ORGANIC FARMING

4.1 Introduction:
Systems of Agriculture: (types/methods/patterns, etc)
A. Subsistence/peasant farming
B. Intensive/(chemical farming)
C. Organic farming
D. Sustainable agriculture
E. Precision agriculture
A. Subsistence/peasant farming:
It is a farming enterprise which provides food and commodities just
sufficient for the farming family and there are no surpluses to sell or
commercial activities.
Characteristics of subsistence farming:
1. Production is enough to meet the family needs and nothing is left for
commercial activity, whatever is grown in the farm is consumed by the
producer/grower.
2. There are no applications of purchased external input for cultivation
of crops which are costly.
3. There is no waste product; everything is recycled in the system.
4. No exploitation/over use of natural resources like land, water and
environment.
5. It is a self-sufficient system of farming.
6. Food produced for the needs not for greed.
7. It is self sustained system of farming.
8. The farmers are called peasant.
B. Intensive/Chemical farming/Commercial:
It is an agricultural production system characterized by high inputs of
capital, labour, machinery, pesticides chemical fertilizers, water etc, where it
uses and exploits the natural resources to a maximum extent by means of
frequent succession of harvested crops, which is oriented towards only on
high returns/profits.
Characteristics Intensive/Chemical farming/Commercial farming:
1. Crops are produced exclusively for commercial activities.
2. Nothing or very less is consumed by the farming family/producer.
3. This type of farming heavily depends upon externally purchased
inputs like fertilizer, pesticides, seeds, water etc.
4. Exploitation of the natural resources to the great extent.
5. It is dependent agriculture mostly on external inputs.
6. Food is produced for the greedy and not for the needy.
7. Participation in the commercial activities to a greater extent.
4.2 Relevance of organic farming in the present context
Organic farming aims at cultivation of the land in a way so that the
soil is kept dynamic with living activities and in good health, at the same
time keeping the environment clean, maintaining the ecological balance and
providing stability to the production level without polluting soil, water and
air. This method is self sufficient and self dependent, relying more on
biological inputs as compared to modern chemical farming.
Definition:
1. Organic agriculture is a production system which avoids or largely
excludes the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides,
growth regulators and live stock feed additives. To the maximum extent
possible, organic farming systems rely on crop rotations, crop residues,
animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes and
aspects of biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and tilth to
supply plant nutrient and control insects, weeds and other pests
(FAO,1980).
The concept of the soil as a living systems and develops the
activities of beneficial organisms is the core point to this definition.
2. Organic agriculture is the production system that sustains the health of
soil, ecosystem and people, by relying on ecological process, biodiversity
and natural cycles and adapted to local condition than the use of inputs
with adverse effects (IFOAM, 2008) (International Forum For Organic
Agriculture Movement).
3. USDA’s National Organic Standard Board (NOSB, 1995), defined organic
agriculture as ecological production management system that promotes
and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity by
adopting management practices that restores, maintains and enhances
ecological harmony as well as minimized use of off-farm inputs.
4.3 Composition of plant residues:
The main source of organic matter is plant tissue. The root and short
system of trees, shrubs, grasses supply large quantity of organic residues
every year. Animals which feed on plant material or feed another animal
leave their own bodies in soil after life-cycle. Moisture content of green plant
tissue varies from 60 to 90 per cent with an average of 75 per cent. The dry
matter is mostly carbon and oxygen with less than 10 per cent each of
hydrogen and inorganic forms of essential nutrients such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium and sulphur are particularly important in
plant nutrition. Mature dry plant tissue has the following general
composition.
Compounds Percentage
1.Carbohydrates
a) Sugars 1 to 5
b) Cellulose 20 to 50
c) Hemicelluloses 10 to 28
2.Proteins 1 to 15
3.Fats, oil, waxes, tannins etc 1 to 8
4.Lignin 10 to 30
Decomposition of organic residues:
Addition of plant material to soil encourages rapid multiplication of
organisms like bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes due to readily available
carbon for oxidation. There will be vigorous digestion and rapid
disappearance of easily decomposable compound liberating large amount of
carbon dioxide and energy.
Enzymatic
OM/CH/-(C,4H ) + 202 Co2 + 2H2o + Energy
Oxidation
There is greater variation in the rate of decomposition of organic
compound. Ease in decomposition is usually in the order of
 First: Sugars, starches and simple proteins.
Second: Crude protein
Third: Hemi cellulose
Fourth: Cellulose
Fifth: Fats, waxes etc.
Sixth: Lignins

Carbon cycle:
Carbon is the major constituents of organic matter. Energy
requirement of the soil micro organisms is derived from carbon.
