Chapter 10

Post-Harvest Technology

Muhammad Inam ur Raheem and Qamar Abbas Syed*

Abstract
Fruits and vegetables are vital sources of vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, and
antioxidants, which play nutritional and therapeutic role on daily consumption. Up
to 40% quantitative and qualitative losses of produce have been reported in
developing countries that can be reduced by good agricultural practices, better
genetics and efficient produce management. Fruits and vegetables naturally contain
60-95% water so more prone to postharvest losses mainly as physiological
deterioration occurs at high temperature, low atmospheric humidity and physical
injuries by insects and rodents, mechanical processing and microbiological
damages by mold, fungal and bacterial attack. During harvesting, factors like
delicacy of crop, maturity criteria, time of harvest, harvesting techniques, method
of packing, and nature of packaging, transportation and economy of operation
should be taken into contemplation to minimize postharvest losses. Fruits attain
their desirable flavor, colour, quality, palatable nature and other textural properties
by ripening process which can be categorized as climacteric and non-climacteric.
Moreover, ripening techniques are dynamically important either it is traditional or
modern chemical methods with some virtues and imperfections. Modern methods
by using carbide, ethylene gas and other chemicals allow uniform ripening in fruits
and dose of these chemicals depends on cost, convenience and safety factors for
human consumption. During the storage of fruits and vegetables, all factors such as
relative humidity, composition of storage atmosphere and temperature are
substantial to keep fruits and vegetable palatable for longer time.
Keywords: fruits and vegetables, agricultural practices, postharvest losses,
climacteric and non-climacteric, harvesting techniques, textural properties

*
Muhammad Inam ur Raheem˧ and Qamar Abbas Syed
National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
˧
Corresponding author’s e-mail: raheemuaf@uaf.edu.pk

Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq

Editors: Tahir Zahoor and Masood Sadiq Butt
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
264 M. Inam ur Raheem and Q.A. Syed

10.1. Introduction
Fruits, vegetables and nuts are very important in human diet, particularly as a
source of dietary fiber, different vitamins, minerals, as well as antioxidants. Higher
intake of different fruits and vegetables in daily diet is strongly suggested to
combat with some crucial diseases like cancer, heart diseases, stroke etc.
From the harvest to the consumption, different kinds of losses may occur. These
losses may be classified as quality or quantity related. Losses regarding quality of
produce may include inedibility, loss of nutrients, low caloric value and
unacceptability by the consumers. Such losses are more hardly assessed.
Quantitative post-harvest losses differ among types of commodity, with area of
cultivation and the production season. In developed countries, the post harvest
losses of fresh fruits and vegetables may range from 2% to 23% for potatoes and
strawberries respectively, with an average 12% loss between production and
consumption sites. Contrarily, in developing countries theses losses vary widely. In
brief, about one third of the produce could not be consumed by humans.
Controlling the post-harvest losses of horticultural produces may ensure food
availability to the increasing population of the world, may reduce the area required
for cultivation, and finally may lead to conservation of agricultural resources.
These losses may be prevented by: (1) using the genotypes of long postharvest life;
(2) integrating the different systems of management in agriculture that may
improve the keeping quality of the products; and (3) by following recommended
practices to ensure the safety and quality of horticultural produces.
Controlling the wastage of horticultural produce seems more practical than to
increase production. Worldwide, less than 5% of total funding reserved for research
and extension programs in agriculture is utilized for the proper post-harvest
handling activities. There is need to increase the funding to reduce the post harvest
losses of horticulture produces.

10.2. Perishability and Produce Losses

Fruits and vegetables are plant or parts of plants having 65 - 95% water contents.
Living processes in these parts continue after harvesting. The life after harvesting is
dependent on how fast the food reserve is consumed and water is lost. When the
reserved food and water is utilized or lost in any way, the produce is decayed. All
the factors that increase the rate of biochemical processes make the produce
decayed.

10.2.1. Physiological Deterioration

The physiological changes occur by the circumstances that may increase natural
deterioration, including higher atmospheric temperatures, lesser humidity and
surface damages. However, extreme temperature, atmospheric modification or
contamination causes abnormal physiological deterioration in fresh produce. These
10. Post-Harvest Technology 265

may result in undesired flavors, stoppage to ripening or other alterations in the

biochemical processes of the produce, resulting in spoilage.

10.2.2. Mechanical Damage (Physical Injury)

Rough behavior with fresh produce may cause physical hurting, resulting in
damages like split or skin cuts. Consequently, losses of water and physiological
deterioration are accelerated. Surface damages also provide chances of bacterial
infection leading to spoilage.

