3.

CROPPING SYSTEMS
3.1 Definitions:
Till date there is no complete agreement on terms used in Cropping
System (terminology and concepts).
3.1.1 Cropping System
1. “System of cropping is the way in which different crops are grown.
Sometimes a number of crops are grown together in the same field in the
same season or they are grown separately at intervals”.
2. “It is the concept of growing one or more number of crops in the same
season and /or in different season in an agricultural year”.
3. “The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow on a
given area is known as Cropping Pattern”.
The cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction with farm
resources, other farm enterprises and available technology which determines
their make-up is called Cropping System (Reddy ,S.R, 2011), and hence the
Cropping System is a subsystem/ part of the farming system.
3.1.2 System
A system consists of several components which are closely related and
interacting among themselves.
3.1.3 Crop
Refers to the plants sown, cultivated and harvested by human for
different purposes.
3.1.4 Crop System:
It is an arrangement of crop population that transform solar energy,
nutrients, water and other inputs in to useful biomass. The crop can be
different species and variety but they only constitute crop system if they are
managed as a single unit.
3.1.5 Crop calendar:
A list of the standard crops of a region/zone in the form of a calendar
with details of various cultural operators during the crop season.

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3.1.6 Crop Ecosystem
Refers to Cropping System ranging between monoculture and multispecies
culture of field and garden crops in single or combination and their relation to
their environmental condition and management practices.
3.1.7 Crop environment
Regarded as having two components, one is the gross environment (all
environmental factors affecting crop growth) and changes caused by plant
community.
3.1.8 Crop planning and Management:
“It involves selection and allocation of various crops (Cropping System) to
different plots of the farm and application of advanced scientific principles for
efficient utilization of various farm resources more skillfully and judiciously,
which are ecologically sustainable with a view of securing maximum
productivity and profit in the long run with impairing the soil fertility”.
Crop planning should always be flexible so as to take care of unexpected
weather condition, sudden incidence of pest and diseases, changes in market
conditions etc.
3.2 Components of Cropping Systems
In any system the components are inter-related and interacting among
themselves. Hence, here the components are:
a. Different crops which are called as main crop and subsidiary crop
(component crops, intercrop, nurse crop, sub crop etc.) which have
difference in canopy structure, duration, rooting pattern, nutrient
consumption. etc.
b. Nature of the cultivated land (low land, irrigated up land, and rain fed land
etc.
c. Soil properties, with respect to soil fertility etc,.
d. Water resources availability.
e. Transportation, marketing, capital availability etc,.
f. Prevalence of climatological characteristics of a given area.
g. Associated other farming enterprises in the Farming System/IFS.
h. Other dependent components.

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3.3 Objectives of Cropping System:
1. The main objective of any cropping system is to have efficient utilization of
all resources viz. land, water, solar radiation, etc.
2. To maintain stability in production.
3. To obtaining higher net returns.
4. To set more efficiency, measured by the quantity of produce obtained per
unit resource in a unit time.
3.4 Difference between Cropping pattern and Cropping System
Cropping System
Sl. Cropping pattern
(means recommended/technological
No. (means existing/practicing)
base/knowledge)
1. Yearly sequence and spatial Pattern of crops taken up for a given
arrangement of crops, or crops- piece of land, or order in which the
fallow on a given area. crops are cultivated on a piece of land
over a fixed period, associated with soil
management practices such as tillage,
manuring, irrigation.
2. Crop rotation practiced by Cropping patterns and its management
majority of farmers in a given to derive benefits from a given resource
area/locality base under specific environmental
condition.
3. Type and arrangement of crops The cropping patterns used on a farm
in time and space (dimension). and their interaction with farm
resources, other farm enterprises and
available technology which determine
their make
4. The proportion of area under This is a sysyem consists of several
various crops at a point of time components which are closely related
in a unit area. and interacting among themselves.

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 3.5 Classification of Cropping System
Till date, there is no complete agreement on the terms used in Cropping
System. Cropping System varies widely from the simplest system of one or two
crops in a year either as pure or in mixtures to complex intercropping with
many crops. For better understanding they are mainly classified as
I. Mono Cropping System
II. Intensive Multiple Cropping System
III. Crop Rotations
IV. Land Rotation/Shifting cultivation/Jhumming
I. Mono Cropping Systems:
1. Mono culture/mono cropping.
a) Annual b) Biannual c) Biennial d) Perennial
2. Sole cropping/Solid cropping/pure cropping

II. Intensive Multiple Cropping System (Intensive Cropping System/

Multiple Cropping System)
A. Inter Cropping Systems
i. Additive series
ii. Replacement series
B. Sequential Multiple Cropping System (Non over lapping Cropping
System)
C. Relay/over lapping/paira/utera Cropping System
D. Ratoon farming/cropping.
E. Ley farming
A) Inter Cropping System
(a) Mixed Inter Cropping System (Replacement)
1. Non companion mixed Inter Cropping System
i. Board casting
ii. Row sowing
2. Guard mixed Inter Cropping System
3. Augmenting mixed inter cropping system
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 4. Trap crop mixed inter cropping system
5. Strip crop mixed inter cropping system
6. Patch cropping
(b) Row Inter Cropping System (Additive/Replacement):
(1) Parallel/parallel multiple Inter Cropping System (Additive)
(2) Companion Inter Cropping System (Additive replacement)
(3) Synergetic Inter Cropping System (Additive)
(4) Bio mulch/live mulch Inter Cropping System (Addition)
(5) Trap crop Inter Cropping System (Additive)
(6) Alley/hedge row Inter Cropping System (Additive/replacement)
(c) Multi storied/multi level/multi tier/multi canopy Inter Cropping
System: Additive/replacement)
(B) Sequential Cropping System (Non-over lapping Cropping System):
a) Double Cropping System
b) Triple Cropping System
c) Quadruple Cropping System
III. Crop Rotation
IV. Land Rotation/Shifting cultivation/Jhumming
V. Continuous Rice Production Concept or Rice garden
It is system of growing rice wherein rice is planted and harvested in
alternate days. Here entire land is divided into a number of equal plots. One
plot is transplanted every other day, thus staggering the crop. A plot is
harvested, ploughed and prepared for planting on Monday, Wednesday and
Friday. A new crop is transplanted in each of these plots on Tuesday, Thursday
and Saturday, Sunday is for rest.
Three men each working 30 hours a week in rice garden produced more
than 20 tonnes of IR – 36 on 1 ha. The production is well above 64 kg/ha/day
These are the for essential points for the success
1. The atmospheric temperature has to be such that, rice can be grown
throughout the year.
2. An assured year round water supply under the control of farmer
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 3. A way to dry, weekly rice harvest during the rainy season
4. Above average managerial ability for work productive employment in
rural areas.
I. Mono Cropping Systems
Monoculture: Repetitive growing of the same (sole) crop on the same land or it
is a system of growing the same crop on the same land year after year.
Sole cropping: One crop variety grown alone in pure stand at normal density
in a certain time and place.
“Continuous cultivation of the same crop once or more than once in an
agricultural year and repeating the same in subsequent years”.
This situations may be due climatologically and socio economic conditions
or due to specialization of a farmer in growing a particular crop.
Common mono cropping examples
i. Dry land situation: Finger millet in Eastern Dry Zone of Karnataka,
Ground nut in Central Dry Zone of Karnataka, red gram in North
Eastern Dry Zone, Cotton in black soils etc.
ii. Rinfed: FCV tobacco in transition zone, paddy in malnad region.
iii. Irrigated situation: Sugarcane in command area, paddy in canal
irrigated (TBP area) etc.
iv. Garden land: Example: coconut, areca nut etc,.
Advantages:
A. Farmer will acquire specialization.
B. Mechanization can be easily adopted.
Disadvantages/Adverse consequences:
1. In these areas, there is no crop diversification.
2. There is economic instability because of less control over the production
of the same crop which intern affects to demand for that crop.
3. Cultivation of same crop would results in depletion of soil fertility for
particular type of nutrient at the know soil depth.

6
 4. There won’t be proper utilization of soil fertility at various depth and for
other type of nutrient which would have been utilized by different type of
crops.
5. There is very less time for recycling to buildup the nutrient by the soil,
which are depleted by the same crop, results in decreasing in yield over
certain period, which may results in varietal deterioration (Particularly in
irrigated situation).
6. The mono crops are heavily dependent on fertilizers and chemicals to
secure yields.
7. Pollution is abundant and long term ill effects are seen.
Hence mono Cropping System is not an advisable Cropping System for
sustainable agriculture.
Classification of mono Cropping System:
1. Annual Mono Cropping System: “Cultivation of only one type of crop
and only once in an agricultural year and repeating the same in
subsequent years”.
Ex: Ragi in eastern dry zone of Karnataka.
Cotton in black cotton soils etc.
2. Biannual Mono Cropping System: “Cultivation of same type of crop
twice in an agri. Year and repeating the same in subsequent years”.
Ex: Paddy in kharif and also in summer in canal irrigated area.
3. Biennial Mono Cropping System: “Cultivation of one type of crop once
in two years and repeating the same in subsequent years”.
Ex: Sugar cane - main crop - and then ratoon crop.
4. Perennial Mono Cropping System: “Cultivation of only one type of crop
which are perennial in nature”.
Ex: Coconut, guava, sapota, etc.

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 Complementarity
It refers to the utilization of inputs applied in raising the crops. When
two or more crops are grown in combination they are able to complement
each other. These crops jointly make use of resources than when grown
separately. Crops of different growth and development behavior, when grown
in mixed, give best complementarities because they different in their
timings, demand for the applied resources.

