometer (Peas), Finger squeeze/touch
b. Non-destructive test methods: Inston Universal Tester
10. Brittleness of the floral part: Sapota, Banana
12. Bulk density - Cole crops
13. Formation of abscission layer - Abscission layer is formed in the pedicel as the fruit develops and
matures naturally. E.g.: Cantaloupe melons
14. Aroma/ Organoleptic quality: Characteristic odour when ripe
15. Fruit opening: Fully mature fruit splits. E.g.: Ackee fruit, Chow chow vegetable
16. Vibration tests: Principle of acoustics is applied using commercial audio speakers. E.g.: Tomato,
mango and avocado
17. Electrical characteristics: Change in the resistance/ capacitance as results of change on
concentration of dissolved electrolytes of the flesh/juice during maturation. Specific electrical resistance
decrease with increasing sugars. E.g.: Watermelon
18. Electromagnetic Methods: Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is used
 To correlate sugar in banana and apple and oil content in avocado
 For detecting the physiological disorders like water core in apple
 To obtain images of bruises on apple, peaches, pears and onions pits in olives and prunes and inset
damages in peas.
 To measure moisture content
19. Optical methods: The change in the transmission of diffused light is affected by the level of
chlorophyll in the fruit, which reduces during ripening.
20. Radiation: X and gamma rays have been used to assess quality and maturity characteristics of fresh
products. The basis of the tests depends on the rate of transmission of the rays through produce which
depends on the density of the produce. Example:
 Determines the density of the head in Lettuce at the time of harvest
 Determines internal disorders of hollow heart in potatoes
 Split pit in peaches and Granulation in oranges
Chemical methods
1. Titrable acidity - In citrus and other fruits, acidity progressively reduces on maturation and ripening.
Measuring acidity by titration gives the brix: acid ratio
2. TSS
Fruit TSS (%) Fruit TSS (%)
Apple 11.50 -14.50 Citrus 12 -14
Pear 12.92-12.99 Papaya 11 – 12
Kiwi 8.00 Pineapple 13.00
Grapes 12-20
3. TSS/acid ratio
4. Sugars: In both climacteric and non-climacteric fruits, measurement of sugars in the fruit can provide
an indication of the stage of ripeness or maturity of that fruit. Sugar is measured in terms of soluble solids
using Brix hydrometer or Refractometer
4. Sugar/ acid ratio
5. Bioelectrical conductance
6. Starch content (Iodine test) - The measurement of starch content using iodine stain in the developing
fruit taken for assessing the harvest maturity.
7. Tannin content - Dates, persimmon and litchi
8. Oil content and dry matter percentage - 8% of oil by weight of the avocado, dry matter is used to
assess the maturity standard in processing varieties of potato
9. Juice content - The juice content of fruit increases as they mature on the tree. Navel oranges -30%,
other oranges-35%, Lemons-25%, Mandarins-33%, Grape fruit-35%

Physiological methods
1. Rate of respiration
2. Rate of ethylene production
3. Transpiration
4. Production of volatiles

Geometrical methods
1. Particles size and shape of the produce
2. Particle composition and orientation in a given tissue or food
3. Moisture content of produce
Maturity Indices followed in various fruits and vegetables
Sl.No Maturity Indices Fruits / vegetables
EXTERNAL
1. Visual (OECD colour charts) All fruits and most vegetables
2. Calendar date All fruits
3. DFFB All fruits and radish
4. Mean heat unit Apple, pear, grape, mango, ber, litchi and sweet
corn many vegetables
5. T-Stage Apple
6. Size All fruits, beans, carrot, cucumber, cherry,
asparagus and cauliflower, zucchini
7. Grape(cuticle formation), banana, mango, sapota,
litchi, tomatoes, netting on some melons, glossy
Surface morphology ness of some fruits (development of wax)
Sl.No Maturity Indices Fruits / vegetables
8. Specific gravity (Sinker/floater) Cherries, mango and ber
9. Fruit retention strength Apple
10. Colour –Surface All fruits ,tomato, water melon
Seed Apple , Pears
Flesh Mango, papaya, watermelon and muskmelon,
tomato (jelly like material)
11. Leaf changes Potato, onion ,melons(leaf axis on fruit drys )
12. Textural Properties
13.  Firmness (Penetrometer/ Fruit Pome and stone fruits, beans, lettuce and melons
presser tester)
14.  Tenderness (Tenderometer) Pea
15.  Touch/Finger Squeezing Beans, okra
16. Shape compactness in cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli,
angularity of banana, full shoulder development
in mango,
17. Abscission layer Melons
18. Weight at air / water
19. Solidity-Bulk density/X/Gamma rays lettuce, cabbage, brussels sprouts
20. Tight bud/ bud crack/ Rose and many cut flowers
opening of flowers Lloose flower- crossandra
INTERNAL
21. Total solids : Dry weight Avocado, Kiwi fruit, Potato
22. TSS All fruits ,tomato, water melon
23. Starch content -Iodine test apples, pear
24. Sugar content (Hand Refractrometer) all fruits
25. Acidity or Sugar/acid ratio Pomegranate, citrus, papaya and kiwi fruit, grape
26. Juice Content Citrus Sp
27. Astringency (Tannin) Persimmon and dates
28. Oil content Avocado
29. Physiological:
Respiration and C2H4 rate Apple and pears and many fruit
30. Others
31. Optical methods(380-730 nm) Apricot, banana, orange, papaya
32. Aroma Many fruits
33. Fruit opening Chow chow (over mature), Ackee
34. Acoustic / Vibration Melons/ Apple, tomato(unripe 110- ripe 80 Hz)
35. Electrical Characteristics Peach (unripe 550,ripe150 Hertz)
36. Electormagnetic – Nuclear magnetic Apple, banana, avocado peach, pear, onion
resonance (NMR)
37. Near-Infrared reflectance (400- Mango, pineapple
2500nm)
38. Radiation (X & gamma -rays) Lettuce, potato
Maturity and ripening process
The life of fruits and vegetables can be conveniently divided into three major physiological stages
following germination. These are growth, maturation and senescence.

Growth involves cell division and subsequent cell enlargement, which accounts for the final size of the
produce.

Maturation usually commences before growth ceases and includes different activities in different
commodities. Growth and maturation are often collectively referred to as the development phase.

Senescence is defined as the period when synthetic (anabolic) biochemical process gives way to
degradative (catabolic) process, leading to ageing and finally death of the tissue.

Ripening is a phase of qualitative change which occurs in fruits particularly, after completion of
maturation, during which the fruit becomes acceptable for consumption in terms of taste and flavour.
Ripening occur during the later stages of maturation and is the first stage of senescence.
Fruits are classified based on their physiology and ripening behavior into two groups namely
climacteric and non-climacteric fruits.

Definitions
1. Ripening: Ripening is a phase of qualitative change which occurs in fruits particularly, after
completion of maturation, during which the fruit becomes acceptable for consumption in terms of taste
and flavour. Ripening occur during the later stages of maturation and is the first stage of senescence

2. Senescence: Senescence is defined as the period when synthetic (anabolic) biochemical process gives
way to degradative (catabolic) process, leading to ageing and finally death of the tissue

3. Climacteric fruits: Fruits whose respiration rate and ethylene evolution increases to a maximum just
prior to full ripening. These fruits can be ripened after harvest. E.g.: Apple, Apricot, Avocado, Banana,
Ber, Cherimoya, Fig, Guava, Kiwifruit, Mango, Melons, Pear, Peach, Plum, Persimmon, Papaya,
Tomato, Sapota, Passion fruit. Climacteric fruits produce larger quantities of ethylene in association with
their ripening, and exposure to ethylene treatment results in faster and more uniform ripening. In case of
vegetables, the climacteric rise in respiration as observed in certain fruits is not apparent.

4. Non-climacteric fruits: Fruits whose respiration rate and ethylene production rates does not accelerate
during ripening. These fruits are the best when ripened before harvest. E.g.: Strawberry, citrus fruits
(grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange, mandarin), pineapple, pomegranate, carambola, cherries, grapes, litchi,
loquat and olive.
However, non-climacteric fruits produce very small quantities of ethylene and do not respond to
ethylene treatment, except in terms of degreening in citrus and pineapple.

Chemicals used for hastening and delay of ripening of fruit and vegetables

Chemicals that hasten ripening

Ethylene: Ethylene related compounds –
CEPA-2 Chloro ethyl phosphoric acid
CPTA-2,4 Chloro phenyl friethyl amine
Used for pre and postharvest treatments of fruits.
Acetylene and calcium chloride: Calcium carbide treatment to generate acetylene to hasten fruit
ripening in banana.

Smoke treatment:
Burning and releasing smoke from leaves, twigs or straw will also hasten ripening in mango.
2,4-D: 2, 4 dichlorophenoxy acetic acid is used in ripening of Guava
2,4,5-T-2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy acetic acid used in Sapota.

Chemicals that delay ripening

Cytokinins and Kinetins: Delays chlorophyll degradation and senescence of leafy vegetable.

Gibberellins: Post harvest treatments with GA3 retard ripening of tomato and bananas GA3 lowers
respiratory rate, retards in climacteric fruits and delays the process of colour changes.