10.3. Post-harvest Physiology of Fresh Produce

Photosynthesis is a process of making sugars by plants, generally green parts, by
utilizing sunlight energy and carbon dioxide present in air. Plants store the
produced sugars in original form or may form starch molecules by combining
various simple sugars. These sugars and starches are stored in different parts of the
plant.

10.4. Harvesting Methods

10.4.1. Harvesting of Fruits and Vegetables
In horticultural crop production, harvesting is a vital operation and inadequate
techniques lead to enormous loss to grower. During harvesting, factors like
delicacy of crop, maturity criteria, time of harvesting, method of packaging and
transportation and economy of operation should be taken into consideration. In
traditional ways, harvesting operations by hand are normally carried out but to
speed the field handling operations and harvesting, machines and even chemical
sprays are utilized as supporting means. Common harvesting methods of fruits and
vegetables are manual and mechanical harvesting (Sudheer and Indira 2007).

10.4.2. 10.4.2 Hand harvesting of fruits

Soft fruits that born on low growing plants like raspberries and strawberries are
harvested by fruit stalk breaking and then placing them into appropriate container.
Fruit may be taken to market directly in box or punned or they may be taken for
grading to a packaging center and transferred to a consumer pack by placing in a
container. Picking can be speed up by using a hand fitted bag to reduce damage to
the delicate fruits (Thompson 2003).
Mangoes, apples, avocados and citrus fruits are harvested with more difficulty
because they are born on trees. Conventionally, the harvester would use ladder to
reach the fruit. To speed up the operation, different methods have been established.
An elongated pole having a bag at the end together with certain device is
commonly used for fruit stalk cutting or breaking. For harvesting, raising and
lowering platforms are also being used to be towed from tree to tree around the
orchard. In California, clippers are used for cutting grapefruit from the tree to
266 M. Inam ur Raheem and Q.A. Syed

reduce in fungal infections, while in Florida, the fruit stalk is broken by twisting
and pulling the fruit. In case of papaya, the fruit are harvested by cutting the fruit
stalk than fruit picked from the plant by twisting and pulling it. This results in
losses through rotting after harvest (Thompson and Lee 1971).

10.4.3. Hand Harvesting of Vegetables

Low growing vegetables are usually harvested by introducing a garden fork or
other comparable device, beneath the crop and prizing it up, these must often be
dug from the soil with root crops. Other root crops that can be pulled from the soil
include beetroot and radish. Great care must be applied in order to confirm that the
tool is well beneath the crop so that it is not injured (Thompson 2003).

10.4.4. Mechanical Harvesting of Fruits

Damages or injuries likely to be caused to very little fruit ordained for the fresh
market and picked by machines could result in quick fall in quality during
marketing chain. Zamora-Magdaleno et al. (2001) observed that mechanically
harvested, avocados were more likely to damage. Fruits that are little ordained for
processing may be mechanically garnered but after harvesting it is generally
essential to process them very rapidly to avoid deterioration. Forceful wind
machines being pulled through the plantation and tracked by an instrument for
gathering the fruit from the ground are used for removing oranges from trees for
juice extraction. Before harvesting, grass is usually mown beneath the trees. Use of
tree shakers attached to trunk of tree, aggressively shakes the tree to remove the
fruit. The damage levels can be decreased by canvas sheets fixed on a frame which
may site underneath the tree. To prevent bruising triggered by other fruit dropping
from tree, the canvas inclines away from the tree so that the fruit rolls smoothly
away. Significant damage to fruits can be resulted by these ‘shake and catch’ ways
of harvesting. Berlage and Langmo (1979) described 64% damage level and Miller
et al. (1973) stated 51% damage level for Golden Delicious.
Chemical sprays have been suggested to lessen the trouble of dislodging the fruit
from the tree. On the fruit stalk, these boost the development of the natural
abscission layer and should be given a few days earlier to harvesting. Effectiveness
of cycloheximide, ether and abscise acid have been revealed but their use is not
allowed in all countries. The effectiveness of ethrel treatment and the significance
of concentration on gooseberries was presented by Hitchcock (1973). The period
between ethrel application and fruit fall in practical use is affected by fruit maturity
and weather conditions. Ethrel has ability to decrease the storage life of fruits and
some supermarkets do not allow its use, especially on tomatoes. Tractor-mounted
machines having combing fingers may be used for harvesting soft fruits and grapes
for processing, like blackcurrants. With the use of high-frequency, small-amplitude
vibration by the rubber fingers being fixed on a perpendicular drum that revolves at
the similar speed as the harvester moves onward, fruit are removed from the plants.
By blowers fruit may consequently be detached from leaves and juice removed.
10. Post-Harvest Technology 267

10.4.5. Mechanical Harvesting of Vegetables

Some vegetables are cultivated by mechanical methods. The method is fast and it
minimizes the labor cost. However, due to higher risk of damages hand picking is
preferred (Sudheer and Indira 2007).