II. Intensive multiple Cropping Systems/Intensive Cropping System

Multiple Cropping Systems:
“It is the intensification of cropping in time and space (temporal and special)
dimensions where growing of two or more different crops on the same field in
an agricultural year”.
“Multiple cropping is the process of growing two or more different crops on
the same piece of land, either in the same growing season or grown in
succession (season after season) with in an agricultural year”.
This represents a philosophy of maximum crop production per unit area of
land within an agricultural year.
Pre-requisites for Intensive/Multiple Cropping System:
For successful multiple cropping programme the following things must be
made available.
1. Availability of most suited high yielding and short duration crop
varieties. These varieties must be responsive to input doses and they
should also be thermo and photo insensitive so that at least three crops
could be grown every year.
2. Availability of genetically superior quality seed or planting materials so
that a required genotype could be grown and they may express their full
yield potentials.
3. An excellent physico-chemical properties of soil like well levelled land
surface, better structure, aeration, water holdings capacity,
permeability, free from undesirable salts, etc,. The soil should be rich in
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 soil fertility and organic matter content so that it may be sustain high
intensity cropping with greater productivity.
4. The area should not be prone to climatic hazards like flood, drought,
frost, etc, and all preventive measures should be taken in advance to
meet any such challenges. The soil should also not be infested with
perennials weeds like sachharum spp., sorghum halepense , etc., pest
and disease pathogens.
5. Ready availability of inputs like labour, capital, irrigation, power,
fertilizer, seeds and plant protection materials and equipments with
technical details.
6. An efficient and regulated marketing facilities should be provided to
growers so that they may get remunerative prices of their produce to
enable them recycling of funds in better crop planning. This would also
avoid glut in the market.
7. The cultivation must be well acquainted with latest crop production
technologies.
8. The farmers should get acquainted with allopathic effect of some crops
and their associated weeds so that the susceptible crops could be
avoided in succession. Viz. accumulation of HCN in sorghum stubbles
becomes toxic to wheat seedlings, therefore, wheat should be avoided
after sorghum.
9. The crops should be harvested at physiological maturity so that sowing
of next crop could not be delayed and every day of the year be utilized for
crop production.
10. The farmers should know about post harvest processing of various crops
and their products which may help in generating employment
opportunities and in appreciating the value of the produce.
11. Crop insurance scheme should be available for high input requiring
crops or cash crops like potato, sugarcane, tobacco, cotton etc.
12. The farmers must be acquainted with ill-effects of multiple cropping, like
gradual depletion in soil fertility and deficiency of certain micro-
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 nutrients, gradual build up in population of certain pest and disease
pathogens etc. so that timely curative measures may to taken.
13. The farmers should be frequently trained in latest techniques through
demonstrations, field days, farmer’s meeting. etc. for an efficient transfer
of technologies and their proper adaptation by the farmers.
Classification of Intensive multiple Cropping System
A. Inter Cropping Systems
i. Additive series
ii. Replacement series
B. Sequential multiple Cropping System.
C. Relay/overlapping/paira/utera Cropping System.
D. Ratoon cropping/farming
E. Ley Farming.
(A) Inter Cropping System: It refers to growing of two or more different crops
simultaneously on the same piece of land during the same growing
seasons.
There is crop competition during all or parts of crop growth. Here there is
more than one crop at a time in the same field. The main objective is to get
higher productivity per unit area and unit time and stability in production with
improved resource-use-efficiency.
Ex: Dry land ( Usually Replacement Series)
a. Ground nut with red gram 8:2
b. Ragi with red gram 6:2
c. Sorghum with soya bean
d. Maize with green gram/black gram
e. Ragi with niger/castor/sorghum
Ex: Irrigated (Additive):
a. Sugarcane + potato
b. Sugarcane + Soya bean
c. Cotton + Chilly/Onion
d. Chilly + Onion

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i) Additive series of inter cropping:
“Growing of two or more different crops in the same piece of land and in
the same growing season without altering the population of main crop and its
occupied area with the objective of maximum productivity per unit area and
unit time”
In such type of intercropping system
ii) Replacement series of Inter cropping:
“Growing of two or more different crops in the same piece of land and in
the same growing season by altering the population of both main and sub
crops by proportionality sharing the land and with the main objective as an
insurance against failure of a crop by natural calamities insects and disease
incidence”
Addition of any crop in this system can be done only by replacing another
crop for space and other requirement of that crop. Hence in this system the
different crops have their proportionality share of the lands depending upon
the crops have the plant population, less than their recommended in pure
stand.
Example:
a. Ground nut with red gram 8:2
b. Ragi with red gram 6:2
c. Ragi with niger/castor/sorghum etc.
Similarities between Additive and Replacement series of Inter Cropping
System
1. In both the system two or more different crops are grown.
2. They are grown in the same season and in the same piece of land.
3. These two or more different crops are of different crops are of different
growth structures/plant structures.
Dissimilarities between Additive and Replacement series.
Additive series Replacement series
Sl.
(Inter cropping/Row Inter (Mixed Inter Cropping System)
No.
Cropping System)

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1. The main objective here is to utilize The main objective here is to get at
the space left between two rows of least one crop under any climatic
main crop especially during early hazards, or any epidemic outbreak of
growth period (time) of main crop pests and diseases.
to raise an intercrop.
2. More emphasis is given to the main Both main and sub crops compete
crop and the sub crop is not grown with each other, hence the crop are
at the cost of the main crop. Thus given with equal importance (space,
there is no competition between water, nutrient etc.)
them.
3. The sub crops are short duration Both the crops are of the same
and they are harvested much duration or different duration and
earlier than the main crop. hence harvested in almost the same
time or in different time
4. Both the crops are sown in rows. The seeds of these crops may be
The sowing time may be same or broad cased or sown in rows but the
the main crop is sown earlier than sowing time for all the crops is
the sub crop. almost the same.
5. No row proportions is maintained Row proportions is maintained
6. Population of main crop is equal to Population of both main and sub
that of pure crop. The population of crop can never be equal to that of
sub crop may be equal or less than their pure crops. Hence the
that of pure crop. population are regulated according to
the row proportions
7. There is no replacement of space Areas occupied by both the crops are
for one crop over the other. shared correspondingly according to
Without altering the total area the row proportion and hence there is
required for the main crop, the replacement of space for one crop
area for intercrop are also provided over the other. i.e. total cropped area
(Additive), e.i. total cropped area is is not altered much.

12
 more.
8. The yield of main crop is equal to The yields of both the crops are
that of pure crop. In additive to dependent on the row proportion
this winter crop yield may be (population) and hence it will never
obtained equal to their pure crop or be equal to that of their pure crop
even less. yield.
9. There is efficient utilization of Less efficient utilization of space and
space and time, and hence it is time. It is followed with an objective
followed with an objective of of risk of not getting a single crop.
maximizing the yield per unit area
and time.
10. It is usually followed in areas Usually followed in dry zones or the
where assured rainfall or irrigation areas where there is more prevalence
facilities are available. of pests and climatic hazards.
11. Inter-cultural operations are Inter cultural operation are easy
difficult and hence sometimes
manual operations are required.
12. Suitable for small sized holdings Suitable for large sized holdings
13. LER is more LER is less

Mixed Inter Cropping System (Replacement)

This system of cropping is generally practiced in areas where natural
calamities such as flood, drought, frost, etc. and insect and disease prevalence
are frequent and common. The farmers always have fear that their crops may
fail in dry land situations. In this system there will be sure of at least getting
one crop as compare to mono Cropping System( under this system, the time of

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sowing of all the crops is almost same, however they may mature either
together or they mature at different at different times).
Definition :-( Please refer the replacement series)
Depending on the method of sowing, it has classified as follows:
(1) Non-companion mixed Inter Cropping System
i. Broad casting
ii. Row sowing
In this system, the seeds of different crops are mixed together and then
sown either in line or they are broad casted. This system is not a scientific
method and it causes problems in performing all the agricultural operations
and also harvesting of the crops.
Example: Niger mixed with jowar, cowpea, green gram, etc.
Ragi mixed with jowar, niger, avare, etc.
As an exceptional to this (natural calamities), this system is also
prevalent in irrigated areas.
Advantages:
1. Early establishments.
2. Mainly to meet the household requirement of different products.
3. Diversity of cropping as compare to mono Cropping System.
Example: Green manuring in-situ method in rice growing areas, where such of
sun hemp, sesbania, cowpea, etc. are mixed and then broad casted.
Disadvantages:
1. The seed rate for each crop per area is not defined and hence either over
populated or less crowded.
2. Problem with thinning, inter cultivation and other operation hence, it
involve more labor dependent.
3. Unscientific and management is extremely difficult.
4. Space and other requirement of each crop is not fulfilled and hence
competition among the crop exists.
(2) Guard Mixed Inter Cropping System:

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 Under this system, the main crop is grown in the centre, surrounded by
hardy or thorny crops (sub crops) such as safflower around garden
pea/wheat/Mesta. Here the sub crops is act as guard crop to the main crop
from stray cattle.
(3) Augmenting mixed Inter Cropping System:
In this system the secondary crop are grown to supplement the yield of
main crop. Here sub crops is act as augmenting crop for main crop yield would
be more as compared to its potentiality of individual plants in their pure crop.
Here the competition effect is healthy and are synergistically effective.
Example:
a) Pulses with jowar, here pulses act as augmenting crop, where jowar is a
main crop. Jowar yield is known t increase more as compared to any
other crop where there are used as sub crops.
b) Berseem with Japanese mustard. Here berseem is a fodder crop and it is
used as a main crop. The Japanese mustard is act as an augmenting
crop which would helps in getting higher tonnage of fodder in spite of the
fuel that berseen gives poor yield in the first cuttings.
4) Trap crop Mixed Inter Cropping System:
The Sub-crops are used as trap crops to trap the insects, diseases and weed
and to rescue the incidence of these pests to the main crop. These trap crops
act as only as insurance against failure of main crop with respect diseases,
insects and weeds. In this system if there is any pest incidence the trap crop
may completely fail or may not give any yield.. Hence, the sub-crops reduces
the incidence of insects diseases and weeds of main crop by relative decrease in
the yield of sub-crops.
Example:
1. Marygold (flower crop) in tomato control Nematode/Helicoverpa.
2. Castor in cotton to control bollworm.
3. Mustard in cabbage control diamond black moth.
4. Coriander in jowar control striga (weeds).
5) Strip crop Mixed Inter Cropping System:
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 The cultivated land are divided in to number of strips of different sizes or of
same sizes. Different crops are grown by cultivating each strips for each crop.
In subsequent season or year the allotment of the crops to each strips may
depends on the preceding crops that are grown in previous season or year. In
this system, soil depletive crops, soil enriching crops, pest incidence in
previous year crops association with weeds, nutrient requirement of the crops
etc are considered while allotting the next crop to the each strip with the view
of considering the sustainability in agriculture.
6) Patch cropping:
The component crops are planted in patches (SC panda 2006)
Example: Sunflower with Niger, sunflower with castor ,Ragi with Horsegram.

Principles Of Mixed Inter Cropping Systems(Replacement)/Selection Of

Crops In Mixed Inter Cropping System
The crops which compete with each other should not chosen. Therefore the
following points should be considered while selecting the crops.
1. Legumes should be sown with non-legumes:
Example: Red gram with Jowar/Ragi/Maize.
i. Avare with Ragi/Pulses with Jowar, etc.
2. Tall growing crops should be sown with short growing crops:
Example: Maize with Black gram, Sunflower with ground nut, Red gram,
with Ground nut, etc.
3. Deep rooted crops should be sown with shallow rooted crops.
Example: Red gram with Ground nut, Sunflower with Ground nut.
4. Bushy crops should be sown with erect growing crops:
Example: Niger with sunflower, Red gram with Ragi/Jower.
5. Crops being attacked by similar insects, diseases should not be sown
together.
Example: Red gram with Sunflower.
6. Soil depletive crops should be sown with soil fertility enriching crop:
Example: Maize with Pulses, Sunflower with Ground nut.
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 7. Mixture should consists short and long duration crop.