Growth retardants:
MH – prevents sprouting of onion bulbs and potato tubers. Also delays ripening of mango.
Alar: Reduce…. Fruit firmness fruit colour development and early maturation. It is applied before
harvest. In lettuce it reduces senescence.
CCC (Cycocel)-2 chloroethyl – trimethyl ammonium chloride used in delaying of senescence of
vegetables.

Delaying ripening process by skin coating (waxing):

Edible waxes are coated on fruits which prevents transportation losses and minimize respiration rate.
Sugar wax along with emulsifier is melted and then boiling water is poured slowly to melted ingredients
and prepare emulsion.

Emulsifying agents: TEA (Triethylene amine), TBZ – Tribenzoate, fungicides – SOPP (Sodium ortho
phenyl phenate) for control of pencillium in oranges (Take the emulsion in large basins and dip the fruit
or basket containing fruits for 30 seconds.

Thiourea – is used for control of penicillium and deplodium on oranges.

Changes that take place during ripening

Physical changes
1. Seed maturation
2. Colour changes: The most common change is the loss of green colour
3. Abscission (detachment from parent part)
4. Softening: Fruits normally soften progressively during ripening due to the breakdown of starch and
other non-pectin polysaccharides in the pulp reducing cellular rigidity
Chemical changes
1. Cell wall changes: In middle lamella, the pectic polysaccharides are degraded and solubilised during
ripening, the cell wall softens and the tissue permeability changes
2. Changes in starch/carbohydrate composition: Sugar levels within the fruit tend to increase during
ripening as the accumulated starch is hydrolysed into sugars (glucose, fructose or sugars)
3. Organic acid changes: Usually organic acids decline during ripening as they are either respired or
converted to sugars
4. Amino acids and protein changes: During senescence, the level of free amino acids increases
reflecting a breakdown of enzymes and decreased metabolic activity
5. Development of wax on the skin
6. Ascorbic acid: In pome, stone and berry fruits, ascorbic acid quantity reduces
7. Phenolic compounds: Some fruits contain high levels of phenolic compounds, especially in the
peel. Phenolics such as tannins are polymerized to insoluble compounds, resulting in a reduction of
astringency as in the ripe banana fruit

Physiological changes
1. Changes in respiration rate: There is a sudden increase in the respiration after attaining the
physiological maturity in climacteric fruits, this leads to a series of changes in fruits which ensure the
completion of ripening
Respiration rate (CO2 evolution) of different fruits at 20-25°C
Climacteric fruits Respiration peak Non- climacteric Respiration peak
fruits
Apple 16 mg/kg/hr Orange 30 mg/kg/hr
Avocado 155 mg/kg/hr Grapefruit 16 mg/kg/hr
Banana 140-200 mg/kg/hr Eureka lemon 22.7 mg/kg/hr
Fig 50-100 mg/kg/hr Pineapple 22 mg/kg/hr
Mango 82 mg/kg/hr Litchi 22 µg/kg/hr
Respiration rate (CO2 evolution) of different vegetables at 20-25°C
Respiratory rate CO2 output Vegetables
Low < 40 mg CO2/kg/hr Potato, onion and cucumber
Moderate 40 to 80 mg Pepper, carrot and tomato
CO2/kg/hr
High 80 - 120 mg Peas and radish
CO2/kg/hr
Very high > 120 mg CO2/kg/hr Green onion, melons, cauliflower, okra
2. Changes in the rate of ethylene evolution: The production of ethylene, a ripening hormone in
climacteric fruits follows a similar pattern as that of CO2 evolution and hence can be a useful
indicator of the physiological maturity of the fruits.
The fruits according to their ethylene evolution rates at 20-25°C have been classified into 5
categories as follows.
Classification Ethylene rate Fruits
Very low 0.01µl/kg/hr Cherry, citrus, grape, strawberry and pomegranate
Low 0.1-1.0 µl/kg/hr Blueberry, cucumber, okra and pineapple
Moderate 1.0-10 µl/kg/hr Banana, fig, melon, mango and tomato
High 10.0-100 Apple, avocado, cantaloupe, papaya, nectarine and
µl/kg/hr pear
Very high > 100 µl/kg/hr Cherimoya, passion fruit and sapota
3. Production of flavour volatiles and aroma: Flavour is the subtle and complex perception that
combines taste, smell and mouth feel. Ripening usually brings about an increase in simple sugars to
give sweetness, and decrease in organic acids and phenolics to minimize astringency and an increase
in volatiles to produce the characteristic flavour.

Aroma plays an important part in the development of optimal eating quality in most of the fruits. It is
due to the synthesis of many volatile organic compounds during the ripening phase.

Fruit Aroma compound Fruit Aroma compound

Ripe apple Ethyl 2, methyl butarate Grape fruit Nootkatone
Green apple Presence of Hexanol Lemon Citrol
 Green banana Hexanol Orange Valencene
Ripe banana Eugenol Raspberry 1-hydroxy phenol 3-butanon
Over ripe banana Iso-pentanol

Vegetable Aroma compound Vegetable Aroma compound

Raw cucumber 2-6-nanodianol Mushroom Lenthionine
Raw cabbage Allyl iso-thiocyanate 2-mehtoxy, 3-ethyl pyrazine or
Potato
Cabbage Allyl isocyanate 2-5 dimethoxy pyrazine
Cooked cabbage Dimethyl disulphide Raddish 4-methyl thio trans 3-butenile
iso-thiocyanate

5. Factors affecting ripening of fruits and vegetables

1. Respiration: It is the oxidative break down of more complex substrates normally present in cells such
as sugars, starch and organic acids to simpler molecules as CO2 and H2O
2. Transpiration / water loss: Fruits and vegetables contain more than 80-95% water and the presence
of moisture inside the tissue is responsible for maintenance of turgidity and succulence. Water loss
results in shrivelling and wilting of fruits and vegetables
3. Ethylene: Ethylene is naturally produced gaseous plant growth regulator that has numerous effects on
growth, development and storage life of many fruits, vegetable and ornamentals
4. Pathological stresses: Diseases play major role. Fruits and vegetables affected with disease ripen
early and minimize keeping quality/ shelf life
5. Mechanical stress: Mechanical damage also affects fruit and vegetables and speeds up ripening
process
6. Temperature: High temperatures due to field heat, transportation etc. and also low temperatures like
chilling and freezing, also affects the fruit and vegetable ripening process
Fruit respiration: Few fruits exhibit the pronounced increase in the respiration (increase in CO2 and
C2H4) coincidence with the ripening, such increase in the respiration is known as respiratory climacteric,
and this group of fruits is called climacteric.

Difference between climacteric and non-climacteric fruits

Climacteric fruit (CF) Non-climacteric fruit (NCF)
1 Fruits that ripen after harvest Fruit that does not ripen after harvest. Ripen on
the plant itself.
2 Typically ripen by softening by changing Do not change significantly after harvest.
colour and become sweeter on or off the They will soften a little, lose green colour and
plant (except in avocado, which will ripen develop rots as they become old but they do not
only after detached from the plant) change to improve their eating characteristics.
3 Exhibits a peak in respiration Not
4 Show single phase respiratory response to Multiple phase
exogenous ethylene
6 Ethylene exposer bring about autocatalytic Loss of chlorophyll and increase in respiration
production of ethylene and rise in
respiration
7 Generate large amount of ethylene Little / No
production as ripening proceeds
8 Significant increase in CO2 production Slowly
9 Decrease in internal oxygen concentration More
10 Low concentration of ethylene 0.1-1.0 Applied ethylene merely transient increases the
µL/L/day is sufficiently hasten full ripening respiration of non-climacteric fruits.
of climacteric fruit
11 Store carbon in an insoluble form (starch). Store carbon in a soluble form i.e sugar.
Fruit/produce is more compact, osmotically (Harvesting early reduce sugar content).
inactive. Fruit/produce is more soft, juice.
12 Time of picking is less dependent on sugar Dependent on sugar content at the time of
content, since a doubling or more of sugar harvest.
concentration by starch hydrolysis can still
take place after the fruit are picked.
13 Both unripe climacteric and non-climacteric fruit do increase their respiration rate when
exposed to exogenous ethylene.
14 Eg - Many except in the opposite column Eg – Refer table below

Non –Climacteric fruits

Asian pear, Citrus sp Loquat Pomegranate Surinam cherry
Blackberry, Carambola(Star apple), Mangosteen Pumpkin, Tart cherries
Blueberry, Cucumber Okra, Rambutan Tree tomato
Cacao, Eggplant Olives Raspberry rin& nor tomato
Cactus pear Grape, Pea Rose apple Watermelon
Cashew apple Jamun Pepper Strawberry
Cherry(sweet& sour) Litchi, Pineapple Summer squash

Fig. Growth, respiration and ethylene production patterns Fig. Respiratory patterns of
of climacteric and non-climacteric plant organs harvested climacteric fruits

Respiration: is a process in which stored organic materials (carbohydrates, protein, and fat) are broken
down into simple end products with release of energy. Oxygen is used in this process and carbon dioxide
is produced.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (686k.cal)
Production of CO2 and the uptake of O2 by the metabolic process enable the rate of aerobic respiration to
be measure physiologically in plant tissues. Oxidation of glucose generates an equal amount of CO2 for
the O2 consumed, whereas oxidation of malate generates more CO2 then the O2 consumed. This
relationship is important in measuring respiration by gas exchange.
The O2 concentration at which anaerobic respiration commences varies between tissues and is usually
below 1 % V/V and off falvour may results from fermentation.