10.4.6. Harvesting Tips

Containers used for harvesting should be medium sized, cleaned, smooth vented,
steel or plastic buckets. Use stackable plastic crates as field containers during
harvest. Though these crates increase initial investment, but are durable, reusable
and easily cleaned. Do not mix produce that has fallen onto ground with good
quality one. Keep produce clean and free from soil contamination to reduce food
safety hazards. Wear cotton gloves, trim finger nails and remove jewelry such as
rings and bracelets to avoid any contamination during harvest (Thompson 2003).

10.5. Transportation and Handling of Fruit and

Vegetables
Before reaching the sale point, transportation of fruits and vegetables is usually
required many times. Produce grown locally may be directly delivered to retail
outlets from farms. However, transportation of fruits and vegetables coming from
other country is primarily be done by rail or road to a dominant transport mean in
individual country, and then dispatched by air or sea to a dealer’s facility abroad,
where it is shipped once again by rail or road to a dealer’s locality and to a retail
outlets finally by road. Many other scenarios exist between these two situations.
This shows that before reaching the consumers the produce is frequently moved. At
sale point, numerous factors such as quality of produce at the time of harvest, its
physiological phase, amount of pre-cooling, packaging materials and temperature at
which it was retained are involved in controlling the quality of fresh fruits and
vegetables. Fruits and vegetables should be carefully chosen, packed, and retained
at optimum conditions to stop physical injury and slow down the natural
deterioration procedures at every step of transportation (Chakraverty et al. 2003).
Fruits and vegetables are hardly held at ideal storage conditions during transport.
Almost 40% of the fresh produce can’t reach to the supermarket due to
transportation losses. Improved refrigerated transport can only reduce this produce
loss. Main environmental condition influencing produce quality is the temperature.
The respiration rate and water loss of produce is accelerated by high temperature
which causes reduction in the quality of internal flesh, early softening and
shriveling and chilling or freezing injury is due to excessive low temperature
(Tanner and Smale 2005).
268 M. Inam ur Raheem and Q.A. Syed

10.5.1. Factors Affecting Pproduce Quality During Transport

10.5.1.1. Initial Quality
Fresh produce must be suitable to the handling and packing as it has to send
marketplace. Fruits produced locally can attain maturity and ripening properly as
the time to market is short. To ship to noticeable distances, the produce is harvested
slightly less mature. However, it should not have physical injury and the
circumstances influencing it to obvious loss of quality during extended period of
postharvest handling should be avoided.
10.5.1.2. Temperature
Temperature of produce plays an important role in the quality of horticultural
commodities. By respiration (process which uses oxygen and carbohydrate of the
produce and generate/liberate water, heat and CO2), fresh fruits and vegetables
remain alive. Stored carbohydrates are rapidly depleted by high respiration rates
which shorten the life of produce. The prime factor governing the rate of respiration
is temperature. For every 10 ºC rise in temperature above its recommended value,
respiration enhances by a factor of 2 to 5 for fruits and vegetables. For instance,
berries such as blackberries, strawberries and raspberries have a storage life of
seven days at 0 ºC but merely one day at 20 ºC. Whereas, mushrooms, pod peas,
green onions and green beans remain only two to three days at 20 ºC. Rise in rate of
respiration decrease above 30 ºC and produce will lose quality or die very rapidly at
higher temperature. For fruits and vegetables, lists of optimum conditions of
environment for long-term storage and transport circumstances are described in
many handbooks (Kader 2002; Thompson et al. 2000; Thompson et al. 2004).
Even if future conditions are not known, produce should be held at its minimum
recommended storage temperature at any point in the cold chain. Keep perishable
horticultural produce as cool as possible. Chilling injury or freeze damage to crop is
due to temperatures below the recommended levels. Fruits and vegetables innate to
sub-tropical or tropical areas are prone to chilling injury. Surface pitting, tissue
darkening or drying, off flavors, increased susceptibility to decay or failure to ripen
normally are signs of chilling injury (Kader 2002). Frequent exposures of low
temperature have a collective influence on chilling injury.
It may be difficult to maintain proper temperature in some handling systems. For
example; refrigeration of cargo area is fluctuating from hot to freezing in ambient
conditions. There can be substantial waiting time outside, with direct sunlight or
precipitation. Before being cleared by local authorities, produce shipped
internationally may be held at ambient for several hours, once arrived at the
destination. To minimize the time in unprotected environments, policies and
processes must be designed.
10.5.1.3. Humidity and Water Loss
Most fruits and vegetables need specific relative humidity (RH) environment (90-
95%) for maximum shelf life, as the wilting or shriveling is caused by low RH
around produce. A few produce like winter squashes, garlic, ginger and bulb onions
should be kept below RH of 70% (Hardenburg et al.1986). Plant cells are also
10. Post-Harvest Technology 269