Advantages of Mixed Inter Cropping System (Replacement series)

1. There is crop diversification in this system. Thus there is better
regulation of production, economic stability market price and a stable
return to the farmers.
2. All the crops do not fail under adverse climatic condition. Frost (The state
of coldness needed to form ice) kills only legumes; Flood kills only dicot
plants and drought kills the monocot plants or shallow rooted crop.
Thus, the farmer gets some crop yield instead of losing the entire crops.
3. In an epidemic attack of any insect or disease which kills only one type of
crop without affecting the rest of the crops.
4. The farmers grow different crops which balance their daily need or
requirement of cereals, pulses and oil seeds.
Since, mixed cropping is a form of subsistence agriculture where it is not
a commercial oriented system but, certainly better over mono Cropping
System.
5. Mixed cropping checks soil and water erosion and also controls the weed.
6. It improves and maintains the soil fertility.
7. Family labor and animal power are employed throughout the cropping
season.
8. Legume and non-legume mixtures improve both the fodder quality and
quantity.
9. It reduces the cost of cultivation.

(b) Row Inter Cropping Systems: (Additive/Replacement):

Growing of two or more different crops in the same pieces of land and in
the same growing season with row arrangement. Here in most of crops
combination they have additive in nature and some cases they have
replacement in nature.
1. Parallel/Parallel Multiple Inter Cropping System (Additive)
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 Under this Cropping System two crops are selected which have
different growth habit’s and have zero competition between each other and
both of them express their full yield potential (potentially of individual
plants of the pure crop). Standard plant population of both the crop is
maintained.
Example:
Maize + Black gram/ Green gram (Nurse Crop)
Cotton + Soybean/Groundnut, Sugarcane + Onion/Garlic/Coriander
2. Companion Intercropping System (Additive and Replacement):
a. Additive Series: Under this cropping system two crops are selected
which have different growth habits and zero competition between each
other. But, standard plant population of both the crop is maintained.
Thus, the yield of both the crop is equal to their pure crop.
Example: Cotton + Onion
b. Replacement Series: Under this cropping system the seeds of different
crops are not mixed together, but different crops are sown in different
rows. The different row proportions are maintained depending on the
nature of crops are maintained depending on the nature of crops
(duration), their canopy coverage, rooting pattern, competition effect,
space requirement, cultural operation etc. This method of sowing helps
in weeding, inter cultivation, plant protection operation and even
harvesting (compared to Mixed Inter Cropping System).

Example:
(1) Ragi with red gram 6:1 or 6:2 or 8:1.
Here Ragi is main crop/base crop (more population), Red gram is sub crop
(less population).
(2) Red gram with Ground nut 1:3, 1:4, 1:5
(3) Sun flower with Red gram 1:2, 2:4
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3. Synergetic Inter Cropping System (Addition):
The yield of main crop or both crops, when grown together are found to
be higher than the yields of their pure crops on unit area basis.
Example: Sugarcane + Potato
Sugarcane + French bean
4. Bio-mulch/Live mulch inter cropping system (Addition):
This is usually followed in perennial crop (main crop), where the inter crops
are grown as live mulch to cover the soil, to increase the organic matter of the
soil, to supply nitrogen etc. Live mulch (usually green manuring crop) are
preferred over the keeping land fallow for the following points.
a) Adds up to 40 kgs/ha in two year
b) Better weed control.
c) Earthworm activity increased, springs organic carbon content.
d) Increase the soil moisture content.
e) Prevent soil erosion.
Example: Coconut + Sunhemp/Lucern/Horsegram/Pulses.
5. Trap crop Inter Cropping System (Addition):
Here the inter crops are used as trap crop to reduce the incidence of
the insect or disease which would attack the main crop. Here in addition to the
reducing the pest incidence it also gives same yield as an additional income to
the main crop yield. The inter crop reduces the incidence of insect or diseases
not at its cost and there is no relative decrease in the yield of inter crop.
In trap crop mixed Inter Cropping System, reducing the pest incidence to
the main crops at the cost of the corresponding decrease in yield of sub crops
(relative decrease in yield of sub crop).
Example:
1) Incidence of shoot weed in cotton is less when lower part of the cotton
plant is covered by any inter crop.
2) Root rot disease (Rhizoctonia spp) found to be less in cotton when French
bean in grown as an inter crop.
3) Red leaf blight of cotton with Ground nut.
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 4) Bhendi as an inter crop in cotton to control boll worms. Here the adult
bollworm prefers to the lay the eggs on flower and tender fruits of bhendi.
Since the bhendi fruits are harvested for vegetables at the tender stage
there won’t be much damage to the bhendi crop and also it prevents
incidence to the cotton crop (main crop). Here in addition to the trapping
of insects it also gives additional monetary benefits by getting additional
yield of bhendi fruits.
6. Alley/Hedge row/Inter Cropping System (Additive/Replacement):
(a) Additive series: In this system the main crop are tree crops and the
inter crops are usually annual crops. In this, annual crops are grown in
the space between rows or woody shrubs of tree crops in which the tree
species are periodically pruned during the cropping season to prevent
more shading and provide green manuring for inter crops.
Example: Casurina equisitifolia + Wheat/Bengal gram
(b) Replacement series: In this system usually the main crop is field crops
and the secondary crops are forest tree crops. This is followed in water
shed management areas where soil and water conservation has given
prime most importance. In these areas control bunding is a common
practice, and on the contour bunds growing of forest tree crops as a
secondary crops which has advantages of stability of control bund and
conserving soil water. Here the trees crops should be of tall growing and
non-branding type so that it should not compete with field crops. The
main crop

Usually the field crops which can be grown hence in inter-contour-bund

areas without being get affected by forests crops.
Example: Forest/ trees crops: Subabul, Casuria, Silver oak, Drum stick, Curry
leaves, etc.
Field crops: Ragi, Red gram, Jowar, Maize etc.
Advantages of forest crop as sub crop.
1. More stability of contour bunds
20
 2. Efficient in soil and water conservation
3. Forest/tree crops can be used as fuel, odder, timber for furniture tec.
4. Helps as wind breaks, which avoids lodging of the main crop
5. Casurina equistifolia can be used as multipurpose trees since it is
nitrogen fixing non-leguminous trees.
Principles of Row Inter Cropping System (Additive series only)
The main objective of inter cropping is higher productivity per unit area
in addition to stability of production. In additive series of inter cropping the
main objective is to utilize the space left between two rows of widely spaced
main crop and thereby to produce more grain per unit area. The other
objectives are:
1. The crops grown in association should have complimentary effects rather
competitive effects.
2. The peak time for nutrient demand of component should overlap with
main crop.
3. Competition for light co2 and water should be minimum among the crop.
4. The inter crop should be of short duration and fast growing habits to
utilize the early slow growing period of main crop and they must be
harvested when main crops starts growing.
5. The component crops would have similar agronomic production.
6. Erect growing crops should be inter cropped with cover crops (short
statured) like pulses so that the soil erosion and weed population could
be reduced or checked. This also helps in reducing evaporation loss of
water from soil surface.
7. The component crops should have different rood depths so that they do
not compete with main crops.
8. The standard plant population of main crop should be maintained
whereas that of subsidiary crops the plant population could be increased
or decreased as per demand of the situation.
9. Component crops of similar pest and disease pathogens and parasite
infestations’ should not be chosen,

21
 10. The planting method and management should be simple, less time
taking, less combustive, economical and profitable so that it may l have
wider adoptability.
Advantages of Row Inter Cropping System (additive series only)
1. Better use of resources: The nutrients from different layers of the soil are
evenly used. A cereal legume mixtures is beneficial because of an
efficient fixation of atmospheric nitrogen into the soil, leaf shedding and
their subsequent decomposition reduces the chances of micro nutrient
deficiency in shallow or surface rooted crops like cereals. As the league
absorb such nutrients from lower layer and returns than to the surface
soil through shedding of leaves and decomposition.
2. Total bio-mass production/unit area/period of time is increased become
of fullest use of land as the inter row space will be utilized which
otherwise would have been used for weed growth. Hence there is
supervision of weeds and also the incidence of insect and disease.
3. The farmer gets all his required agricultural commodities from a limited
space.
4. The fodder value in terms of quality and quality becomes higher when a
non-league is introduced with league.
Example: Napier + Cowpea/berseem.
5. It offers best employment and utilization of labor, power etc.
Major disadvantages (Other disadvantages refer dissimilarities)
1. Highly labor intensive which demands supply of more labor.
2. Use of herbicides and some selective insecticides/fungicides is difficult.
3. Complete mechanization is difficult.
Multistoried/Multilevel/Multier/Multi canopy Inter Cropping System
(Additive/Replacement)
This system is usually followed in plantation crops which are perennials
in nature.
Multistoried Cropping System refers to the combination of perennial
crops having varying morphological frame and rooting habits, grown together in

22
such a manner that their canopies intercept the solar energy at varying heights
and also their root forages from the soil mass at different depths.
Multistoried cropping is nothing but an intensive cropping programmes
and may include a variety of Additive series and Replacement series of inter
cropping and relay cropping components.
Example:
a) Replacement series:
1. Coffee with shade trees, oranges, and pepper in shade trees.
2. Cardamoms with shade trees, orange and pepper, shade trees.
3. Sapota with guava, pomegranate, and curry leaves etc.
b) Additive series:
1. Coconut + Pepper.
2. Coconut + Banana /Coffee/Turmeric/Ginger/Fodder/Mulberry
In this system, the leaf canopies of different crop components occupy different
vertical layers. The tallest component have foliage tolerant of strong light and
high evaporative demand, where shorter components with foliage requiring
shade and or relatively high humidity.
Illustrations:
1) Example: Coconut + black pepper + cocoa + pine apple.
In this system, coconut is planted with a spacing of 7.5m. Rooted
cuttings of black pepper are planted on either side of coconut about 75 cm
away from the base. On the coconut trunk at height of about one meter
from the ground level, the vines of pepper are trailed. A single row of cocoa
is planted at the centre of space between coconut rows. Pine applies planted
in the inter space.
Coconut growing to a height of more than 10m occupies the top floor.
Black pepper is growing about 6-8 m height which forms the second floor.
Cocoa with its pruned canopy of about 2.5m height and pine apple growing
to about 1m height form the first and ground floor respectively.
2) In areca nut plantation, tuber crops (like elephant yam, tapioca, grater yam,
and sweet potato), banana and pine apple are also cultivate as inter crops
(Additive types).