Effect of Respiration on the produce

 Reduced food value (energy value) for the consumer
 Reduced flavor due to loss of volatiles
 Reduced sweetness
 Reduced weight
 Important for the commodities which desire dehydration

The rate of deterioration of horticultural commodities is directly proportional to the respiration rate
From the postharvest point of view, rate of respiration is important because of this main effect; however,
the rate of respiration also gives an indication of the overall rate of metabolism of the plant or produce. In
some case, specific metabolic changes may occur without measurable changes in net respiration. Neither
changes in the concentration of chlorophyll nor reducing sugar, acidity, carotenoids, or esters correlates
well with changes in respiration rate. Therefore, it is important that respiration is viewed as it fits into the
overall process of metabolism in the harvested products rather than as an end of itself.
General comparison of photosynthesis and respiration
Photosynthesis Respiration
Function Energy acquisition Energy utilization & formation of
carbon skeletons
Location in cell Chloroplast Mitochondria and Cytoplasm
Role of light Essential Not involved
Substrates CO2, H2O, light Stored carbon, O2
End products O2, stored carbon CO2, H2O, energy
Overall effects Increased the weight Decreased the weight of plants or
plant produce
General 6CO2+6H2O chloroplast C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 + 6O2 mitochondria 6CO2
equation 6O2 + 6H2O +
energy
(686k.cal)
Classification of horticultural commodities according to their respiration rate
Range at 5o C
CLASS (mg Co2 /Kg/hr) COMMODITIES
Very low <5 Dates, Dried fruit and vegetables, Nuts, etc.

Low 5 - 10 Apple, Beet, Celery, Citrus Fruits, Garlic, Grapes, Kiwi Fruit, Onion,
Papaya, Pineapple, Potato (Mature), Sweet Potato, Watermelon etc.
Moderate 10- 20 Apricot, Banana, Cabbage, Carrot (Topped ), Cherry, Fig, Lettuce
(Head), Mango, Peach, Pear, Plum, Potato (Immature), Radish
(Topped), Tomato, Summer squash
High 20 - 40 Avocado. Carrot (With tops), Cauliflower, Leeks, Lettuce (Leaf),
Radish (With tops), Raspberry
Very high 40 - 60 Artichoke, Bean Sprouts, Broccoli, Brussels sprouts, Cut flowers,
Green Onion, Okra
Extremely high > 60 Asparagus, Mushroom, Parsley, Peas, Spinach, Sweet corn
Note: To get mL kg-1 h-1, divide the mg kg-1 h-1rate by 2.0 at 0°C, 1.9 at 10°C, and 1.8 at 20°C. To
calculate heat production, multiply mg kg-1 h-1 by 220 to get BTU per ton per day or by 61 to get kcal per
metric ton per day.
Factors responsible for the respiration
Internal (commodity)
1. Species
2. Cultivar
3. Type of the plant parts – leaves, stem, fruit, root, tuber etc.
4. Stage of development of tissue
5. Surface -to- volume ratios of the produce
6. Pre-harvest treatments (cultural) and PH methods employed (handling etc.)
7. Chemical composition of tissue
8. Any wounding
9. Size of the produce
10. Presence of natural coating on the surface
External (environment)
1. Temperature
2. RH
3. Gas composition in the ambient and within the cell
4. Moisture content of the tissue
5. Light
Effect of Ethylene
Ethylene is a natural product of plant metabolism and is produced by all tissues and by microorganisms.
It’s very low concentration (< 0.1 ppm) can affect the plant organs. Production of ethylene results in
premature ripening of certain horticultural produce.

All fruits produce minute quantity of ethylene during development, however, coincident with ripening,
climacteric fruits produce much larger amount of ethylene than non climacteric fruits. Low concentration
of ethylene 0.1-1.0 µL/L/day is sufficiently hasten full ripening of climacteric fruit, but magnitude of the
climacteric is relatively independent of the concentration of applied ethylene , but magnitude of the
increase being defendant on the concentration of ethylene.

Events changes during maturation/ripening of Horticultural produce

Increases Decrease
CO2 starch
C2H4 chlorophyll
Colour pigments firmness
Polygalcturonase activity Vit.C at the end
Acidity (marginal) texture
pH (marginal) water
Sugars
Organic acids
Aroma
Sweetness
Fiber at the end
Harvesting and postharvest handling of fruits and vegetables
Harvesting is an important operation in horticultural crop production and any insufficiency during
this time may lead to the loss of whole season or year’s work. Harvesting with improper methods results
in the damage of crop by bruising which can be caused by compression (due to overfilling of boxes or in
bulky stores), impact (due to dropping of crop or from something hitting the crop) or vibration (due to
loose packing during transportation). So, during harvesting, factors like delicacy of crop, maturity
criteria, time and method of harvesting, mode of packaging and transportation, the importance of speed
during transportation, importance of harvesting methods to fulfill the market requirement should be taken
into consideration.

In addition to harvesting methods, the time of harvest plays a crucial role in maintaining the best
quality of crop during the course of postharvest handling and storage. A number of various maturity
indices are used to determine the harvest maturity of a given crop.
Harvesting Methods
1. Hand harvesting
Less expensive, low damage to the commodity and harvest rate can be increased but harvesting of
small size fruits or from thorny plants are the major obstacles
2. Mechanical harvesting
a. Mechanical assistance
Mechanical assistance to hand pickers by ladders and worker positioners (tree towers and
platforms) and self – propelled carts (to reduce non harvest time by assisting with materials handling and
movement of the workers and to increase productivity during harvesting time by providing optimum
working conditions and by making detachment of the fruits easier)
b. Harvesting machines
Mechanical Harvesting devices that employ direct contact methods such as combing, cutting,
pulling, snapping, twisting, stripping and compacting.
Postharvest handling
Being living organs, fruits and vegetables continue to respire even after harvesting when they
have a limited source of food reserves. In addition to degradation of respiratory substrates, a number of
changes in taste, color, flavour, texture and appearance take place in the harvested commodities which
make them unacceptable for consumption by the consumers if these are not handled properly. The
improper temperatures may lead to the disturbance in the normal metabolism of the harvested organs.
The higher temperatures may increase manifolds the rate of metabolic activities thereby, reducing the
shelf-life, while much lower temperatures may lead to the freezing or chilling injury in the harvested
commodities. Mechanically damaged fruits and vegetables during harvesting are very much prone for
fungal decay during the course of storage. Already infected fruits or vegetables may spread the disease to
the adjacent stored commodity if not sorted out prior to the storage.
It is well established that the quality of the harvested commodities cannot be improved further but
it can be retained till their consumption if the rate of metabolic activities are reduced by adopting the
appropriate postharvest handling operations.
Steps/ operations in postharvest handling of fruits and vegetables
1. Precooling
Precooling (prompt cooling after harvest) is important for most of the fruits and vegetables
because they may deteriorate as much in 1 hour at 32oC (90oF) as they do in 1 day at 10oC (50oF) or in 1
week at 0oC (32oF). In addition to removal of field heat from commodities, precooling also reduces
bruise damage from vibration during transit. Cooling requirement for a crop vary with the air temperature
during harvesting, stage of maturity and nature of crop.
 There are many methods of precooling viz. Cold air (room cooling, forced air cooling), cold water
(hydrocooling), direct contact with ice (contact icing), evaporation of water from the produce
(evaporative cooling, vacuum cooling) and combination of vacuum and hydrocooling (hydrovac cooling).
Some chemicals (nutrients/ growth regulators/fungicides) can also be mixed with the water used in
hydrocooling to prolong the shelf life by improving nutrient status of crop and preventing the spread of
postharvest diseases.
2. Washing, cleaning and trimming
Before fresh fruits and vegetables are marketed, various amounts of cleaning are necessary which
typically involves the removal of soil dust, adhering debris, insects and spray residues. Chlorine in fresh
water is often used as disinfectant to wash the commodity. Some fungicides like Diphenylamine (0.10 -
0.25%) or ethoxyquin (0.20 – 0.50%) may be used as postharvest dip to control an important disorder of
apple known as superficial scald. For cleaning of some fruit type vegetables (melons, brinjals, tomatoes,
cucumber) they should be wiped with damp cloth. Many vegetables need trimming, cutting and removal
of unsightly leaves or other vegetative parts.
3. Sorting, Grading and Sizing
Sorting is done by hand to remove the fruits which are unsuitable to market or store due to
damage by insects, diseases or mechanical injuries and malformations. The crop is then separated into
various grades based on the surface color, shape or visible defects. After sorting and grading, sizing is
done either by hand or machine sizers which work on the principle of weight and diameter. Sizing on the
basis of fruit shape and weight is most effective for spherical (Oranges, tomato, certain apple cultivars)
fruits and the elongated fruits (pears) are graded based on size.
4. Curing
Curing is an effective operation to reduce the water loss during storage from hardy vegetables viz.
Onion, garlic, sweet potato and other tropical root vegetables. The curing methods employed for root
crops are entirely different than that from the bulbous crops (onions and garlic). The curing of root and
tuber crops helps to develop periderm over the cut, broken or skinned surfaces. It helps in the healing of
harvest injuries, reduces loss of water and prevents the infection by decay pathogens.
Onions and garlic are cured to dry the necks and outer scales. For the curing of onion and garlic,
the bulbs are left in the field after harvesting under shade for a few days until the green tops, outer skins
and roots are fully dried.
The optimum conditions for curing of some vegetables
Commodity Temperature (oC) RH Curing time
(days)
Sweet Potato 13-17 >85 7-15
Yam 27-33 >90 5-7
Cassava 30-35 >80 4-7
Onion and garlic 35-45 60-75 ½ to 1 day with
warm forced air