weakened by water loss and become more vulnerable to deterioration. In addition,

better production of ethylene occurs due to fungal growth, causing chlorophyll loss
and yellowing of produce (Kader 2002).
RH control capability is not present in refrigerated highway trailers. To slow down
the moisture loss, produce prone to drooping should be packed in plastic boxes,
bags and liners or waxed. Special packaging in air freight is principally vital. Very
low RH, often about 10%, generally exists in airplanes. Marine containers that are
fitted with outlet for the exchange of fresh air to control the air are much more
airtight than highway trailers. Additional cooling is required to condense the vapors
resulted from air exchange in humid areas in the air (Thompson et al. 2004).
10.5.1.4. Atmospheric Composition
Oxygen levels may decrease and ethylene levels and CO2 increase around the
produce as fruits and vegetables respire. In a tightly sealed container, CO2 levels
should be retained below 0.3 %. For many commodities, this is much lesser than
the damage threshold. To prevent damage from accidental buildup of CO2,
sufficient air leakage usually exists in highway trailers.
To improve marine container’s ventilation management, Thermo King Market
systems (AFAM and AFAM+) are used. An electric controller exists in both
systems to set the rate of ventilation and to limit aeration during early refrigeration
to decrease the heat burden. To adjust the ventilation rate based on CO2
concentration, the AFAM+ system has a gas sensor. Scientific literature still does
not contain independent analysis of these systems. Sometimes controlled
atmosphere devices are built in marine containers. Depending on the commodity,
these measure concentrations of CO2 and O2 and control them within a particular
range. In controlled atmosphere systems, the shelf life of produce is typically
increased by 30%.
10.5.1.5. Mixed Loads
When different fruits and vegetables are kept together, the ethylene production
from some produce can damage the other produce. Sometimes the produce can
absorb the odor of other products or vegetables. These products vary on their
requirements for temperature and humidity (Kader 2002; Thompson et al. 2000 and
Thompson et al. 2004). Ethylene induced damage from other produce or variable
sensitivity to absorb odors, can occur in the production areas contained several
commodities.
Marine containers travelling numerous weeks to their destination may have even
more severe problem. Produce should be loaded as mixed loads only if ethylene
sensitivity and odor absorption ability and their temperature and humidity
requirements are well-matched, if logistically possible. Several ways are used to
deal unsuitability between ethylene sensitive and ethylene producing. Use of 1-
MCP product called Smart fresh can protect some fruits and vegetables from
ethylene damage. Use of fresh air exchange rate of 0.2 L/s (Thompson et al. 2004)
or ethylene scrubbers may also reduce the damages in semi-trailer load or in
refrigerated containers. Controlled atmospheres (CA) can permit ethylene sensitive
commodities and ethylene producers to be stored together but the suitable
270 M. Inam ur Raheem and Q.A. Syed

commodity mixtures have not been well explored. Ethylene production and
ethylene sensitivity are reduced by holding produce at its lowest possible
temperature. To deal with temperature unsuitability, there are fewer choices. The
universal rule is plan the load with produce having lowermost possible range of
recommended temperatures, memorizing that extensive transport times emphasize
loss caused by unsuitability. Consignments from food service institutes or local
delivery centers to markets are always mixed loads and have other refrigerated food
like juice, meat and milk and often have produce with extensively variable stowage
requirements. However transportation times are often less than eight hours. Several
transport methods e.g. mini-containers, multi- insulating covers and compartment
vehicles developed for transporting mixed loads were discussed by Hui (2004). To
divide the automobile into smaller sections, semi-trailers or multi-compartment
trucks have detachable partition panels. Mini containers are generally the size of a
typical pallet load. Some are shielded partitions and others are also refrigerated.
Mini containers are easy to handle, highly flexible and can be utilized in various
sizes of automobiles.
Insulated containers can retain temperatures for a restricted time (Hui 2004).
Container shipment is not appropriate for some produce because of their small
postharvest life. This is mainly true if they are held at non-optimal temperatures.
CA or modified atmosphere (MA) packaging can occasionally enhance storage life
and permits produce to be transported to destinations that require numerous weeks
of shipping time. If a MA environment is utilized to grasp various commodities all
together in a particular space, it should, as a least requirement, not reduce the
postharvest life of any of the diverse produces.
When transportation times are of seven days or more, dried vegetables should not
be mixed with other fresh commodity. To inhibit deterioration, these vegetables
should be kept in 50-70% RH environment. Most vegetables are sensitive to water
loss in the temperature range of 0-2 ºC) and should be packed to reduce moisture
loss or detained at higher than 90% RH. The other fruits and vegetables should be
retained at 85-95% RH.
10.5.1.6. Physical Injury
Compression impact and vibration cause physical harm to commodity. Appropriate
packaging, handling and proper location in the refrigerated automobile can
minimize injury. When produce support the weight of the load, compression
damage may happen. When the boxes are not strong enough or lose strength due to
water absorption or mechanical damage, or overfilled or not appropriately
palletized then compression damage may occur. It can be prevented by confirming
that the load aligns with the pallet edge, not over-filling boxes and arranging all the
boxes appropriately in a line (Hui 2004). The corners of corrugated fiberboard
boxes should not extend over the margin of the pallet because they offer most of
their strength. Strength is reduced by 25 mm over-hang by 14 to 34%. Strength is
lost by corrugated fiberboard over time when it is assisting a load. For instance, a
fiberboard box has only 65% of its novel laboratory determined strength after
assisting weight for ten days (Thompson, 2000). When fiberboard is open to high
relative humidity, produced by the commodity inside the box, it also absorbs water
10. Post-Harvest Technology 271