23
3) In coffee based, first tier is with pine apple, second tier is with coffee, third
tier is with cocoa/mandarin orange and final tier is with fast growing shade
trees is a must for which is necessary for coffee plantation.
Inter planting in orchards:
All types of seeding or planting a crop into a growing stand. It is used
specially for annual crops grown under stands of perennial crops.
All types of seeding or planting a crop into a growing stand. It is used
especially for annual crops grown under stands of perennial crops.
Example: Black pepper inter planted in an grown up coconut vanilla, ginger,
turmeric etc., in established coconut plantation.
1. Here inter planting will provide more income.
2. Tall plants serve as support to climbers (vanilla/pepper).
3. Provide shade and favorable micro climate to the inter plant growth.
Filler planting in orchards:
The space left in between the rows of plantation crop, during their initial
establishment period, is utilized by growing a short duration non competitive
crops. During the initial establishment period there will be no returns/yield
and the space is also more since there is less canopy coverage by the
plantation, using this space and period a sub crop like vegetables, beans,
cowpea, soya bean, red gram, sun hemp, etc., short duration crops can be
taken up which are called as filler crops.
(B) Sequential Multiple Cropping System/Non-over lapping cropping.
Growing of two or more crops in quick succession/in a sequence, on the
same piece of land in a farming year. The sowing of the succeeding crop and
harvesting of the preceding crop may be done simultaneously or in a quick
succession. Crop intensification is only in the time dimension. There is no
intercrop competition. Farmer will manage only one crop at a time.
Example: Just after the harvesting of maize, potato is sown and just after
digging of potato, chilly is transplanted.
(Ratoon cropping may also be classified under sequential cropping)
Classification of Sequential Cropping System
(a) Double Cropping System/Double crop sequential CROPPING SYSTEM
Growing of two crops in a farm year in sequences.

24
Example: Maize-Wheat, Rice-Wheat, Soya bean-Wheat, Paddy-Ground nut, Red
gram-Wheat.
(b) Triple crop sequential Cropping System: Growing of three crops in an
agricultural year in sequence.
Example: Rice-Rice-Cowpea, Finger millet-Potato-French bean, Rice-Rice-Rice
(central area).
(c) Quadruple crop sequential Cropping System: Growing of four crops in
an agricultural year in sequence.
Example: Fingermillet-Potato-Onion-French bean
(C) Relay/over lapping Cropping System:
It is the concept has derived from relay race in which four summers in
the field having in their hand. The first runner passes the flag/baton to the
succeeding partner and 2nd and 3rd and 3rd to the 4th runners.
Hence relay cropping is defined as growing two or more crops
simultaneously during the part of the life cycle of each. Succeeding crops are
planted before harvesting the preceding crops. Generally a second crops is
planted after the first crop has reached its reproductive stage of growth but
before it is ready to harvest.
Here the intercrop competition is absent.
Example: Mung-Maize-Potato-Wheat. Potato is planted before the harvesting of
maize and radish is sown before harvesting of potato.
Mung-Maize-Potato-Wheat
I Crop II Crop III Crop III Crop
Sowing Sowing Harvesting Sowing Harvesting Sowing Harvesting
of 1st of 2nd of 1st crop of 3rd of 2nd crop of 2nd of 3rd crop
crop crop crop crop

Paira (Bihar and WB) or Utera (MP) cropping may be example of relay
cropping, where, sowing of lathyras or lentil (generally pulses), before the
harvesting of rice in lowland area. Such of pulses will germinate utilizes the
residual moisture.
(D) Ratoon Cropping System:

25
1. Crops are raised from the regrowth of stubbles after harvest of the previous
crop. It may be for grains or fodder.
Example: Sugarcane, Sorghum, Fodder crops viz., hybrid napier, para grass,
signal grass etc.
2. Cultivation of additional or second crop from the regrowth of stubbles of the
main crop after its harvest thereby avoiding the replanting of the second
crop.
Advantages:
1. Savings in seeds/planting materials.
2. Cost of land preparation/tillage is reduced
3. Saving of time (duration of the crop).
4. Non-uniform re growth of the stubbles.
Disadvantages:
1. More gaps.
2. Gap filling and thinning is required.
3. There is pest and diseases build up.
4. Infestation of weeds will be more.
(E) Ley Farming:
It is a system of farming in which grasses and Legumes are included in
proper rotation, (2-5 years) for hay, silage and pasture to take care for
maximum live stock needs and to improve and conserve the soil fertility. Thus,
ley farming is a dynamic and integrals system of farming which encompasses
soil, plants and live stock together. The building up of soil fertility helps in
obtaining higher yields of subsequent arable crop (Ratoon of 2 to 5 years).

3.1 CROP ROTATION

Crop rotation is a process of growing different crops in succession on a
piece of land in a specific period of time, with an object to get maximum profit
from least investment without impairing the soil fertility.
3.2 PRINCIPLES OF CROP ROTATION

26
 There are certain accepted principles, based on which the crops should
be selected for crop rotation.
1. The crops with tap roots should be followed by those which have fibrous
root system. This helps in proper and uniform use of nutrients from the
soil and the roots do not compete with each other for the uptake of
nutrients.
2. The leguminous crops should be grown after non-leguminous crops
because legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen into the soil and add more
organic matter to the soil, while on the other hand, non-legumes are
fertility depleting crops. Apart from this, the nutritional requirements of
these crops are different, e.g., legumes need more phosphate and less
nitrogen.
While non-legumes need more of nitrogen and relatively low phosphorus.
Thus, a combination of these crops helps the farmers in reducing their
cost of cultivation.
3. More exhaustive crops should be followed by less exhaustive crops
because crops like potato, sugarcane, maize etc., need more inputs such
as better tillage, more fertilizers, greater number of irrigations, more
insecticides, pesticides and better care than crops like oil seeds, pulses
etc., which need relatively less or little of the above mentioned inputs.
4. Selection of the crops should be demand based i.e., the crops which are
needed by the people of the area and by the family members should be
chosen so that the produce can be easily sold at a higher price.
5. Selection of crops should be problem based e.g.
a) On sloppy lands which are prone to soil erosion, an alternate cropping of
erosion promoting (erect growing crops like millet, etc.) and erosion
resisting crops like legumes, should be adopted.
b) Under dry farming or partially irrigated areas the selection of crops
should be such which can tolerate the drought similarly in low lying and
floods prone areas the crops should be such which can tolerate water
stagnation e.g., paddy, jute, etc.
27
 c) The selection of crops should suit the farmers’ financial conditions.
d) The crops selected should also suit the soil and climatic conditions.
6. The crops of the same family should not be grown in succession because
they act like alternate hosts for insects, pests and disease pathogens.
Thus, the control of insects pests and diseases becomes a perennial
problem. Apart from this, types of weeds found, are associated with
various crops and selection of the same type of crops in rotation
encourages weed problems in the field viz, Johnson grass grows with
gramminaceous crops throughout year.
7. An ideal crop rotation is one which provides maximum employment to
the family and farm labor, the machines and equipments are efficiently
used and all the agricultural operations are done timely.
3.3 Advantages of Corp Rotation
1. Agricultural operations can be done timely for all the crops because of
less competition. The supervisory work also becomes easier.
2. Soil fertility is restored by fixing atmospheric nitrogen, encouraging
microbial activity, avoiding accumulation of toxins (HCN etc.) and
maintaining physic-chemical properties of the soil. The soil may also be
protected from erosion, salinity and acidity.
3. An ideal crop rotation helps in controlling insects, pests and diseases. It
also controls the weeds in the fields e.g,.
4. Proper utilization of all resources and inputs could be made by following
crop rotation.
5. The farmer gets a better price for his produce because of its higher
demands in the locality or market.
6. Growing crops of different root depths avoids continuous depletion of
nutrients from same depth e.g. the deep rooted crops take nutrients from
deeper zone and during that period the upper zone gets enriched.
Similarly the surface feeding roots take nutrients from upper zone when
lower zone gets enriched. Thus nutrients of entire soil mass are fully
utilized and const of cultivation is reduced.
28
 7. Best utilization of residues is made by growing crops of different nature.
8. Ideal crop rotation improves percolation, soil structure and reduces
chances or creation of hard pan in sub-soil zone.
9. Some crop plants are found to produce phytoalexins when they get
infected by diseases. Repeated cultivation of such crops results in
harmful effect was over crop plants and lower crop yield is obtained.
Crop rotation helps in avoiding/lowering such ill effect.
List of phytoalexins produced by disease infected crop plants:
Crops Phytoalexins produced by diseased plants
Arachis hypogaea Resvertrol
Glycine max Glyceollins
Pisum sativum Pisatin
Phaseollin, phaseollidin, 2-Methyl phaseollinis of
Phaseolus vulgaris
lavanm kievitone.
Medicago sativa Medicarpin, Maackiain
Vicia faba Wyerone, Wyeronic acid
Trifolium pretense Medicarpin, Maackiain
Ipomoea batatas Ipomeamarone
Lycopersicon esculentus Rishition
Solanum tuberosum
Rishitin, Lubmin.

ROTATIONAL INTENSITY
This is calculated by counting the number of crops grown in a rotation
and is multiplied by 100 and then divided by the duration of the rotation.

This can be explained by the following example:

29
Maize—Early potato—Late potato—Mung— 1year
Paddy —Early potato— Wheat— URD 1 year

The rotational intensity is further explained in the following pages along

with the cropping scheme.
3.6. CROPPING SCHEME
The cropping scheme is a plan according to which crops are grown on
individual plots of a farm during a given period of time with the object of
obtaining maximum return from each crop without impairing the soil fertility.
Thus, a cropping scheme is related to the most profitable use of resources,
land, labour, capital and management so that maximum net income may be
obtained from the farm as a whole with proper restoration of soil fertility.
Principles of Cropping Scheme
The following points are considered while framing a cropping scheme for
a farm.
1. Area under building and layout
A proportionate area is allocated from buildings area and layout before
distributing the farm area under different plots of crops. The area under this
item goes on decreasing as the total farm area increases and vice-versa.
According to practices, if the farm area is 50 hectares or less than area under
buildings and layout allotted is 8-10 per cent of the total area, but if the farm
area is more than 50 hectares then the area allotted is only 5 percent.
2. Number of plots
The number of plots should be either equal to the duration of rotation or
a multiple of that e.g. if the total duration of rotations in a cropping scheme is
5 years, then the number of plots must be either five or ten, fifteen twenty etc.
So that each of the crop shown in the rotation could be grown in equal acreage.
3. Selection of the crops

30
 Selection of crops depends upon the situation of the farm. Given below
are the suitable crops which may be grown according to the farm situation or
location for maximum profit.
a. Near a city: If the farm is near a city, the farmer should grow vegetables
on at least 60 per cent of his net cultivated area. In remaining area, he
should grow fodder crops on at least 10-15 per cent of his net cultivated
area.
b. Near a sugar factory: If the farm is situated near a sugar factory then
the farmer should put at least 60 per cent of his net cultivated area
under sugarcane or sugar beet. On the remaining area, he should grow
vegetables and grain crops for local supply.
c. Near a canning factory: In such a locality, the farmer should grow
vegetables e.g. peas, tomato, etc., on at least 60 per cent of his net
cultivated area. On the remaining area, he could have orchards.
d. Near a vanaspati factory: The farmer should grow oil seed crops e.g.
groundnut, sunflower etc., in such a locality.
e. Near a dairy farm: If the farm is located near a dairy farm, the owner
should go for fodder cultivation. Apart from fodder he can raise oil seeds
and pulses on 10-15 per cent of his net cultivated area in order to supply
concentrates to the dairy cattle along with fodder.
f. Near a cold storage: In such areas, the farmer should grow potatoes,
onions, vegetables etc.
g. Near a highway or railway station: If the farm is situated near a
railway station, port or highway, the farm can go for the cultivation of
perishable crops like vegetables, etc. In such cases the farm is
considered to be within the proximity of a city areas.
4. Facilities available on the farm:
Selection of crops also depends upon the facilities available for power,
irrigation, inputs, labour, transport, etc. If these facilities are available, the
farmer should adopt an intensive cropping scheme in order to maximize profits.