5. Chemical treatment
Various types of compounds like nutrients, growth regulators, ethylene, ethylene inhibitors, anti
microbial agents, etc. are used to treat the fruits and vegetables with the purpose to enhance quality, avoid
physiological disorders, extend storage life, promote ripening etc.
6. Waxing
Application of waxes on the surface of fruits helps to create modified atmosphere that has been
used to supplement temperature control and extend the postharvest shelf life of fruit by reducing
respiration and transpiration rates and delaying senescence. Other chemicals such as fungicides, growth
regulators, preservatives can also be incorporated specially for reducing microbial spoilage, sprout
inhibition, etc.
Various quality contributing factors are affected by wax application which includes reduction in
the physiological loss in weight (PLW), delay in respiration rate, reduction in postharvest spoilage and
maintenance of improved quality of commodity to increase the shelf life.
The principal disadvantage of wax coating is the development of off-flavor if not applied
properly. Adverse flavour changes have been attributed to inhibition of O2 and CO2 exchange thus,
resulting in anaerobic respiration and elevated ethanol and acetaldehyde contents.

7. Packaging
Proper or scientific packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables reduces the wastage of commodities
by protecting them from mechanical damage, pilferage, dirt, moisture loss and other undesirable
physiological changes and pathological deterioration during the course of storage, transportation and
subsequent marketing. Packaging helps to protect the produce against the hazards of transportation. The
gunny bags, grasses and stem leaves used so far for packaging are now being replaced by a variety of
containers such as wooden boxes, baskets woven from bamboo or twigs, hessian sack/ jute bags, plastic
punnets and corrugated fibre board (CFB) boxes, plastic trays, pulp trays, stretch wrapping, modified
atmosphere packaging etc.

8. Storage
A number of storage techniques (ground storage, ambient storage, refrigerated storage, air cooled
storage, zero emery storage, modified atmospheric storage, hypobaric storage, controlled atmospheric
storage etc.) are being used for fruits and vegetables depending upon the nature of the commodity and the
storage period intended.

Post harvest handling operations of fruits

Harvesting, Precooling, Sorting, Washing, Waxing/ Chemical treatments, Sizing, Packaging,
Storage, Transportation, Wholesaler, Restoring, Resizing and Repacking, Transportation, Retailer and
Consumer

Post harvest handling operations of vegetables

Harvesting, Precooling, Cleaning, Trimming, Grading, Sorting, Curing, Sizing, Waxing,
Packaging, Storage, Transportation, Wholesaler, Transportation, Retailer and Consumer

STORAGE OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS

The shelf life of most fresh horticultural produce can be extended by prompt storage in convenient
environment that maintains product quality. The desired storage environment can be obtained in facilities
where temperature, relative humidity, air circulation and atmosphere/gas compositionare controlled.

Storage – defined as keeping the fresh / processed commodities in safe condition with minimum
deteriorative changes for later use.
Principles of storage
 Control of respiration
 Control of transpiration
 Prolonging the Dormancy period/Control of sprouting and rooting
 Control of undesirable plant process (refer physiological deterioration)
 Control of spoilage
Goals of storage
 Slow down biological activity (transpiration, respiration, ethylene)
 Reduce product drying and moisture loss(shrivelling)
 Reduce pathogenic infection and insect infestation
 Avoid physiological disorders
 Reduce physical damage
 Preserve the commodities in most usable form for the consumer
Advantage of storage
 Extending the period of availability round the year
 Prevention of seasonal market glut
 Orderly marketing
 Better return to growers/consumers
 Preservation of nutritional qualities
 Prolong the usefulness of the produce
Factors affecting storage
Storage life of fresh horticultural produce is affected by many factors like
 Pre harvest factors
 Variety and Maturity at harvest
 Harvesting and handling practices(pre-cooling and others)
 Pre-storage treatments
 Temperature and humidity in storage room
 Overall hygiene
Storage considerations
1. Temperature: Where ever possible lower temperatures suitable for the given commodity are
maintained reducing the respiration and transpiration rates.
2. Relative humidity: RH combined with temperature plays important role in storage.
3. Atmospheric composition: Maintenance of proper oxygen, carbon dioxide and ethylene levels
helps to enhance storage manifolds.

Traditional/ Low cost storage technology

1. In situ/ On site storage: In situ means delaying the harvest until the crop is required and is employed
for the root crops. The land where crop is grown remains occupied and new crop cannot be planted there.
The tubers of crops like cassava may lose the starch content due to delayed harvest. The crops should be
protected from pest and disease attack, chilling and freezing injuries.
2. Sand and Coir: In India, potatoes are traditionally stored in sand brick kiln soil (which is very dry,
structure less material used to insulate kilns in India) and storage losses are reduced.
3. Pit storage: Pits or trenches are dug at the edges of field. Pits should be placed at a higher point, if the
field has slopes especially in regions of high rainfall. Ventilation holes are left at the top covered with
straw in such a way so as to allow air to pass out, but avoid penetration of rain. Lack of ventilation may
cause rotting problem. Potatoes are stored by farmers in pits by this method.
4. Windbreaks: It is a traditional way of storing onions in Britain and onions can be stored for 6 months.
The windbreak should be sited with its longer axis at right angles to the prevailing wind.
5. Evaporative cooling: The principle of evaporation can be used to cool stores by first passing the air
into the store through a pad of water. The degree of cooling depends on the original humidity of the air
and the efficiency of evaporating surface. Both active and passive evaporative cooling systems are
used. In a passive system, the cooling pads are placed over the entrance of the store and kept moist. In
active system, air is drawn into the store by a fan through a pad, kept moist by constantly pumping water
over it. The latter type is more efficient in cooling but requires an electricity supply.
6. Zero Energy Cool Chamber (ZECC): It is based on the principle of direct evaporative cooling. It
does not require any electricity or power to operate. The materials required to make this chamber are
cheap and available easily.
Design and Construction: The floor of the storage space is made with a single layer of bricks over
which a doubled wall rectangular structure is erected with approximately 7.5 cm space between the inner
and the outer brick walls. The outer dimensions of the chamber should be about 165x115x67.5 cm. The
cavity between the two walls is filled with river sand. The top of storage space is covered with gunny
cloth in a bamboo frame structure. The chamber should be constructed under a shed with a lot of aeration
and should be closer to water source.
Operation: After construction, the whole structure is made wet by sprinkling water once in evening till it
is saturated to maintain a lower temperature and higher humidity in it. Direct contact of water with fruits
and vegetables should be avoided. Fruits and vegetables should be placed in crates or in suitable baskets
and then in the chamber. Maximum and minimum thermometer and a wet and dry thermometer are
placed in the chamber to note temperature and relative humidity in the cool chamber.
Storage life-Storage life of different commodities can be increased by 2 to 3 times as compared to
ambient conditions especially during summer.

Storage life of different commodities in zero energy cool chambers

Vegetables Months Storage life (days)
Ambient ZECC
Bitter gourd May-June 2 6
Carrot Feb-Mar 5 12
Cauliflower Feb-Mar 7 12
Cucumber May- June 3 8
Green chillies May- June 3 6
Ladies finger May- June 1 6
Peas Feb-Mar 5 10
Spinach Feb-Mar 3 8
High cost storage technology/ Improved storage methods
1. Cold storage - Refrigeration, Chilling and Freezing
2. Jacketed storages
3. Solar driven cold stores
4. Low Pressure Storage / Hypobaric Storage
5. Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CA Storage)
6. Modified Atmosphere Storage (MA Storage)
1. Cold/ Refrigerated storage – Refrigeration, chilling and freezing
Cold preservation can be refrigeration, chilling or freezing. Household refrigerators usually run at
4-7°C. Chilling or cold storage usually uses a slightly lower temperature on the basis of the food to be
refrigerated. In freezing a temperature of -18°C or below is used. Chilling will preserve perishable foods
for days or weeks and freezing will preserve foods for months or even years.