and deteriorates. Recyclable and reusable plastic containers are basically stronger
than corrugated fiberboard boxes and offer more safety against compression
damage (Hui, 2004). If fiberboard boxes are utilized, they should be manufactured
to be strong enough to bear the duration of the voyage under high relative humidity
environments.
Pallet loads should be combined and protected so that they do not move during
handling or transport. Piling tabs or palletizing gum help in avoiding boxes from
gliding past each other. The load and pallet can also be combined, tied together
with banding, corner braces and/or net wrapping. Boxes should extend to the
periphery of the pallet. Free space at the edge will permit the load to move in
conveyance. Interlocking system is mostly designed in reusable plastic containers.
When these containers are appropriately loaded they do not shift in transport
(Vigneault and Emand 1998). Vibration damage is owing to the continuous
vibrating motion of a vehicle when it is conveyed over the road. Vibration damage
is highest in places over steel-spring-suspended axles. Air ride suspension intensely
minimizes vibration damage. A semi-trailer frame is strengthened by the tractor and
in North America most long tow tractors have air-ride suspension. Most
refrigerated semi-trailers made within the last five years are fitted with air-ride
suspensions. Check the suspension system of the back axles before loading a trailer.
Do not load vibration-sensitive commodity, such as Bartlett pears and berries at
least in the last 2 pallet places, if it has steel springs (leaf springs).

10.6. Ripening, Respiration and Role of Ethylene in

Postharvest Technology
10.6.1. Fruit Ripening
During ripening fruits get their typical flavor, color, palatability and certain textural
attributes. It is characterized by some changes in composition namely the
transformation of starch to sugars. Generally, the fruit ripening is meant by the
changes in fruits that make them ready to eat, including softening of fruits resulted
by the enzymatic breakdown of the cell walls, hydrolysis of starches, accumulation
of sugars, and the disappearance of organic acids and phenolic compounds,
including tannins. On the basis of ripening behavior, fruits are classified as
climacteric and non-climacteric.
10.6.1.1. 10.6.1.1 Climacteric
The fruits that continue their ripening and respiration after harvesting are termed as
climacteric fruits. Fruits produce ethylene during ripening along with increased rate
of respiration. Ripened fruits cannot tolerate rigorous transportation and handling
because of their soft and delicate nature. During harvesting fruits are hard and
green, but fully mature and are ripened near consumption areas. Small dose of
ethylene is used to induce ripening process under controlled conditions of
temperature and humidity. Mango, apple, apricot, banana, plum, guava, fig, sapota,
papaya, kiwi, passion fruit and pear are examples of climacteric fruits.
272 M. Inam ur Raheem and Q.A. Syed

At fully ripened stage, these fruits are too delicate to tolerate transportation for long
distances and should preferably be ripened near the consumption area.
10.6.1.2. Non-Climacteric
The fruits that do not ripen further after harvesting are termed as non-climacteric
fruits. A very small amount of ethylene is produced in these fruits and there is no
characteristic increase in the rate of respiration or production of carbon dioxide.
Non-climacteric fruits include orange, grapefruit, mousambi, kinnow, grapes,
pomegranate, litchi, watermelon, cherry, raspberry, carambola, rambutan and
cashew.
To improve the skin colour and market acceptance, citrus fruits are treated with
ethylene. Ethylene breaks down the green chlorophyll pigment in the peel and
express the yellow or orange carotenoid pigments.