31
Under an intensive cropping scheme, vegetables are grown because they fetch
higher prices.
5. Area under individual plots
The area of individual plots should be equal unless topography, soil
conditions, or any other reason compels the farmer to lay out his farm into
uneven plot sizes.
6. Area allotted to crops for calculation of cropping intensity
If the farmer takes crop mixtures then the relative area under different
crops has to be considered, so that none of them are adversely affected due to
their mutual competition. It is, therefore, essential that the ratio of main and
sub crops are worked out properly before the crops are grown. For the purpose
of calculation, both crops are considered to be one crop only.
7. A crop planning which can utilize inputs and other resources available on
the farm without wastage should be adopted by the farer. Apart from this, the
domestic needs are to be fulfilled.
The farmer should include at least one leguminous crop a year in his
crop rotation for proper maintenance of soil fertility and other physic-chemical
properties.
Cropping intensity (Cropping index)
Cropping intensity is the ratio of total cropped area to net cultivated area
which is multiplied by 100 and represented in percentage.

Examples of cropping schemes

(A) Suggest a suitable cropping scheme for a farm of 10 hectares which is
situated near a sugar mill. The farmer has a tube well to irrigate the
land. Calculate the cropping intensity and rotational intensity.
Solution: Under such cases we have to assume some of the things before we
solve the problem.
Assumptions

32
 1. 10 percent of the farm area would go under building and layout because
the question says that the farm has a gross area of 10 hectares.
Crop Planning and Budgeting
2. The farmer has all the required inputs for the cropping.
3. The farmer will grow sugarcane on 60 percent of his net cultivated area.
4. Crop rotation:
i. Maize— potato —sugarcane— ratoon —mung ——————— 3years
ii. Paddy— lahi t-9 potato— urd ——————————————— year
iii. M.P chari —berseem —maize & lobia——————————— 1 year
iv. Maize —sugarcane & potato— ratoon & mustard— urd ——— 3year
v. Cucurbits —cauliflower —onion— leafy vegetables————— 1 year
5. Net cultivated area = 10-1 = 9 hectares
6. Number of plots = 9 (because the total duration of all the rotations is 9
years)

Cropping Scheme
Area 1st year 2nd year 3rd year
Plot
in
no. Kharif Rabi Zaid Kharif Rabi Zaid Kharif Rabi Zaid
hect.
1 1.0 maize Potato Sugar- cane Ratoon Mung
2 1.0 Sugar- ratoon Mung maize potato Sugarcane
cane
3 1.0 Ratoon mung maize potato sugarcane ratoon
4 1.0 Paddy-lahi T-9 potat-urd
5 1.0 M.P. Chari berseem
maize lobia
6 1.0 Maize sugarcane & potato ratoon Mustard ratoon
7 1.0 Sugarcane Urd mustard

33
8 1.0 Ratoon & maize maize Sugarcane & potato
mustard ratoon & mustard-
maize urd
9 1.0 Urd Sugarcane
& potato
Cucurbit cauliflower-onion leafy vegetables
Total 9.0

(B) Suggest a suitable cropping scheme for a 10 hectare’s farm which has all
the facilities for intensive cropping. The farmer has to supply green folder to a
neighboring dairy farm. Find out the cropping intensity.
Assumption: 1. Ten percent i.e. one hectare area is under building and
labor. Thus the net cultivated area remains nine hectares.
2. The farmer has all the input facilities.
Principles & Practices of Agronomy
TABLE 3.3
Cropped area
Name of Area in Name of Area in Name of Area in
crops hectares crops hectares crops hectares
Maize 2.0 Paddy 1.0 M.P. Chari 1.00
(grain)
Potato 2.50 Mustard & 1.50 Berseem 1.00
lahi
Sugarcane 4.00
Mung 1.00 Urd 2.00 Lobia 0.50
Cucurbit 1.00 Cauliflower 1.00 Onion 1.0
Leafy 1.00 Maize
0.5
Vegetable (fodder)

Total

Rotational intensity of the farm

Rotation No. of Duration of Intensity Explanation

34
 No. crops the rotation in
in years percentage
1 5 3 166.7

2 4 1 400.0

3 3 1 300.0

4 4 3 133.3

5 4 1 400.0

Total 20 1 222.2

3. Crop rotations to be adopted:

a) Maize— berseem— M.P. chari —1 year
b) Jowar —Iucerne —maize & lobia —1 year
c) Napier & guar— napier & berseem— napier —1 year
d) Paddy —wheat— mug —1 year
e) Bhindi —early potato— late potato— cucurbit. —1 year
4. Total number of plots are five.

Cropping Scheme
Plot Area 1980
No. (hectare) Kharif Rabi Zaid Remarks
1 2.0 maize Berseem M.Pcharid
2 2.0 jowar Lucerne Maize&lobia
Napier &
3 2.0 Napier & guar Napier
berseem
4 2.0 Paddy Wheat Mung
5 1.0 bhindi E.potato

35
 L.potato cucurbit
6 9 hectares

Cropped area
Maize----3 Guar---- 1 Lobia---- 1
berseem----3 Paddy---- 2 Napier---- 4
M.P. Chari---- 2 Wheat---- 2 Potato---- 1
Jowar ----2 Mung---- 2 Cucurbit---- 1
Lucerne---- 2 Bhindi---- 1
Total cropped area is 9

(C) Suggest a cropping scheme for a farm situated near city which has a net
cultivated area of 10 hectares and an efficient sewage line for irrigation. The
farm has all the required facilities.
Assumptions
1. There is no need to give any area under building and layout because the
farm has 10 hectares of net cultivated area.
2. The farm has all required inputs and transport facilities, for a high
cropping intensity.
3. The farm is situated near a city and the farmer would go for vegetables
production.
4. Crop rotations:
a) Bhindi ---pea---spinach--- cucurbit
b) Cucurbit ---early cauliflower--- tomato--- bhindi
c) Cucurbit--- early cauliflower--- cabbage ---amaranthus
d) Maize (cobs) --- early potato--- late potato--- cucurbit
e) Jowar (chari) ---early potato ---wheat--- mung
f) Lobia ---early potato--- onion--- spinach
g) Jowar (chari)---berseem---M.P.Chari

36
 5. Total number of plots would be 7 because the total duration of rotation is
7 years.
Cropping Scheme
Plot Area in 1980
No. hectares Kharif Rabi Zabi
1. 2.0 Bhindi—pea—spinach--cucurbit
2. 2.0 Cucurbit—tomato—cauliflower--bhindi
3. 1.0 Cucurbit—E.cabbage—cauliflower—amaranthus
4. 2.0 Maize(cobs-E. potato-L. potato-cucurbit)
5. 1.0 Jowar(chari-E.potato-wheat-mung)
6. 1.0 Lobia-E.potato-onion-spinach
7. 1.0 Jowar (chari)-berseem-M.P.Chari
8. 10

Cropped Area
Bhindi—4(2+2) Maize—2 Pea—2
Potato—6(2+2+1+1) Spinach—3(2+1) Cucuribit—7(2+2+1+1)
Cauliflower—3 (2+1) Tomato—2 Wheat—1
Amaranthus—1 Jowar—2(1+1) Wheatr—1
Mung—1 Lobia—1 Onion--1
Cerseem--1 M.P.Chari—1
16+11+12=39

Total cropped area is 39 hectares

(D) A village farmer wants to have a cropping scheme for his 10 hectare’s farm.
He has all the facilities required for crop production including irrigation at the
farm. But there is neither a market nearby nor does the farmer have transport

37
facilities. Suggest cropping scheme for the farm and find out the cropping
intensity.
Assumptions:
1. There are no market or transport facilities, therefore, the farmer will grow
cereals, pulses and oil seeds because these crops can be stored afor a
longer period and sold as and when needed.
2. The farmer has inputs and irrigation and hence he can go for high
intensity cropping.
3. The farmer will grow vegetables for his domestic needs and fodder for his
cattle, but the area under these crops would be low.
4. The farmer has to leave I hectare area for road, channels, building etc.
Thus the net cultivated area will be 9 hectares only.
5. Crop rotation:
a) Paddy-- wheat-- urd
b) Maize-- early potato --wheat-- chena
c) Grountnut-- wheat-- sufflower & urd
d) Groundnut --wheat-- sunflower & urd
e) Paddy-- mustard-- mung
f) Jowar (chari) -- berseem-- M.P.Chari
g) Bhindi --early cauliflower-- tomato—cucurbit

E) Suggest a suitable cropping scheme from a farm of 10 hectares, situated in

Jhansi district which has no irrigation facilities. Find out the cropping intensity
of the farm.
Assumptions
1. The farmer will grow cereals, pulses and oil seeds which are drought
resistant because the farm depends upon rain water only.
Cropping Scheme and Cropped Area (E)
Plot Area in 1988 Cropped Area
no. hectare Kharif Rabi Crop Area in hectare

38
1 1.0 Groundnut Wheat Groundnut 1.00
2 1.0 Castor ----- Wheat 2.00 (1—1)
3 1.5 Jowar Gram Castor 1.00
4 1.5 Bajra Mustard Jowar 2.25(1.50.75)
5 1.5 Arhar & jowar Gram 1.50
6 1.5 Til Linseed Bajra 1.50
7 1.0 mung wheat Mustard 1.50
Arhar 0.75
Til 1.50
Linseed 1.50
mung 1.50
Total net area = 9.0 Total 15.50

2. The farmer has to leave one hectare for building and layout. Thus the net
cultivated area is 9 hectares.
3. Crop rotations:
a) groundnut—wheat b) castor c) jowar—gram d) bajra-- mustard e)
arhar & jowar
f) til—linseed g) mung—wheat

3.11 Cost of Production per tonne of Main Product:

Average Yield Cost of production/ha Cost of
of main ( ) Production per
Crops
Product (Cost –value obtained Tone of main
(Tonnes/ha) from by-product) Product ( )
Rice 5.0 (9150.00–5000.00)=4150.00 830.00
Maize 4.0 (7950.00– 1750.00)=6250.00 1562.00
Jowar 3.0 (7025.00– 1750.00)=5275.00 1758.00
Cotton 1.2 (9090.00 –5400.00)=3690.00 3075.00

39
Wheat 5.0 (8970.00– 6000.00)=2970.00 595.00
Potato 20.0 18080.00 904.08
Sugarcane 70.0 12060.00 324.01
Sugarcane 40.0 5735.00 310.00
(ratoon)
Mustard 1.5 8860.00 3823.01
Tobacco 1.0 8860.00

These figures may not be realistic as the market price of agricultural

product and cost of inputs use to change from place to place. The table just
shows the items for calculating the economics of different Cropping System of
different crops. Therefore the existing price of various items should be taken
into account for calculation.
IV Land Rotation/Shifting Cultivation/Jhumming
Disadvantages of shifting cultivation:
a) Deforestation: Due to jhuming or shifting cultivation the triables move
one place to another destroying the forest coverages.
b) The soil become prone to erosion damage: Due to intensive institution
practice and exhaustive crops grown in shifting cultivation soil become
prone to wind and water erosion.
c) Loss of fertility: The soil losses its fertility when the land cultivated
extensively and left upon losses its top soil and become unfertile.
d) Productivity of sol decreases: Since the people grow crops, till they get
sufficient yield and productivity of soil. They do not maintain soil fertility
or productivity and they become low productive soils.
e) Depredation of the forest cover or tree coverage which loud to erosion
etc., it become susceptible to land sliding under heavy rainfall causing
damage to other also.