a. Refrigeration
Heat moves from the object at higher temperature to that at lower one i.e., refrigeration takes out
heat from commodities to be cooled. Refrigeration creates a cold surface that absorbs heat transferred to
it by conduction, convection or radiation. Ammonia is the most commonly used refrigerant for large
installations. It is inexpensive and can be changed from vapour to liquid at nominal pressures and it
absorbs a great amount of heat upon vapourizing (300 cal/kg). However, ammonia will damage fruits in
case of the gas leakage into cold storage rooms and is toxic at high concentrations. So, fluorocarbons
such as Freon-12 and 22 have replaced ammonia as they are non toxic and non-flammable.
The refrigeration cycle - Principle of refrigeration
Refrigeration system components
There are five basic components of a refrigeration system, these are:
 Evaporator
 Compressor
 Condenser
 Expansion Valve
 Refrigerant; to conduct the heat from the product
The Evaporator: The purpose of the evaporator is to remove unwanted heat from the product, via the
liquid refrigerant. The liquid refrigerant contained within the evaporator is boiling at a low-pressure.
To enable the transfer of heat, the temperature of the liquid refrigerant must be lower than the
temperature of the product being cooled. Once transferred, the liquid refrigerant is drawn from the
evaporator by the compressor via the suction line. When leaving the evaporator coil the liquid refrigerant
is in vapour form.
The Compressor: The purpose of the compressor is to draw the low-temperature, low-pressure vapour
from the evaporator via the suction line. Once drawn, the vapour is compressed. When vapour is
compressed it rises in temperature. Therefore, the compressor transforms the vapour from a low-
temperature vapour to a high-temperature vapour, in turn increasing the pressure. The vapour is then
released from the compressor in to the discharge line.
The Condenser: The purpose of the condenser is to extract heat from the refrigerant to the outside air.
The condenser is usually installed on the reinforced roof of the building, which enables the transfer of
heat. Fans mounted above the condenser unit are used to draw air through the condenser coils. The
temperature of the high-pressure vapour determines the temperature at which the condensation begins. As
heat has to flow from the condenser to the air, the condensation temperature must be higher than that of
the air; usually between -12°C and -1°C. The high-pressure vapour within the condenser is then cooled to
the point where it becomes a liquid refrigerant once more, whilst retaining some heat. The liquid
refrigerant then flows from the condenser in to the liquid line.
The Expansion Valve: Within the refrigeration system, the expansion valve is located at the end of the
liquid line, before the evaporator. The high-pressure liquid reaches the expansion valve, having come
from the condenser. The valve then reduces the pressure of the refrigerant as it passes through the orifice,
which is located inside the valve. On reducing the pressure, the temperature of the refrigerant also
decreases to a level below the surrounding air. This low-pressure, low-temperature liquid is then pumped
in to the evaporator.
Thus, in mechanical refrigeration, refrigerated gas (e.g.: Ammonia, Freon, etc.) takes out the heat
form chamber or store as it expands. Expanded gas is then compressed, and heat is removed from
compressed air over tubes containing hot gases. Gas is liquefied and this cycle is then repeated. With
such a system, accurate temperature control is possible. Fruits and vegetables can be safely kept for a
long period through refrigeration.

The refrigeration cycle (shown in diagram below) begins with the refrigerant in the evaporator. At this
stage the refrigerant in the evaporator is in liquid form and is used to absorb heat from the product. When
leaving the evaporator, the refrigerant has absorbed a quantity of heat from the product and is a low-
pressure, low-temperature vapour.

This low-pressure, low-temperature vapour is then drawn from the evaporator by the compressor. When
vapour is compressed it rises in temperature. Therefore, the compressor transforms the vapour from a
low-temperature vapour to a high-temperature vapour, in turn increasing the pressure. This high-
temperature, high-pressure vapour is pumped from the compressor to the condenser; where it is cooled by
the surrounding air, or in some cases by fan assistance. The vapour within the condenser is cooled only to
the point where it becomes a liquid once more. The heat, which has been absorbed, is then conducted to
the outside air.

At this stage the liquid refrigerant is passed through the expansion valve. The expansion valve reduces
the pressure of the liquid refrigerant and therefore reduces the temperature. The cycle is complete when
the refrigerant flows into the evaporator, from the expansion valve, as a low-pressure, low-temperature
liquid.
 Refrigerated products need not be thawed before use. Texture and flavour losses are minimum in
refrigerated foods. Chilling storage can be used as an adjunct to other methods of preservation.
b. Chilling: Chilling is the unit operation in which temperature of a food is reduced to between -1°C and
-8°C. Equipments used for chilling include mechanical refrigerators, cryogenic chilling and cook chill
systems
Chilling injury: All fruits cannot be chilled as tropical, subtropical and some temperate fruits suffer
from chilling injury at 3-10°C above their freezing point. Each fruit and vegetable has an optimum
storage temperature for its shelf life. Undesirable changes to some fruits and vegetables occur when
temperature is reduced below this optimum temperature. This is known as chilling injury.
c. Freezing: Freezing is the unit operation in which temperature of a food is reduced below freezing
point (-18oC), and a proportion of water undergoes a change in state to form ice crystals. Under usual
conditions of storage of frozen foods, microbial growth is prevented completely and action of food
enzymes greatly retarded. Lower the storage temperature, slower will be the rate of a chemical or enzyme
reaction.
In case of fast freezing, smaller ice crystals form within both cells and intercellular spaces. This
does not damage cell walls and so cause minimum dehydration of cells. Texture of food is thus retained
in fast freezing compared to slow freezing.
Freezing injury: Freezing injury occurs when ice crystals form in the tissues. The most common
symptom of freezing injury is a water soaked appearance. Tissues injured by freezing generally lose
rigidity and become mushy upon thawing. Freezing injury occurs in cold storage systems either due to
inadequate refrigerator design or thermostat failure.
Rate of freezing depends upon a number of factors such as method employed, temperature,
circulation of air or refrigerant, size and shape of package, kind of food etc.
Based on rate of movement of ice front, freezers are classified into four groups
1. Slow freezers and sharp freezers (0.2 cm/hr) including cold stores and chest freezers.
2. Quick freezers (0.5-3 cm/hr) including air-blast and plate freezers.
3. Rapid freezers (5-l0 cm/hr) including fluidized-bed freezers.
4. Ultra rapid freezers (10-100 cm/hr) including cryogenic freezers.
Freezers employed in freezing: Chest freezers, Blast freezers, Belt freezers/ Spiral freezers, Fluidized
bed freezers, Immersion freezers, Plate freezers, Scraped surface freezers, Cryogenic freezers (-196oC)
2. Jacketed storages
These are double walled storages where heat conducted through the floor, walls and ceiling is intercepted
and removed by the refrigeration system before it reaches the storage space. The walls, ceiling and floor
act as cooling surfaces. Humidity close to 100% is maintained. These jacketed storages built in Canada
are 10% more costly than conventional storages.
3. Solar driven cold stores
In tropical countries, solar energy is utilized in refrigeration cycle. In Sudan, such stores have been
developed having single stage ammonia/water absorption refrigerator with 13 kw peak cooling power and
were designed to keep 10 tonnes of agricultural products (volume 50 m2) at a minimum temperature of
5°C, as tested on bananas. This system is however costly when compared to conventional cold stores
operated by electricity.
4. Low Pressure Storage / Hypobaric Storage
Fruits can be stored under low pressure of 0.2 – 0.5 atmospheric pressure and temperature of 15-240C
under airtight chamber. Presser is reduced by sucking air and creating vacuum.
Mechanism:
 Reduced O2 supply slows down the respiration. When presser reduced from the 1 atm to 0.1atm the
effective O2 concentration reduced from 21 to 2.1%.
 Eg. In apples, this reduces level of ethylene to 0.01ppm which does not stimulate ripening.
 Released ethylene is removed out of storage.
 Volatiles such as CO2, acetaldehyde, acetic acid, ester etc. are removed/reduced.
Comparative storage life (in days) of produce stored in refrigeration and under hypobaric conditions
Commodity Cold Hypobaric Commodity Cold Hypobaric
storage storage storage storage
Fruits (fully ripe) Vegetables
Pine apple (ripe) 9-12 40 Green pepper 16-18 50
Grapefruit 30-40 90-120 Cucumber 10-14 41
Strawberry 5-7 21-28 Beans 10-13 30
Sweet cherry 14 60-90 Onion (green) 2-3 15
Fruits (unripe) Lettuce
Banana 10-14 90-150 Tomato(mature gr) 14-21 60-100
Avocado 23-30 90-100 Tomato(br stage) 10-12 28-42
Apple 60-90 300
Pear 45-60 300

5. Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CA Storage)

The storage of fruits and vegetables in CA Storage is one of the most advanced methods of storage. It
was first suggested by W.R.Philips of Canada.
From the construction point of view, controlled atmosphere facilities are similar to refrigeration facilities.
However, they should be airtight to allow creation of an atmosphere different from normal. The Oxygen
consumption and its replacement by carbon dioxide by respiration, create the atmosphere. When the
appropriate combination has been reached, a limited intake of oxygen is required to satisfy the reduced
rate of respiration. Accumulation of carbon dioxide is removed by means of different methods.
Physiological basis of CA Storage
Air contains about 20.9% O2, 78.1 % N2, 0.003 % CO2 and trace amount of other gases including Ne, He,
CH4 and water vapour. In CA storage, oxygen is reduced and CO2 is increased and ripening and
respiration rates are slowed down.
Essential features of CA Storage
1. Mechanical refrigeration is used to maintain temperature of -1 to 3°C.
2. The CA storage room is constructed gas tight.
3. Reduction on O2 - Nitrogen gas is introduced into the storage by cylinder to reduce the oxygen level
after room is filled and sealed. CO2 is added into storage from CO2 gas cylinder.
4. Excess CO2 is removed by dry hydrated lime, Ethanolamine, Aluminium calcium silicate, Activated
carbon, Magnesium oxide, activated carbon are other CO2scrubbers.
5. Atmospheric composition is crop specific. However, as a general rule the most common
combinations are 2-5% oxygen and 3-10% carbon dioxide
6. The storage room atmosphere samples are taken daily for CO2 and O2 monitoring.