10.6.2. Technologies for Ripening of Fruits

A major problem in fruit industry is lack of easy and rapid methods for uniform
ripening. All the methods of ripening, either conventional or the modern have
certain advantages and disadvantages.
Additionally, several simple methods are also known to farmers for proper
ripening. Generally, the days required for edible ripening are different for different
fruits and also depends upon prevailing climatic conditions. For instance, mangoes
may take 5 to 6 days and sapotas may need 6 to 7 days to ripen. Ethylene is
naturally produced by the plants and it plays a major physiological role in the
ripening of fruits.
A simple method that may be practiced at household level is to store un-ripened
and ripened fruits together in an air tight container. In this way, the ethylene
released by ripened fruits triggers the rate of ripening of others.
Furthermore, smoke may induce ripening in fruits. Acetylene gas originates from
smoke and triggers ripening in fruits. A major disadvantage of this method is that
the fruits do not achieve uniformity in colour and flavour. Additionally, the
presence of smoke odor in the product may weaken its quality. Another alternative
is to spread a layer of unripe fruits over paddy husk or wheat straws for a few days.
Another practice is to dip unripe mature fruits in 0.1% ethrel solution and then put
them over a newspaper in a way that they do not touch with each other. They are
covered by a piece of thin cotton cloth. It makes the fruits ripen in two days.
10.6.2.1. Use of Calcium Carbide for Fruit Ripening
Industrial grade calcium carbide may induce fruit ripening. But it usually contains
traces of arsenic and phosphorus, which is illegal in most countries. On dissolution
in water calcium carbide produces acetylene which acts as an artificial ripening
agent. Acetylene may affect the nervous system by limiting oxygen supply to brain.
While arsenic and phosphorus are toxic and exposure to these metals may lead to
severe health hazards.
10. Post-Harvest Technology 273

10.6.2.2. Fruit Ripening Using Ethylene

Ethylene is a natural hormone and does not have any health risk for consumers of
fruits. It acts as a de-greening agent and change colour of fruit peel and enhances
the aroma and sweetness in the fruit. Selection of the method for application of
ethylene depends on cost, convenience and safety. Diluted ethylene gas
applications are safer than pure ethylene, because of its explosive and flammable
nature. Fruits are placed in an airtight room with specific constant temperature, for
instance 18-21 oC for most fruits, but 29-31 oC for mangoes.
Fruits may be exposed to ethylene in two ways. Firstly, trickle ethylene gas into a
room to maintain a concentration of 10µL/L, for 24 hours. Then ventilate the room
after 24 hours. It is to prevent carbon dioxide concentration, which may delay
ripening. Forced-air provides more uniform temperature and ethylene concentration
throughout ripening room.
Secondly, ripening can also be enhanced using ethylene produced by passing
ethanol over an alumina activated bed. This procedure is safer than using pure
ethylene gas.

10.6.3. Optimum Conditions for Fruit Ripening

Temperature 18 to 25oC
Relative humidity 90 to 95%
Ethylene concentration 10 to 100 ppm
Treatment duration 24 to 74 hours according to fruit type and stage of
maturity
Circulation of air Sufficient to ensure distribution of ethylene in the ripening room
Ventilation
Adequate air exchange is required to prevent accumulation of O2, which reduces
effectiveness of C2H4.

10.6.4. De-greening
Sometimes controlled de-greening is used for citrus fruits grown in tropics. Usually
citrus cultivars become mature when the peel color is still green. During
maturation, breakdown of chlorophyll and production of a rich orange colour is
required at low temperature., and that is why mature green citrus fruits are sold in
markets in humid tropics, where the temperatures even at night do not drop much
below 25oC.

10.7. Cold Storage of Fruits and Vegetables

Horticultural produces are stored at low temperature to extend their shelf life.
Refrigeration storage of fruits and vegetables improves their quality by decreasing
274 M. Inam ur Raheem and Q.A. Syed