40
f) The soil is held by the tree roots in forests areas when they are cut it
come succeseptible to land shiding under heavy rainfall causing damage
to other also.
g) Pollution: They cut down and burn the plants which increase co2 level in
atmosphere.
h) Irregular rainfall pattern.
i) Increased soil temperature due to more expands land areas.
Climate changes macro and micro climate ecological function like
atmospheric condition changes occurs and cause pollution..
Losses of biological diversity like genetic diversity, species diversity are
nddd. Traditional species are not available for future use.
j) No recycling of nutrients and available nutrient get loss and soil become
barren and wasteland.
k) Unsuitable for future crop production activities.

41
3.6 Evaluation of advantages of intercropping system
There are three situations proposed by willey (1979)
1. Where, intercropping must give full yield of main crop and some yield of
component crop. This type of yield advantage is used under general
condition where the objective of the intercropping is mainly aimed at
obtaining the yield of component crop without reducing the yield of main
crop.
2. Where, intercropping must give full yield of main crop and some yielde of
component crop. Ya + Yb > Sa or Sb. this situation is used for assessing the
yield advantages in grassland mixtures (Grass + Legumes). Especially
under temperate regions a number of grasses and legumes used to be
grown together, so that the combined intercrop yields exceeds the highest
yield of any of the component crops grown separately as a sole crop.
3. Where, the combined intercrop yield must exceed a continued sole crop
yield. Ya + Yb > Sa + Sb. this is based on the assumption that a farmer
usually needs to grow more than one crop to supply dietary requirements
and to spread labour peaks, to guard against market risk, etc. In this
situation, a yield advantage occurs if intercropping gives higher yield than
growing both the crops separately.

3.7 Plant Inter actions (Inter-Competition)

In general there are two types of competition occurs,
1) Intra-competition: within a species under sole cropping it occurs. It can
be rectified by providing proper spacing, nutrients etc.
2) Inter-competition: This occurs between two different species (different
crops).
3.7 Inter action between component crops (Main and Sub crops)
In intensive cropping, crops are grown in association or in sequences. In
such situations there is possibility of inter action between the component crops
(main and sub-crops).
3.7.1 Interaction in inter cropping

42
 3.7.2 Interaction in sequential cropping
3.7.3 Competitive relationships in intercropping system
The inter action\inter-competition is mainly due to response of one
species to the environment as modified by the presence of another species and
vice versa.
Interactions may be
1. Non-competitive or Non-interference
2. Complementary (Annidation)
3. Competitive interaction or Interference
4. Allelopathy

 If the crops are grown in association and the growth of either of the
concerned species is not affected, such type of interaction is called as
Non-Competitive Interaction.
 If one species is able to help the other, it is known as Complementary
Interactions.
Ex: Supply of N fixed by legumes to the associated non-legume.
 One species may have greater ability to use the limiting factor and will
gain at the expense of other; this is called Competitive Interaction or
Interference.
 Interactions may also occur in some other manner by the way of
producing toxic substances and affecting the establishment and growth
of the associated species which is called Allelopathy.
3.7.1 Interactions in Intercropping:
Factors such as light, water, nutrient, oxygen, and carbon di-oxide are the
main requirements for plant growth. In mixed or intercropping (row) situations,
the crops (main or sub) compete for the growth factors. The close proximity of
the species causes suboptimal utilizations of the growth factors and hence
there is inequitable distribution of resources among the plants. Generally
competition will be developing between two components or within the
components. The nature of such competition may vary depending on the
43
density and proportion of each component and planting pattern. The effect of
these factors is as follows;
1. Light: Photo synthetically active radiation (light) is directly related to
photosynthetic rates of main and sub crops. Inter cropping can increase
light interception by as much as 30 - 40 %. When one component is taller
than the other, the taller components intercept most of the solar radiation.
The pattern of light interception also varies according to the age of the
crops.
a. Light transmission by coconut crop is only about 20% at the age of 8-10
years and this remains almost constant till about 25 year of age.
Subsequently, the % light transmission increases progressively as the
canopy coverage of ground decreases. When the palms are about 40 years
of age, light transmission increases to about 50%.
b. In an intercropping situation where the component crops have different
growth duration, the peak demand for light would occur at different times.
In maize + green gram intercropping, the peak light demand for maize
occurs at 60 DAS when green gram is ready for harvest.
In these combinations, Competition for light is less among the main and
sub crops and there in greater light use in intercropping than in pure stands.
In general the main and sub crop under intercropping situations are grown in
such a way that the competition for light is minimised. Proper choice of crops
and varieties, adjustment of planting density and pattern are the technologies
to reduce competition and increase the light use efficiency. Ex: Sorghum +
Redgram
2. Moisture and Nutrients:
Competition for moisture and Nutrients may result in two types of effects;
first, the roots of component may grow less on sides towards plant of aggressive
components. Secondly, plants affected by competition for soil factors may have
increased root: shoot ratio. The aggressive component generally absorbs greater
quantity of nutrients and soil moisture. In legume and non legume
combination, the non legume takes up large amount of P, K and S. As a result
44
the legume may show deficiency of these nutrients. Such effects, however
maybe mitigated by appropriate fertilizer application. Among intercrops,
sorghum and pearl millet are more competitive in extracting nutrients.
Generally the intercropped stands remove greater amount of nutrients than
sole crop stands.
3. Allelopathy:
Allelopathy is direct and indirect harmful effect that one plant has on
another through the production of chemical substances that released in to
environment. Some crops may be unsuitable to be grown as intercrops because
they may produce and excrete toxins in to the soil which are harmful to the
associated components.
Ex: Allelo chemicals produced from the leaves of Eucalyptus globules
drastically reduce the germination of mustard sown underneath.
Types of Allelopathy:
i. True Allelopathy: The direct or indirect harmful effect on the other
crops through the release of toxic substances as such from the plants.
ii. Functional Allelopathy: when precursor is released which is converted
in to active substances by some micro organisms is categorized under
functional allelopathy.
Allelopathy is observed in two ways:
a. Allo inhibition: The chemical substances released from one species may
inhibit species of plants other than one releasing it.
b. Auto inhibition: The toxin may inhibit more strongly plants of the
producer species itself.
Allelo-Chemicals: The chemicals released by plants which show allelopathy
are known as Allelo Chemicals. Some of the organic substances exudated by
roots may inhibit the growth of neighbouring species

Ex: Walnut, Cucumber, Peach and Sunflower

On the contrary, the non competitive interactions between the crop

species through the release of organic substances may also be possible. The
45
release of hormone like substances by one crop species may stimulate the
growth of the other crop species. It may be called as Negative Allelopathy. But
the release of nitrogen from the root nodules of legumes is not considered as
Negative Allelopathy.

Ex: Cotton on Striga

4. Annidation:
The Complimentary interaction between the intercrops in the
intercropping system is known as Annidation. Such Interactions are
essentially the response of one crop species to the environment as modified by
the presence of another species. One component species help the other.
Annidation occurs both in space and time. The Complimentary interaction
between the intercrops occur with regards to special position (Space/Place).
Spatial annidation/Annidation in space:
 The canopies of component crop may occupy different vertical layer with
taller component tolerant to strong light and high evaporative demand
and shorter component favouring shade and high relative humidity.
Ex: Multi-storage cropping in coconut and planting shade trees in cocoa
and tea plantations use this principle.
 The principle of spatial annidation may also occur in soil , when root
system of component crop may export the nutrients in different layers of
soil and hence utilize the resource in a better way with much less
competition.
Annidation in time /Temporal Annnidation: The complimentary interaction
between the intercrop in the time aspect is called temporal annidation. When
component crops of widely varying duration are planted, their peak demand for
light and nutrients are likely to occur at different period, thus reducing
competition.
Ex :

46
1. In a combination having early and late maturing crops (sorghum &
redgram), when early maturing crops are harvested, condition become
favourable for the late maturing crop ( redgram ) to put forth its full vigor.
2. In the Maize + Urd/Mung intercropping the peak nutrient demand for Maize
is 50 DAS, whereas around 30-35 DAS for Urd.
3. Groundnut + Redgram etc.
5. Other complementary effects:
a) In a intercropping system involving a legume and non-legume, part of
the N fixed in the root nodule of the legume may become available to the
non-legume component.
b) With the presence of rhizosphere microflora and myccorhiza, one
species may lead to mobilization and greater availability of nutrients not
only to the species concerned but also the associated species.
c) Provision of physical support by one species to the intercropped
climbing species may improve the yield of the climber.
Ex : Coconut + Black papper , Maize + Beans
d) The taller component acts as wind barriers protecting the shorter
components from lodging.
Ex : Coconut + Banana.

3.7.2 Interaction in sequential cropping:

In sequential cropping individual crops are grown in succession. Hence
competition for light, water and nutrients as found in mixed cropping and
intercropping does not occur.
In relay cropping a short span of overlapping occur between two crops in
sequence. Hence the relay sown crop at the seedling stage may have
competition for light from the standing crop. This can be minimized by proper
choice of crop and varieties, adjustment of time and method of planting.
In intensive multiple cropping two or more crops in sequence, the main
objective is to harvest as much solar energy per unit area per unit time as
possible.