Benefits of CA storage
1. Retardation of senescence and associated biochemical and physiological changes
2. Reduction of produce sensitivity to C2H4 action at O2 levels below 8% and/or CO2 levels above 1 %.
3. Useful tool for insect control in some commodities.
Harmful Effects of CA storage
1. Causes certain physiological disorders such as black heart in potatoes, brown stain of lettuce.
2. Irregular ripening of produce such as banana, pear, tomato etc.
3. Development of off flavours and off odours at very low O2 concentrations.
 4. Timely non availability of gas
5. Costly and technical knowhow is required
5. Modified Atmosphere storage (MA storage)
MA is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a storage/package in order
to improve the storage / shelf life.
The modification process generally lowers the amount of O2 the headspace of the package. Oxygen can
be replaced with N2, a comparatively inert gas, or CO2.
MA storage implies a lower degree of control of gas concentration in atmosphere surrounding the
commodity. The MA and CA differ only in degree of control, CA is more exact.
The need for this technology for food arises from the short shelf life of food products in the presence of
oxygen. Oxygen encourages the growth of aerobic spoilage microorganisms, therefore, the reduction of
oxygen and its replacement with other gases can reduce or delay oxidation reactions and microbiological
spoilage. Oxygen scavengers (ferrous oxide) may also be used to reduce browning due to lipid oxidation.
• The atmosphere in an MA package consists mainly of adjusted amounts of N2, O2, and CO2.
Reduction of O2 promotes delay in deteriorative reactions in foods such as lipid
oxidation, browning reactions and growth of spoilage organisms.
• Low O2 levels of 3-5% are used to slow down respiration rate in fruits and vegetables, hence,
used to extend the shelf life. Levels higher than 10% of CO2 are phytotoxic for fruit and
vegetables, so CO2 is maintained below this level. N2 is mostly used as a filler gas to prevent pack
collapse.
• In addition, it is also used to prevent oxidative rancidity in packaged products such as snack
foods by displacing atmospheric air, especially oxygen, therefore extending shelf life.
• The use of noble gases such as Helium, Argon and Xenon to replace N2 as the balancing gas in
MAP can also be used to preserve and extend the shelf life of fresh and minimally processed
fruits and vegetables.
Biochemical and Physiological Basis of MA
The rate of respiration and metabolism doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature. Respiration can be
therefore reduced by decreasing the temperature,O2 level and/or increasing the CO2 level in the storage
atmosphere. Both O2 and CO2 levels exert independent effects on respiration. The net effect may be
additive or synergistic. When O2 concentration is reduced below 10%, respiration rate is decreased.
However, when O2 concentration falls below 2%, anaerobic respiration may set in, thereby leading to the
accumulation of ethanol and acetaldehyde.
The desirable effect of MA on plant tissues is also attributed to lower pH, due to dissolution of CO2 in
tissues. Ethylene action and biosynthesis are also effected besides water loss and chilling injury

Methods of creating modified atmosphere conditions

1. Commodity generated or passive MA: If commodity characteristics are properly matched to film
permeability characteristics, an appropriate atmosphere can passively evolve within a sealed package as a
result of the consumption of O2 and production of CO2 through respiration. Film must allow O2 to enter
the package at a rate offset by the consumption of O2 by the commodity and CO2 must be vented from
the package to offset the production of CO2 by the commodity. This atmosphere must be established
rapidly and without danger of the creation of injurious or high levels of CO2.

Films available for MA Packaging: Polyethylene (LD), Polyethylene (HD), Cast Polyethylene,
Oriented Polyethylene, Rigid PVC, Ethylene Vinyl Acetate, etc.
2. Active MA: This can be done by pulling a slight vacuum and replacing the package atmosphere with
the desired gas mixture. This mixture can be adjusted by the use of adsorbers or absorbers in the package
to scavenge O2, CO2 or C2H4. Active modification ensures rapid establishment of the desired atmosphere.
Ethylene absorbers can help to ensure the delay of the climacteric rise in respiration. CO2 absorbers can
prevent the building up of CO2 to injurious levels.