the rate of cell metabolism and delaying plant senescence, particularly fruit
ripening (Sevillano et al. 2009). Generally, refrigeration storage refers to
temperatures from 0-10oC, whereas freezing refers to temperatures below 0oC.
Development of off odors, flavors, color, textural changes and nutrient losses
occur, if proper refrigeration is not supplied. Refrigeration is suitable for extending
the shelf quality of fresh produce for a few days, however freezing is referred as
one of the most regular systems for the sake of preservation of food items.
Although freezing is a very old technique used in China for the preparation of ice
cellars to preserve food items in 1000 BC (Archer, 2004), preservation by freezing
of foods has been engaged since the 18th century. However, the most important
developments in the utilization of freezing or chilling took place merely in the 19th
century. Decrease in the storage temperature decreases the microbial and enzymatic
activity, consequently it results in the prevention of deterioration of food products.
Moreover, at low temperatures, water crystallization in the foods leads to decrease
the quantity of liquid water in the system and reduce the activity of microorganisms
or enzymes.
Freezing is an outstanding method to protect the majority of fresh foods. Condition
of frozen foods is affected by freshness and quality of freezing. If freezing at
climax quality, foods come out tasting superior than foods freezing close to the end
of their functional life. If appropriate techniques and accurate temperatures are
used, then foods will remain the largest part of vitamin contents, natural colors,
flavors and texture.
Freezing is a simple and straight forward preservation method that preserves fruits
and vegetables for a very long time maintaining the natural attributes (Prochaska
et al. 2000). Freezing maintains the natural attributes of the food by decreasing
enzymatic activity, microbial growth and senescence (Bahceci et al. 2005).
Blanching is carried out before freezing to further facilitate the process. It is also
done in the production of frozen fruits and vegetables before blast freezing or
individually quick freezing (IQF) to decrease microbial weight and inactivate
enzymes (Lin and Brewer 2005).

Table 10.1 Time and storage temperature require for ethylene gas with respect to
different fruits
Commodity Ethylene Ethylene Ripening Storage
conc. (ppm) exposure time Temperature Temperature
(hours) (oC) (oC)
Avocado 10-100 12-48 15-18 4.4-13
Honey-dew melon 100-150 18-24 20-25 7-10
Banana 100-150 24 15-18 13-14
Kiwifruit 10-100 12-24 0-20 0.5-0
Mango 100-150 12-24 20-22 13-14
Stone fruit 10-100 12-72 13-25 -0.5-0
10. Post-Harvest Technology 275

10.7.1. Effect of Freezing on Quality

In freezing process, most of the water is converted to ice and hindering
microbiological and enzymatic activities. Moreover, oxidation and respiration are
also minimized. Slow freezing may become the source of structural harm owing to
the arrangement and creation of big ice crystals. This phenomenon may also result
in increased activity of enzymes and microorganisms, and higher rates of oxidation,
as a result of higher solute concentration and the insolubility of oxygen in ice
(Rastogi et al. 2007). The fact is that freezing slowly does not discontinue the
physical and biochemical reactions that lead to the spoilage of foods (George
1993).
Fast freezing by use of cryogens may induce cracking that might be due to early
reduction of volume due to cooling and consequent boost in volume owing to
freezing (Kalichevsky et al. 1995). Large crystals of extracellular material are
formed due to slow cooling in fruits and vegetables, after that enlarged
concentration of solutes, therefore this will leads to the dehydration of cell and
death through osmotic plasmolysis and membrane damage. When the thawing
comes, extracellular ice does not re-enter in the cells and may cause widespread
softening of drip and texture (Cheftel et al. 2000).
Pectic polysaccharides occur in abundance in the primary wall and the middle
lamella between cells are chiefly responsible for the majority of the texture
characteristics of fruits and vegetables. The end user desires the firm, enough crispy
and somewhat tenderness in the raw vegetables. Substantial quantity of
investigation has been headed for adapting processing technologies to keep
additional textural qualities of the fresh products (Bourne 1989). Considerable
depolymerization and devastation of cell wall pectin throughout processing of
frozen carrots brutally affected the firmness and qualities related to texture. Tissue
introduction to elevated temperatures for a few seconds, proved better withholding
of post freezing firmness. Whereas quick freezing rates keep improved texture and
highest degree of cellular integrity. Significant softening and structural destruction
were seen at slower rates. Roy et al. (2001) stated that the High Temperature Short
Time (HTST) blanching followed by rapid freezing at –4.5°C/ min can be
suggested as the best possible thermal processing conditions for enhancement of
textural qualities in the frozen carrots.

10.7.2. Factors Affecting Cold Storage

The physiological incident in plants is compulsory to be slowed down to prevent
metabolic changes and raises the shelf life. All the plants and plant materials respire
even after harvesting. The rate differs from one material to another material. During
storage of fruits and vegetables, oxygen is used and thus taken up and carbon
dioxide and water are evolved. Respiration in plant materials also results in heat
generation and loss in the quality of the product. The refrigeration requirements of
fruits and vegetables are dependent on several factors. These are temperature, RH,
composition of storage atmosphere and ventilation.
276 M. Inam ur Raheem and Q.A. Syed