47
 In sequential cropping, the preceding crop has considerable influence on
the succeeding crop (Refer Principles of Crop Rotation). This includes the
complementary effects such as release of N from the residues of the previous
crop. Particularly legume to the following crop and carry-over effects of fertilizer
applied to the preceding crops. Introduction of pulses as summer crops results
in improved yield of rice in Kharif season.
The adverse effects include allelopathy, temporary immobilization of N
due to wide C:N ratio of the residues and carry-over effect of pest and diseases
Ex: Sunflower, sorghum, walnut, cucumber peas and eucalypatus.
These crops have allelopathy effects, which affects germination,
establishment and growth of succeeding crop. Sunflower affects by releasing
allelopathic chemicals in soils by the roots, which inhibits the germination
process of the subsequent crop. Sunflower residues also produces
allelochemicals during decomposition, therefore a sufficient time period of 15-
20 days is allowed to lapse between the harvest of sunflower and sowing of the
subsequent crop.
Legume Effect:
The beneficial effects of the legumes in any crop rotation and intensive
cropping systems is termed as legume effect. Inelasions of legumes in cropping
systems is beneficial in many ways:
a. Legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen in root nodules and thus improves the
nitrogen levels of the soil.
b. It saves upto 25% of the recommended levels of N application to the
associated cereals when grown as intercrop.
c. The crop residues and root nodules of legumes release N during
decomposition for the use of the succeeding crop.
d. Legume absorbs soil phosphorus more efficiently and part of this
mobilised phosphorus in organic form is available to the succeeding crop.
It means legumes convert inorganic phosphorus into organic form of
phosphorus and this is able to extract insoluble form of soil phosphorus.

48
 e. Legumes have greater root cat Ion exchange capacity (CEC) than cereals.
The plants with greater root CEC are capable of absorbing more of bivalent
cation such as Ca++ and Mg++. But they cannot compete effectively with
the cereals in absorption of monovalent cation like K+
f. Many of legumes can tolerate some amount of shading and draught.
Sorghum Effect:
The nutrient status of soil is exhausted by any fast growing cereals the
crop residue of such cereals having wide C: N ratio takes a long time to
decompose. During the process of decomposition soil nitrogen is temporarily
immobile affecting the succeeding crop such effect is more pronounced in
sorghum in low fertile soil causing the temporary deficiency of nitrogen for
succeeding crop .Ragi is the exception because tis residues decompose rapidly
resulting in mineralization of soil nitrogen

49
Cotton Effect:
Cotton feeds in the deeper layers of the soil and removes comparatively
smaller qualities of nutrients in topper layers. The succeeding crop having the
shallow root system in the tap on the surface layer of the soil.This effect may
be termed as “Cotton Effect”
3.7.3 Competitive relationship in intercropping
Three (or) four broad categories of competition can be recognised
a. Mutual inhibition
b. Mutual co-operation
c. Compensation
d. Supplementary

a. Mutual inhibition: The actual yield of end species in the less than expected
(than sole crop condition) this type of situation
b. Mutual co-operation: (Complementary) Here yield 57 of each species is
greater than expected. This is not unusual
c. Compensation:one species yield isless and the other is more than the
expected is termed as compensative. This is very common The species
which yields more than expected is believed to have greater competitive
ability and called as dominant species where as the other species is called
as “dominated species”
d. Supplementary:here the yield of one crop is more than the expected yield
of the other crop influence on the yield of other crop. This situation usually
assess when the maturity of two component crops (duration) widely differ.

50
Crop Substitution:
It is done only when to present the crop yields are low or crop is
susceptible to abiotic stresses or when the new crop is better than existing one
Eg: Introduction of Sunflower on oilseed, oil palm, vanilla, hybrid cotton, Bt.
Cotton
Factors considered: Under Crop Substitution
i. Soil Characteristics
ii. Weed infestation
iii. Climatic factors
iv. Economic factors
v. Introduction of new technology
vi. Epidemic incidence of pests and diseases
Contingent Cropping/Planning:
It refers to growing of suitable crops in place of normally sown crop of a region
/locality fails due to adverse weather condition or pest and diseases out break
Contingency planning is highly location specific Factors:
1. Climatic conditions
a. Delay in on set of monsoons
b. Prolonged dry spell during crop season
c. Early cessation of monsoons
d. Complete failure of rainfall
2. Suitability of crop with respect to Photo sensitive, duration etc..
3. Delay in field operation
4. Delay in field operation
Agro –Ecological zone:
It is an area of similar soil, vegetation (crop), and population density
characteristics resulting in similar type of cropping systems. Because
temperature and rainfall do not vary throughout that region, hence climate is
not included as a variable in the definition of Agro –Ecological zone.

51
Efficient Cropping Zone:

An analysis of productivity efficiency of various crop in different states

has been made by Kanwar (1972) using Relative (Average) Yield Index (RYI) and
Relative Spread Index (RSI) of the crop.
A zone both yield and spread indices are maximum ie, above 90 is called
most efficient and in case if the indices are below 90 is the least efficient zone
of a crop.

Relative Mean Yield of a Crop in a zone/ District/s

(Average) Yield = × 100
Mean Yield of the Country (India)
Index (RYI)

Area of the crop expressed as percentage of the

Relative Spread total cultivated area in the zone or district
= × 100
Index (RSI) Area of the crop expressed as percentage of the
total cultivated area in the Country

52
3.7.4.2 Delineation of efficient cropping zone based on RYI & RSI:
These indices are grouped in seven categories and arrangement in the
two-way table with the relative spread indicates in the vertical direction and
relative yield index in the horizontal direction as showers in the table:

RVI (%)

A B C D E F G
200- 150- 120-
200 90-60 60-30 <30
150 120 190

A
> 200

200 -
B
150 Zone III
Zone I
Low yield and high
High yield high spread
150 - spread
C
120
RSI (%)

D 120 -90

E 90- 60

Zone IV
F 60-30 Zone II
Low yield and low
High yield low spread
spread

G <30

Assuming that average relative yield and relative spread in below 90%
can be considered as an index of relatively in efficient areas and above 90% as
an index of relatively efficient areas.

53
 The most efficient crops will be identified in a homogenous region and
put in the yearly sequence (rotation) where they fit best. These crops which are
inefficient will be reduced and area of the efficient crops will be increased.
The area under each crop can be divided in to 4 zones
Zone 1 High yield & high spread HYHS
Zone 2 High yield & low spread HYLS
Zone 3 Low yield & high spread LYHS
Zone 4 Low yield & low spread LYLS
3.7.4.4 Significance of efficient cropping zone (cropping index)
1. Increases the productivity of region
2. It improves the economic condition of the farmer
3. Inclusion of more efficient crops in a region will diversify the crops of the
region and allied activities based on the produce
4. It may add to expert promotion by way of substitution of crops which are
expert oriented in efficient zones.
5. These will be better utilization of agro ecological zones to raise the
production and productivity.
6. Similarly the land resources will also be better utilized and can be super
impressed on soil and climatic zones
7. The planning will lead to be a balanced and proper economic
development of the region as well as the country
3.7.4.5 Limitations of EC zone
1. The scientific and natural resources (such as soil and climatic)
requirement did not figure with great emphasis
2. It is not necessary that spread and cropping efficiency will go together.
3. In national prospective it is not necessity most efficient use of land and
other resources.
4. No cropping pattern hold good for all times.
Strategies for improving crop productivity:
A. Rice efficient zones: There is little scope for increasing the area under rice
except through double and triple cropping. Rice is an inefficient user of
54
 water. With the quantity of water required for rice cultivation one could
produce other crops more efficiently.
Zone 1(HYHS): The productivity can be increased by substituting long
duration less fertilizer responsive varieties by short duration fertilizer
responsive high yielding varieties.
Zone 2 (HYLS): Here also efforts should be made to increase the
productivity but not area under cultivation. In this zone substitution of rice
with sorghum/Bajra/cotton as second crop after rice will increase cropping
intensity.
Zone 3(LYHS): Adoption of improved technology for rice and substitution of
rice by efficient crops are to be considered.
Zone 4(LYLS):Rice is grown under moisture deficit conditions with no
irrigation facilities. Hence sorghum for black soils, Bajra on alluvial soils,
Groundnut in red soils substitutes the rice.
B. Wheat efficient zones:
Zone 1(HYHS): Covers the area ofalluvial soils of Punjab, Haryana, western
UP and Rajasthan. Temperature (10-20°C) is optimal for crop growth.
Supplimental irrigation, fertilizer and improved cultivars will increase the
productivity further.
Zone 2(HYLS): It has high yield potential but limitation of irrigation water is
the constraint.
Zone 3(LYHS): Wheat yield can be improved with the improvement in
technology and inputs. Wheat belt is also efficient for Bengal gram.
Zone 4(LYLS): Temperature is not favorable for wheat cultivation.
Cotton efficient zone: Most efficient zone of long staple cotton is in South
West Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, part of Gujarat and part of Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Cotton, Wheat and Bengal gram occupy the
same zone. Varieties of cotton for inclusive in rotation with Wheat are required.
In south, rice is the competing crop. The varietal improvement in Sorghum,
Bajra, Maize and Groundnut tend to be substitution of cotton from most
efficient zone.
55
Sugarcane efficient zone : Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra are
efficient for sugarcane than Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. In
south India duration of sugarcane is longer and farmers use more fertilizers. In
north India improved management practices should be adopted to enhance the
productivity. Sugar beet is the competing crop for sugarcane in North India.

56
Evaluation of Cropping System/Assessment of Agronomic interaction

Various types of cropping system are practiced in a farm or region. They

are to be properly evaluated to find out their stability and relative advantage.
The comparison may be made with reference to competition and yield
advantages, land use efficiency, biological potential, economic viability etc.
Different indices are used in many farms to compare and evaluate the cropping
systems. Some of the important indices are classified as follows:

I. Assessment of competition and yield advantage.

1. Land equivalent ratio (LER).
2. Relative yield total (RYT).
3. Relative crowding co-efficient (RCC).
4. Aggressively (A).
5. Competition Index (CI)
6. Competition ratio (CR)
7. Competition co-efficient (CC)
8. Calorie equivalent (CE)
II. Assessment of land use and productivity in multiple cropping.
1. Multiple cropping index (MCI)
2. Cropping intensity index (CII)
3. Cropping intensity/intensity of cropping(IC)-?
4. Rotational intensity (RI)
5. Specific crop intensity index (SCII)
6. Relative cropping intensity index (RCII)
7. Cultivated land utilization index (CLUI)
8. Diversity index (DI)
9. Harvest diversity index (HDI)
10. Area time equivalent ratio (ATER)
11. Simultaneous cropping index (SCI)
12. Staple land equivalent ratio (SLER)

57
 III. Biological potential:
1. Production efficiency (PE)
2. Crop equivalent yield (CEY)
IV. Economic viability:
1. Gross returns
2. Net returns or net profit
3. Returns per rupee invested
4. Per day return
Among the above index LER is extensively used to evaluate the inter
cropping system (Additive and replacement series)
I. Assessment of competition and yield advantage

1. 1. Land Equivalent Ratio (LER)