a. Oxygen Absorbers: Most commonly available O2 absorbers include Ferrous oxide (FeO). Iron is
main active ingredient in powdered form becoming Fe2O3 and Fe3O4 and its hydroxides after absorption
of O2.
b. CO2 Absorbers: They are hydrated lime, activated charcoal, magnesium oxide.
c. Ethylene Absorbers: Compounds that can be used for ethylene absorption within polymeric film
packages are potassium permanganate KMnO4 absorbed on celite, vermiculite, silica gel or alumina
pellets. They oxidize ethylene to CO2 and H2O. Squalene and phenyl methyl silicon can also be held in
small sachets within the packages or impregnated in the wrappers or intoporous materials like
vermiculite.
Factors affecting MA packages
a. Resistance to diffusion of gases and water
Most fruits and vegetables tolerate O2 levels down to 1-5 % and CO2 levels upto 5-10%. The difference
between external O2or CO2 concentration and the amount of O2or CO2 available within the cell is
determined largely by the resistance of the plant organ to gas diffusion. This resistance varies among
different plants, plant cultivars, plant organs and stages of maturity.
b. Respiration
MA reduces rate of respiration, which results in slow metabolism and potentially longer storage life.
Respiration rate is sensitive to changes in O2 concentration below 8% and CO2 above 1%. However, if O2
is reduced or CO2 elevated beyond the levels of tolerance of the commodity, respiration associated with
anaerobic respiration or CO2 damage will increase.
c. Ethylene production and sensitivity
A reduction in ethylene production and sensitivity associated with MA can delay the onset of the
climacteric and prolong the storage life of these fruits. When climacteric fruits are exposed to ethylene,
there is irreversible increase in respiration rate and rapid ripening. Ethylene production is reduced by low
O2, high CO2 or both.
d. Temperature
Biological reactions generally increase 2 to 3 fold for every 10°C rise in temperature. Generally fruits and
vegetables will last longer at lower temperatures. However, below a certain level, chilling injury may
occur which hastens senescence and reduces the quality of the commodity. The optimum temperature is
one factor that delays senescence and maintains quality without causing chilling, freezing or other injury.
Non chilling sensitive commodities (e.g. broccoli and peas) can be stored near 0°C without ill effects.
Reduced O2 and elevated CO2can overcome the impact of low temperature injury on the ripening process.
Reduced chilling injury has been associated with elevated CO2 for some commodities.
e. Relative humidity
One of the benefits of MA storage in general is the maintenance of adequate relative humidity within the
package. There is a danger that the relative humidity within the package can get too high causing
moisture condensation and favour microbial growth, resulting in decay of commodity. Condensation may
also adversely affect the gas permeability of the film. Proper temperature should be maintained
throughout the postharvest handling for preventing condensation within packages.
f. Optimum concentration of O2 and CO2
Different commodities vary widely in their tolerance to different atmospheres. A classification of fresh
vegetables according to their tolerance to reduced O2 and elevated CO2 is presented in the following
table.
Recommended MA conditions during transport and storage of selected vegetables
Modified
Temperature range
Commodity Atmosphere
(°C)
% O2 % CO2
Asparagus 0-5 Air 5-10
Broccoli 0-5 1-2 5-10
Cabbage 0-5 3-5 5-7
Cauliflower 0-5 2-5 2-5
Sweet corn 0-5 2-4 10-20
Cucumber 8-12 3-5 0
Leek 0-5 1-2 3-5
Lettuce 0-5 2-5 0
Okra 8-12 3-5 0
Onion (green) 0-5 1-2 10-20
Pepper 8-12 3-5 0
Potato 4-12 None None
Spinach 0-5 Air 10-20
Tomato(partially ripe) 8-12 3-5 0
Environmental factors affecting MA storage
a. Temperature and relative humidity
Ambient temperatures of the surrounding atmosphere affect the commodity temperature. Temperature
changes also affect the permeability of the film, which increases with increase in temperature. CO2
permeability responds more than O2 permeability. Relative humidity has little effect on permeability of
most film packages. Most common films are good barriers to moisture and vapour because they maintain
high internal humidity even in dry, ambient conditions.
b. Light
Green vegetables consume large amount of CO2 and reduce O2 through photosynthesis and would
antagonize the process of respiration which aids in maintenance of specified MA within the package.
Greening of potatoes can cause loss in quality unless light is excluded. Hence, opaque packages should
be used for such commodities.
c. Sanitation Factors
The high humidity maintained within MA packages may enhance the growth of plant pathogens. So care
must be taken to ensure proper sanitation and to avoid conditions favourable to growth and reproduction
of such microorganisms. Fungicidal treatment of packaged vegetables is thus very important.
Differences between CA and MA Storage
CA Storage MA Storage
1 High degree of control over gas conc. Low degree
2 Longer storage life Less
3 More expensive technology Less
4 Atmosphere is modified by adding gas It is created by either actively(addition or removal
of gas) orpassively(produce generated)
5 Specific temperature should maintained May or may not be maintained
Packaging
Definition- "Packaging can be defined as the means of providing protection to the product in order to
ensure safe delivery from the place of manufacture to the point of sale or use at minimum overall cost"
Qualities / benefits of package
1. Packaging serves as an efficient handling unit and a convenient storage unit
2. Packaging protects from mechanical damages, moisture loss
3. Packaging may provide beneficial modified atmosphere
4. Packaging provides clean produce and prevents pilferage
5. Provides service and sales motivation
6. Reduces cost of transport and marketing
7. Facilitates use of new modes of transportation
Thus, packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, and sells the produce.
Various methods of packaging
1. Bags – Like gunny bag, hessian bag in crops such as potato, onion, garlic, carrot etc.
2. Plastic film bags – Widely used for consumer size packs in fruit and vegetables marketing. Retain
water vapour so as to reduce H2O loss from the content.
3. Net / mesh bags – Widely used for packing fruits like apple, citrus, guava, sapota, ber etc.
4. Sleeve packs – Immobilization of packed fruits, superior visibility, gives good sales appeal.
5. Plastic boxes/ crates – Rigid containers, suited for soft and delicate commodities.
6. Trays and Packs – Consumer trays, jumble packs (Apples in plastic bags), pattern packs (citrus
packed in boxes), tray or cell packs (tomatoes and apples) etc.
7. Volume or box packing – Fruits are poured into the carton, after filling, pack is vibrated to tight
packing within box (e.g. Apple, orange, tomato etc.) on a standard weight.
8. Polypropelene boxes – Highly suitable for long markets it can be reused
9. Bamboo mat holed boxes – Suitable for transportation of apple
10. Corrugated fiber board – Suitable for fruit and vegetable and most economical.
11. Wooden packaging – used for packing fruits and vegetables. Similar to plastic crates.
12. Tetrapackaging – It is used to store the fruit beverages and RTS beverages
13. Bundles - Vegetables (drumstick, curry leaf, green leafy vegetables, onion tops etc.).
14. Package insert – Moulded pulp or plastic trays to isolate the individual fruits. These are expensive
but are used in delicate and costly fruits like mango and are ready for retail displays.
15. Wrapping
Covering the fruits after harvest with any material in order to improve its postharvest life is
known as wrapping. The materials commonly employed as wrappers are tissue papers, waxed paper,
pliofilm (transparent sheet made of chlorinated rubber), cellophane paper, aluminium foils and alkathene
paper etc. E.g.: Papaya, gourds
16. Punnet packing – soft fruits such as strawberry, grapes, minimally processed products
17. Pre-packaging
Pre-packaging is generally defined as packaging the produce in consumer size units either at
producing centre before transport or at terminal markets. Packaging of fresh produce in consumer unit
packs protects the produce against the damage and excess moisture loss. Among the different types of
packaging films, polyethylene film finds the maximum use. Materials for pre-packaging include bags,
plastic-film bags, mesh bags, consumer trays, shrink-film wraps, stretch-wraps, boxes, baskets and cups.
18. Modified atmosphere package (MAP)
MAP can be defined as the enclosure of food products in a barrier film in which the gaseous
environment has been changed or modified to slow respiration rates, reduce microbiological growth and
retard enzymatic spoilage with the intent of extending shelf life.
Types of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
a. Commodity generated or passive MAP
b. Active MAP
19. Vacuum packaging
Vacuum packing involves packing appropriate types of foods in an airless environment, and
storage at reduced atmospheric pressures usually in an air-tight pack or bottle to prevent the growth of
microorganisms. Vacuum packaging of food can extend its life by up to 3-5 times.
20. Modified humidity packaging
Mostly used for highly perishable commodities like green leafy vegetables. MHP systems are
designed to control not only dehydration but also condensation. Water absorbents like CaCl2, sorbitol or
xylitol in the package or the use of packaging with good permeability enables to provide required MHP
system.
21 Active packaging – Also called as smart packaging. It is actively involved with food products or
interacts with internal atmosphere to extend shelf life by maintaining quality and safety.
22. Antimicrobial packaging – Incorporating antimicrobial agents into polymer surface coatings and
surface attachments.
23. Individual seal /cling /shrink wrap packaging technique
One of the newest trends in produce packaging is the shrink wrapping of individual produce
items. Individual seal packaging may be considered as the MAP for an individual fruit or vegetable. It
involves sealing of a fruit in a plastic film with or without heat shrinking to conform to the shape of a
fruit.
24. Palletization
Loading and unloading are done manually in India. Due to low unit load, there is a tendency to
throw, drop or mishandle the package, damaging the commodity. This loss can be considerably reduced
by using pallet system. Once standardized for a commodity, mechanical loading and unloading become
very easy with the fork-lift system.
Handling produce as units of 24-60 containers on a pallet has greatly improved produce handling and
efficiency in marketing. Pallets are made from a range of materials e.g. wood, moulded plastics.
Disposable pallets have also been developed using plastic and fibreboard. Pallet sizes; 1200 x 1000 mm
is the most common pallet size although many shippers also use 1200 x 800 mm size.
For processed fruit and vegetable products
Aluminium cans, Tin containers, collapsible tubes, glass containers, plastic containers – low
density polyethylene (LDPE) HDPE, PP (Polypropylene), PVC (Polyviny), chloride, polytysrons (PS),
biodegradable plastics, Phetodegradable plastics, laminate, coextruded films, retortable pouch, bulk
packaging, aseptic packaging, etc.
Packaging materials
1. Natural materials
Baskets and other traditional containers are made from bamboo, rattan (cane), straw, palm leaves,
etc. Both raw materials and labour costs are normally low and if the containers are well made, they can
be reused.
2. Natural and synthetic fibers
Sacks or bags for fresh produce can be made from natural fibers like jute or sisal. Bags usually
refer to small containers of up to about 5 kg capacity. They may be woven to a close texture or made in
net form. Nets usually have a capacity of about 15 kg. Bags or sacks are mostly used for less easily
damaged produce such as potatoes and onions, but even these crops should have careful handling to
prevent injury.
3. Wooden boxes
Wood is often used to make reusable boxes or crates, but less so recently because of cost.
Wooden boxes are rigid and reusable and if made to a standard size, stack well on trucks.
4. Wire-Bound Crates
Wire-bound crates are used extensively for commodities that require hydro cooling. Wire-bound
crates are sturdy, rigid and have very high stacking strength that is essentially unaffected by water. Wire-
bound crates have a great deal of open space to facilitate cooling and ventilation. Although few are re-
used, wire-bound crates may be dissembled after use and shipped back to the packer.
5. Wooden Crates and Lugs
Wooden crates, once extensively used for apples, stone fruit and potatoes have been almost totally
replaced by other types of containers. The relative expense for container, greater concern for tare weight
and advances in material handling has reduced their use to a few specialty items.
6. Wooden Baskets and Hampers
Wire-reinforced wooden baskets and hampers of different sizes were once used for a wide variety
of crops from strawberries to sweet potatoes.

7. Corrugated Fibreboard (CFB)

Corrugated fibreboard is manufactured in many different styles and weights. Because of its
relativity low cost and versatility, it is the dominant produce container material.
There are numerous styles of corrugated fibreboard containers. The two most used in the produce
industry are i) regular slotted container (RSC) and ii) full telescoping container (FTC). A third type of
container is the Bliss box, constructed from three separate pieces of corrugated fibreboard. The Bliss box
was developed to be used when maximum stacking strength is required. The bottoms and tops of all three
types of containers may be closed by glue, staples or interlocking slots. Shallower and open topped CFBs
are called trays.
The ability to print the brand, size and grade information directly on the container is one of the
greatest benefits of corrugated fibreboard containers. Corrugated fibreboard containers are either post
printed or pre printed.
8. Glass containers
Glass containers are ideally suited for the packaging of fruit and vegetable juices, fruit squashes,
jam, jelly, marmalade, pickles. The transparency of glass makes it the ideal choice for many products
displayed for the consumers on the retail shelf. In addition, the sealable, non-corrosive and easy storage
characteristics of glass containers give them added consumer appeal.
9. Tin containers
Among metal containers, tin plate cans fabricated from low carbon steel coated with thin layer of
tin on either side are ideal for packaging, but due to shortage of metallic tin and its high cost, tin plate is
replaced by chromium coated steel plate (tin free steel) and aluminium cans. Tin plate is an ideal
packaging material for processed foods and beverages. Low tin coated steel (LTS) is produced by a
nominal tin coating mass of 1.1g/m2.
10. Aluminium cans
Aluminium being one of the versatile media has over the years, found extensive applications in
the field of packaging. Apart from the number of advantages like light in weight, compatibility with
foods, the most important merit of aluminium is recycling. Aluminium foil (more than 0.015mm thick) is
totally impermeable to moisture, gases, light and microorganisms.
11. Plastic containers
Another alternative to the wood for packaging is plastics. Use of plastics in packaging of fresh
horticultural produce helps in minimizing the cost of packaging materials and makes the whole process
less dependent on scarce materials like wood, thereby, resulting in conservation of environment. The
important plastic materials that can be used for packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables include
polypropylene boxes, moulded expanded polystyrene boxes, stretch film, film wrap, moulded plastics,
plastic bags, shrink wraps, rigid plastic packages, foam sleeves etc.
12. Pulp Containers
Containers made from recycled paper pulp and a starch binder is mainly used for small consumer
packages of fresh produce. Pulp containers are available in a large variety of shapes and sizes and are
relatively inexpensive in standard sizes. Pulp containers can absorb surface moisture from the product,
which is a benefit for small fruit and berries that are easily harmed by water. Pulp containers are also
biodegradable, made from recycled materials, and recyclable. Package inserts are also made using pulp.
13. Paper and Mesh Bags
Consumer packs of potatoes and onions are about the only produce items now packed in paper
bags. The more sturdy mesh bag has much wider use. In addition to potatoes and onions, cabbage, turnips
and some specialty items are packed in mesh bags. In addition to its low cost, mesh has the advantage of
uninhibited air flow. Good ventilation is particularly beneficial to onions.
However, bags of any type have several serious disadvantages. Large bags do not palletize well
and small bags do not efficiently fill the space inside corrugated fibreboard containers. Bags do not offer
protection from rough handling. Mesh bags provide little protection from light or contaminants. In
addition, produce packed in bags is correctly perceived by the consumer to be of lower grade.