10.7.2.1. Temperature
The selection of temperature for refrigeration storage of the foods is primarily
dependent on the estimated desired period of storage, nature of food, and
composition of the storage atmosphere and pre-treatment of raw material.
Metabolic actions in certain plant materials are very much high that can results in
the production of heat during storage. For example, 1 ton of green beans, okra and
sweet corn, when stored for 24 hours at 4.5oC which generate over 252 Kcal of the
heat. Under identical conditions, over 504 to 1260 kilocalories of the heat is
produced when the equal amount of carrots and potatoes are stored. Among fruits,
most are sluggish in the process of respiration and therefore discharge a smaller
amount of heat during the storage. Oranges, grapefruits, lemons, cabbage, onions
and tomatoes give up under 504 Kcal of the heat under similar conditions and the
time specifications.
Keeping in view, the other conditions, hard ripened fruits and some vegetables
could be stored at most favorable parameters of freezing or chilling temperatures
with the RH for the period of not more than 2 weeks. If we talk about an
atmosphere which contains normal amounts of O2 and CO2, nectarines, carrots,
spinach, lemons, cabbage and green peas could be stored at just above freezing
temperatures for the highest storage life. The suitable storage period for potatoes,
pineapples and oranges will best at 2-7oC. Bananas, lemons, limes, grapefruits,
mangos, green beans, sweet potatoes, tomatoes and cucumbers are stored at a
temperature of 7 to 13oC for the maximum life. To get life span of more than 3
months in oranges, carrots, green lemons, eggs, cabbage, potatoes and sweet
potatoes could be stored at most favorable surroundings of temperature and RH.
To maintain uniform temperature, insulations are very necessary in the storage
chamber and during the storage time. The properties of insulating material should
be normally like nontoxic, strong in holding and with the low heat conduction
properties. One more factor which affects the cold storage temperature of chambers
is the difference of temperature between refrigerator coils and storage atmosphere.
Smaller difference of temperature is preferable over a large temperature difference,
as the later encourages vapor condensation in cooling coils. Cooling requirements
also demand for the proper air circulation equipment of the food material.
The main objective in all preservation methods including freezing is to lessen the
rate of different biochemical reactions which are probable for the food spoilage.
Many of these reactions are correlated with the temperature as below:
• Physical reactions: heat, moisture loss and effect of light etc.
• Chemical reactions: denaturation of proteins and oxidation of fats etc.
• Microbiological reactions: bacteria, fungus, etc.
If we lower the temperature, speed of the reactions will also decrease. Due to this
reason freezing or chilling are fetching more popularity all over the world every
day. But still around the freezing point several reactions occur including the
increase of microorganisms.
10. Post-Harvest Technology 277

10.7.2.2. Relative Humidity

Control on the RH in storage compartment is very important for extensive storage.
Too much elevated relative humidity above the favorable level supports microbial
growth and activity. Molds develop in a RH of 85-90 %, yeasts need 90-92% and
bacteria near saturation point. RH lower than optimum, can result in the loss of
moisture, wilting of fruits and vegetables or injury. In most of the vegetables, a
reduction of 3 to 6% moisture will end results in a spotted loss in the quality. The
optimum RH for a specific raw material relies upon storage temperature.
10.7.2.3. Composition of the Storage Atmosphere
In cold storage chambers, an atmosphere containing higher percentage of carbon
dioxide and lower oxygen contents than are found in air are maintained to suppress
the normal physiological processes in plant materials. Carbon dioxide content of
above 10% significantly retards microbial growth on the food surface. Similarly,
reducing oxygen concentration from the normal 21% to 10% or lower decreases the
rate of respiration. Problem in influencing the atmosphere of gas lies in the
complexity of control.
10.7.2.4. Ventilation
Ventilation in cold storage chambers is important to prevent the development of
stale odors and flavors and require removal them from the atmosphere. This is also
helpful in maintaining the uniform temperature and relative humidity. In case
adequate ventilation are air circulation is not provided, then food in local areas of
high humidity may undergo microbial decomposition. This would also prevent
maintenance of uniform product composition in the storage atmosphere.

10.8. Conclusions
Pakistan is rich in fruits and vegetables which are vital sources of dietary fiber,
minerals, vitamins, and antioxidants, play very important nutritional as well as
therapeutical role in human body. Quantitative and qualitative losses ranging up to
25 – 40% have been reported in developing countries which can be reduced by
good agronomic practices and better genetics in addition to efficient postharvest
management. Higher water contents in fruits and vegetables, make them more
sensitive to postharvest losses. During harvesting, factors like frailty of the
produce, maturity level, climate conditions at harvesting, harvesting techniques,
method and nature of packaging and means of transportation should be taken into
contemplation to minimize postharvest losses. During storage of fruits and
vegetables the factors such as relative humidity, composition of storage atmosphere
and temperature are significantly important but temperature is the most significant
among them because physical and microbiological reactions are directly associated
with temperature. Temperature either lower or higher is useful to keep fruits and
vegetable appetizing for longer time.
278 M. Inam ur Raheem and Q.A. Syed

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