This may be defined as the relative land area under sole crops that is
required to produce to yields achieved in inter cropping system (Additive and
replacement series).The LER of each inter cropped plots are calculated for each
component crop separately and by addicting them, the total of two crops can be
estimated.
Yab Yba
LER = LERa+LERb = +
Yaa Ybb
Where,
La=LER of ‘a’crop
Lb = LER of ‘b’ crop
Yab = individual yield of ‘a’ in inte.
Yba = individual yield of ‘b’ inte.
Yaa = Sole crop yield of ‘a’ crop
Ybb = Sole crop yield of ‘b’ crop
1. 2. Relative yield total and land equivalent ratio
The most important index of biological advantage is the relative yield
total (RYT) introduced by De wit or Land van Den Bergh (1965) or land
equivalent ratio by Willey (1979). 1. The mixture yield of a component crop

58
expressed as a portion of its yields as a sole crop from the same replacement
series is the relative yields of the crop and sum of relative yields of component
crop is called Relative yield total ( RYT). Cropping Systems (Agron 511) 30 2.
The total land area required under sole cropping to give the same yields
obtained in the intercropping is called Land equivalent ratio (LER). Both the
expressions (RYT and LER) are similar.
1. 3. Relative Crowding Coefficient (K or RCC):
It is proposed by de Wit (1960). It is used in replacement series of
intercropping. It indicates whether a species or crop when grown in mixed
population has produced more or less yield than expected in pure stand.
Mixture of yield of a
Kab (RCC)=
Purestand yield of a - Mixture of yield of a

Yab
=
Yaa - Yab
Where,
Kab=RCC of crop a intercropped with crop b,
Yab=Yield per unit area of crop a intercropped with crop b,
Yaa= Yield per unit of sole crop a
Zab=Proportion of intercropped area initially allocated to crop, a
Zba=Proportion of intercropped area initially allocated to crop, b
Yab × Zba
Kab=
(Yaa_-Yab) Zab
RCC > 1 means yield advantage
RCC = 1 no difference
RCC < 1 yield disadvantage
Crowding coefficient and LER give the yield advantage but only LER give
the magnitude of advantage. Therefore LER is preferred to assess the
competition effects and yield advantage in intercropping situations.

59
1. 4. Aggressivity
Aggressivity is proposed by Mc Gihrist (1965). It gives a simple measure
of how much the relative yield increase in species A is greater than that for
species B
Yab Yba
Aab = -
(Yaa x Zab) ( Ybb x Zba)
Where,
Aab = Zero mean component crops are equally competitive,
Aab = negative means dominated,
Aab = Bigger value either positive or negative means bigger difference in
competitive abilities.
1. 5. Competetion Index (CI) by Donald (1963)
Competition Index: It is measure to find out the yield of various crops
when grown together as well as separately. It represents the yield per plant of
different crops in mixture and their respective pure stand on unit area basis.

(Yaa-Yab) X (Ybb-Yba)
Competetion Index =
Yaa x Ybb
Where,
Yab- mixture yield of a crop grown with b
Yba- mixture yield of b crop grown with a
Yaa-yield in pure stand of crop a
Ybb-yield in pure stand of crop b
1. 6. Competetion Ratio (CR) by willey and rao (1980)
Willey, R W and Rao, M R (1980) A Competitive ratio for quantifying
competition between intercrops.
A simple competitive ratio (CR) is proposed as a measure of intercrop
competition, to indicate the number of times by which one component crop is
more competitive than the other. Intercropping data show that this CR term
could be useful in (i) comparing the competitive ability of different crops, (ii)

60
measuring competitive changes within a given combination, (iii) identifying
which plant characters are associated with competitive ability, and (iv)
determining what competitive balance between components is most likely to
give maximum yield advantages
1. 7. Competetion Coefficient (CC)
Ratio of the relative crowding coefficient of any given spp. In the mixture
RCC of a given spp.
CC =
Total RCC of all crops in mixture
2. ASSEESSMENT OF LAND USE AND PRODUCTIVITY IN MULTIPLE
CROPPING
2.1 Multiple Cropping Index or Multiple Cropping Intensity (MCI):
It was proposed by Dalrymple (1971). It is the ratio of total area cropped
in a year to the land area available for cultivation and expressed in
percentage (sum of area planted to different crops and harvested in a single
year divided by total cultivated area times 100).

Where,

n is total number of crops,

ai is area occupied by ith crop and

A is total land area available for cultivation.

2.2 Crop Intensity Index (CII):

It assesses a farmer’s actual land use in area and time relationship for
each crop or group of crops compared to the total available land area and time,
including land that is temporarily available for production.

Where,

61
 Nc = total number of crops grown by a farmer during the time period T;
ai = area occupied by ith crop (months that the crop i occupied an area
ai);
ti , duration occupied by ith crop (months that crops occupied area ai);
T = time period under study (usually one year),
Aj= Total cultivated land area available with the farmer for use during the
entire time period T;
M= total number of fields temporarily available to the farmer for cropping
during time period
Tj=1, 2, 3…….. M,
Aj=land area of jth field and
Tj= time period when Aj is available.
2.3 Cropping intensity/intensity of cropping (CI)
Indicates the number of times a field is grown with crops in a year.
Total cropping area
(CI) = × 100
Net cultivated area

Area under Kharif + Rabi + Sumer

(CI) = × 100
Actual area under cultivation

2.4 Specific Crop Intensity Index: by Menegay et al., (1978)

SCII is a derivative of CII and determines the amount of area – time
denoted to each crop or group of crops compared to total time available.

Where,
Nk= total number of crops within a specific designation such as vegetable
crops or field crops grown by the farmer during the time period T;
ak = area occupied by the kth crop;
tk= duration of kth crop; AoT, total cultivated land area available for use
during T.

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 Using this formula vegetable intensity index, rice intensity index, field
crops intensity index etc. are worked out.
2.5 Relative Cropping Intensity Index (RCII):
It is again the modification of CII and determines the amount of area-
time allotted to one crop or groups of crops relative to area - time actually used
in the production of all crops.

2.6 Cultivated Land Utilization Index (CLUI): by (Chuang, 1973)

It is calculated by summing the products of land area to each crop, multiplied
by the actual duration of that crop divided by the total cultivated land times
365 days.

Where,
n total number of crops;
ai area occupied by the ith crop, di , days that the ith crop occupied and
A = total cultivated land area available for 365 days.
2.7 Diversity Index (DI):
It was suggested by Strought (1975) and Wang and Yu (1975). It
measures the multiplicity of crops or farm products which are planted in a
single year by computing the reciprocal sum of squares of the share of gross
revenue received from each individual farm enterprises in a single year.

Where,
n = total number of enterprises (crops or farm products) and
yi = gross revenue of ith enterprises produced within a year.

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2.8 Rotational Intensity:
This is calculated by counting the number of crops grown in a rotation
and is multiplied by 100 and then divided by the duration of the rotation.
Number of crops grown in one rotation
Rotational Intensity = × 100
Duration of the rotation

2.9 Harvest Diversity Index:

It is computed using the same equation as the DI expects that the value
of each farm enterprises is replaced by the value of each harvest.

Where,
=gross value of the ith crop planted and harvested within a year
2.10 Simultaneous Cropping Index (SCI): by Strout, 1975.
It is computed by multiplying the Harvest diversity index (HDI) with
10,000 and dividing the product by Multiple cropping index (MCI).
HDI × 10,000
SCI=
MCI
2.11 Area time equivalent ratio: The limitation in the use of LER is the
emphasis on the land area without consideration of the time; the field is used
for production. To correct this, the duration of time, the crops on the land from
planting to harvest is taken into consideration in ATER.
(La × ta) + ( Lb × tb)
ATER =
T
Where,

La = LER of ‘a’
Lb = LER of ‘b’
ta = duration (days) for crop ‘a’
tb = duration (days) for crop ‘b’
T duration (days) of the inter cropping system

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2.12 Staple Land Equivalent Ratio (SLER):
In situation, where the primary objective is to produce yields of one
component (staple crop) usually a cereal and some yields of the legume, the
concept of SLER is composed.

Where,
MDA is derived yield of A in mixture yield and P, the proportion of land
devoted for intercropping. The two crop yields in the intercrop mixture are MA
and MB and yield of crops grown as sole crop are SA and SB.
3. Biological Potential
3.1 Production Efficiency (PE)
3.1.1 Crop Equivalent Yield (CEY)
Many types of crops/cultivars are included in a multiple cropping
sequences. It is very difficult to compare the economic produce of one crop to
another. To cite an example, yield of rice cannot be compared with the yield of
grain cereals or pulse crops and so on. In such situations, comparisons can be
made based on economic returns (gross or net returns). The yield of protein
and carbohydrate equivalent can also be calculated for valid comparison.
Efforts have also been made to convert the yields of different crops into
equivalent yield of any one crop such as wheat equivalent yield (Lal and Ray,
1976 and Verma and Modgel, 1983). Verma and Modgel, (1983) evolved the
equation for calculating wheat equivalent yield (WEY).

Where,
Yi=the economic yield of ith crop, e1= the wheat equivalent factor of ith
crop,
Where, ei= pi= the price of unit weight of ith crop, and pw= the price unit

weight of wheat

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3.1.2 Crop Equivalent Yield (CEY)
The yields of different intercrops/crops are converted into equivalent
yield of any one crop based on price of the produce.

CEY is the crop equivalent yield;

Cy is the yield of the main crop, the yield of other crops converted to its
equivalent and Pc is its respective price;
C1y, C2y ………. are yields of intercrops/other crops which are to be
converted to equivalent of main crop yield and
Pc1 and Pc2 ………….. are their respective prices. Ind
4. Economic viability
4. 1. Gross Returns:
The total monetary returns of the economic produce such as grain,
tuber, bulb, fruit, etc. and byproducts viz. straw, fodder, fuel etc. obtained
from the crops included in the system are calculated based on the local market
prices. The total return is expressed in terms of unit area, usually one hectare.
The main draw back in this calculation is that market price of the produce is
higher than that actually obtained by the farmer. Generally gross return
calculated is somewhat inflated compared to the actual receipt obtained by the
farmer.
4. 2. Net returns or net profit:
This is worked out by subtracting the total cost of cultivation from the
returns. This value gives the actual profit obtained by the farmer. In this type
of calculation only the variable costs are considered. Fixed costs such as rent
for the land, land revenue, interest on capital etc. are not included.
4. 3. Return Per Rupee Invested:
This is also called benefit-cost-ratio or input- output ratio
Gross returns
Return Per Rupee Invested =
Cost of cultivation

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 This index provides an estimate of the benefit derived and expenditure
incurred by the farmer in adopting a particular cropping system. Anything
above the value of 2.0 (meaning that the farmer can get RS.2 as return for
every rupee invested) can be considered worthwhile.
4. 4. Per Day Return:
This is called as income per day and can be obtained by dividing the net
return by number of cropping period (days).
Net returns
Per Day Return =
Cropping period (in days)

This gives the efficiency of the cropping system in terms of monetary

value. If the system is stretched over one year, the denominator can be
replaced by 365 days and per day for the whole year can be calculated.

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