Specific packing for export of mango, banana, grapes, sweet orange and mandarins
Mango
• More uniform ripening and better quality mangoes are observed when fruits are packed in
ventilated wooden boxes.
• Partitioned corrugated fiber board (CFB) boxes recorded less bruising, slow ripening, reduced
shriveling and less spoilage as compared to fruits packed in wooden boxes.
Banana
• For export, it is recommended to cut the individual hands of fruits from the stalk, wash them briefly
to prevent staining by the exuded latex, treat the cut surface with fungicides and pack the hands in
cartons or boxes. The cartons often contain polyethylene film lining to protect the bananas from
abrasion during transport.
• In the other methods, banana bunches are packed in polyethylene tubes of specific gauge,
dimension and ventilation holes.
Grape
• The grapes are harvested in baskets and brought to packing sheds
• Packed in wooden boxes (4 kg) and corrugated fiber board cartons (1, 2, 4 and 5kg).
• Ventilated CFB cartons have substituted other containers, such as wooden boxes and bamboo
baskets. Butter papers are used as lining material.
• Different packaging materials like kraft paper, butter paper and soft tissue paper for preparation of
grape guard are used.
• Grape guards are inserted into the boxes of 2 or 5kg capacity and exported. Grape guards contain 6-
9g of sodium bisulphite which controls berry decay and berry drop and extend the shelf life of
grapes up to 15 days at ambient temperature and up to 75 days under cold storage conditions.
Sweet orange and Mandarins
• In some countries, the fruits are packed in polymeric films using shrink wrapping technique. And
later the fruits are placed in CFB boxes or wooden boxes.
Pomegranate
• For export market, the fruits are wrapped in tissue paper and arranged in two rows in CFB boxes.
Depending upon the size, up to two dozen fruits are packed in each box.
Waxing: Fruits and vegetables have a natural waxy layer on the whole surface (excluding under-ground
ones). This is partly removed by washing. Waxing is especially important if tiny injuries and scratches on
the surface of the fruit or vegetable are present and these can be sealed by wax.

Waxes - are esters of higher fatty acid with monohydric alcohols and hydrocarbons and some free fatty
acids.

Waxing generally reduces the respiration and transpiration rates, but other chemicals such as fungicides,
growth regulators, preservative can also be incorporated specially for reducing microbial spoilage, sprout
inhibition etc. However, it should be remembered that waxing does not improve the quality of any
inferior horticulture product but it can be a beneficial in addition to good handling.

A protective edible coat on fruit and vegetable which protect them from transpiration losses and reduce
the rate of respiration is called ‘waxing’.

Skin coating (Protective coating) - is defined as artificial application of a very thin film of wax or oil or
other material to the surface of the fruits or vegetables as an addition to or replacement for the natural
wax coating.

Advantages of wax application are:

 Improved appearance
 Reduced PLW - reduced moisture losses/retards wilting and shriveling during storage
 Reduced weight loss
 Prevents chilling injury and browning
 Protect produce from bruising
 Reducing respiration rate - by creating diffusion barrier between fruit and surrounding as a result
of which it reduces the availability of O2 to the tissues.
 Protects fruits from micro-biological infection
 Considered a cost effective substitute in the reduction of spoilage when refrigerated storage is
unaffordable.
 Carrier agent - used as carrier for sprout inhibitors, growth regulators and preservatives.
 Increase in the shelf life

Mango fruits treated with wax emulsion containing 8 to 12% solids have one or two week’s longer
storage life than the untreated ones.

Disadvantage:
 Development of off-flavour if not applied properly. Adverse flavour changes have been attributed
to inhibition of O2 and CO2 exchange thus, resulting in anaerobic respiration and elevated
ethanol and acetaldehyde contents.
Specifications of a desirable wax
 The selected wax material should provide a lasting shine
 Must be manufactured from food grade materials
 It should not develop any off-flavour and resistant to chalking. This can be determined by cooling
waxed fruit to 0°C and allowing moisture to condense on fruit on removal from cold room
 It should reduce weight loss of commodity by 30% to 50%
 Rapid drying, competitive price and easy clean up
How fruit coating works?
Fruit coating results in the restriction of the gas exchange between the fruit and surrounding atmosphere.
This causes a builds up of CO2 and a depletion of O2 with in the fruit, thus causing an effect similar to
CAS (controlled atmosphere storage).
If surface coatings and their concentration are not selected properly, the respiratory gas exchange through
fruit skins is excessively impaired leading to development of off-odours and off-flavours. Over waxing
also results in abnormal ripening and softening that affects the marketing of such fruits.

Fruit coatings can be formulated from different materials including lipid, resins, polysaccharides,
proteins, and synthetic polymers. Most coatings are a composite of more than one film with the addition
of low molecular weight molecules such as polyols, that serve as plastisizers (increase the plasticity or
fluidity of the material). Otherwise, coatings can be too brittle and will flake or crack on the coated
product. Surfactants, antifoaming agents, and emulsifiers are also often used in coatings.

Fruits suitable for waxing

Immature fruit vegetables - cucumbers and summer squash
Mature fruit vegetables - eggplant, peppers and tomato, potato, pumpkin, carrot, snake gourd, coccinia
and capsicum
Fruits – apple, avocado, banana, citrus (orange, mandarin, lemon, grapefruit), guava, mangoes, melons,
papaya, peaches, pine apple etc.

Food grade waxes are used to replace some of the natural waxes removed in washing and cleaning
operations, and helps in reducing loss during handling and marketing. If produce is waxed, the wax
coating must be allowed to dry thoroughly before further handling.
Types of Waxing
A. Natural waxing
On the plant when fruit attains desired stage of maturity, nature provides them with thin coat of whitish
substance, which is called bloom or natural waxing. Natural coat is clearly visible on fruits and
disappears after harvest due to repeated handling of fruit.
Ex: apple, pear, plum, mango and grapes.
B. Artificial waxing
To Prolong the shelf life of produce some of the fruit and vegetables are dipped in a wax emulsion and
then dried for few minutes. This process provides thin layer (<1 μ) of artificial wax on skin of the
produce by which the small pores present on the skin are fully covered and reduce the transpiration and
respiration process resulting in increased shelf life. Artificial wax also provides good shining and luster
to the produce, which increases its market value.
Artificial waxes like solvent waxes, water waxes and paste or oil waxes are used.

List of Commercial Waxes

1.Shellac
2.Carnauba wax
3.Bee wax
4.Polyethylene
5.Wood resins
6.Paraffin wax
Methods of wax application: Performance of waxing depends on method of application. Amount of
wax applied and uniformity of application are extremely important. Fruits should be damp dry prior to
wax application to prevent dilution. Waxes should never be diluted with water. The following methods
are commonly used.

i. Spray waxing: This is most commonly used method. Fruits and vegetables which move on the roller
conveyor are sprayed with water-wax emulsion. The waxed produce is dried in a current of air at 55°C.
There are two types of spray waxing namely low pressure spraying and high pressure atomizing.

ii. Dipping: Here fruits are dipped in water wax emulsion of required concentration for 30 to 60 seconds.
The fruits or vegetables could be waxed by keeping them in wire boxes holding about 100 fruits (30 kg)
and dipping in 30 litre capacity tank containing wax emulsion. The fruits are then removed and allowed
to dry under electric fan or in the open air or with warm air at 54 to 55°C. The produce should be turned
periodically while drying.
iii. Foam waxing: Foaming is a satisfactory means of application because it leaves a very thin coating of
wax on the fruit after the water has evaporated. A foam generator is mounted over a suitable brush head,
and water is applied to the fruit or vegetable in the foam of foam. Spraying tends to waste wax, but it can
be recovered in catch pans.
iv. Flooding: Flooding is similar to dipping and is a safe and convenient method of application.

Trade name of some extensively used waxes

 Citrashine@ from DECCO, India UPL

 Waxol -12 – Oil/ water-emulsion wax containing 12% solids
 Tal-Prolong
 Semper fresh
 Frutox - Emulsion of different waxes with 12 % solids.