Transformation of carbon makes life possible on the earth. The sequence of
transformations leading to fixation of carbon dioxide in living organisms and
ultimately returned to its original state is termed as carbon cycle.
Higher plants are the major sources of carbon for dissolution by
micro-organisms in soil. Digestion of organic residues liberates carbon-
dioxide which escape into the atmosphere for use by the plants. Thus,
carbon of the plants reaches the plants, completing the cycle.
Simple products of decomposition
As the process of organic matter decomposition proceeds, simple
inorganic products begin to appear. Besides carbon dioxide and water,
essential nutrients especially nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus are
produced from organic decay. Most of the inorganic ions released are
available for plants, micro organisms and soil organisms. Simple products of
decomposition are:
Carbon compounds: CO2, CO3 2-, HCO3-, CH4, C
Nitrogen compounds: NH4+, NO2-, N, NO3-
Sulphur compounds: S, HS, SO32-, SO4 2-, CS2
Phosphors compounds: H2Po-4, HPO42-, PO43-
Other compounds: O2, H2, H2o, H+, OH-, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ etc.
Humus: Easily decomposable substances are quickly subjected to break
down yielding simple products as described above. Resistant substance
such as fats, lignins, oils, resins etc remain in to be modified forms. Some
proteins combine with compounds like lignins, tannins, humic acids, etc
and other adsorbed especially on expanding clay. Thus, proteins are
protected from immediate microbial degradation. At this stage almost all the
original organic material has been converted to dark heterogeneous mass
called “humus”. Humus is a complex and rather resistant mixture of brown
or dark brown amorphous and colloidal organic substance that results from
microbial decomposition and synthesis; has chemical and physical
proportion of great significance to soil and plants.
Humus contains 3 to 6 per cent nitrogen and about 58 per cent
carbon. On the basis of carbon content, organic matter content can be
determined by multiplying carbon content by 1.724. The carbon/nitrogen
ratio of humus varies from 10:1 to 12:1. Depending on stage of organic
matter decomposition and climatic condition, the
Carbon:Nitrogen:Phosphorus: Sulphur ratio is 120 to 100:10:1:1.
Benefits of decomposed organic matter
Decomposed soil organic matter has profound influence on soil
properties and productivity of crops and they are:
a. Encourage soil granulation.
b. Reduce the plasticity and cohesion.
c. Increase water retentive capacity/WHC
d. High CEC, minimize the leading losses of nutrients.
e. Nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and micronutrients are held in organic
forms.
f. It aids in release of electrons from minerals by humic acid
Carbon to Nitrogen ratio (C:N ratio)
A close relationship exists between organic matter and nitrogen
content of soil. The ratio of weight of organic carbon to total nitrogen in soil
is called carbon: nitrogen ratio. The C:N ratio of soils is fairly constant. This
is important in regulating the available nitrogen, total organic matter and
the rate of organic decay. A wide C/N ratio (40:1) indicates little or no
decomposition and its susceptibility to further decomposition with slow
nitrification.
Significance of C:N ratio: There will be a keen competition for available
nitrogen among soil micro organisms when an organic residue with high C:N
ratio is added. The multiplying micro organisms assimilate the available
forms of nitrogen to synthesize their own bodies. Thus, the nitrogen is
immobilized temporarily.
When the organic residues are fairly decomposed the C:N ratio
becomes narrow, since carbon is being lost as CO2 and nitrogen is
conserved. The conserved nitrogen is reconverted to simple inorganic forms.
Thus the C:N ratio indicates the conservation of both the nitrogen and
organic matter in the soil.
4.4 Organic farming practices or Components of organic farming
1. Adaption of mixed farming or integrated farming, organization of crop
livestock production and the management of farm resources in such a
way that it harmonizes rather than conflicts with natural system.
2. A crop should be able to grow and yield successfully utilizing the
nutrients supplied out of a given soil under ideal condition created for
buildup of fertility by enhanced microbial activities.
3. Adoption of crop rotation/inter cropping/mixed cropping system with
their principles.
4. Integration of non-chemical nutrient sources use of minerals and
natural nutrient sources. All possible organic sources available in
nature could be used in digested/semi-digested/undigested condition
to supply the plant nutrients. This may result into adoption of
practices relating to manure/compost preparation outside agricultural
field or sometimes insitu decomposition in an agricultural field. Use of
biological N-fixation, use of bio fertilizers use of phosphate solublising
bacteria, Azatobactor, Azospirillum etc.
5. Integrated non-chemical pest (insect) management and integrated
non-chemical disease management which includes use of
1. Host plant resistance
2. Cultural management practices
3. Mechanical method
4. Bio control agents/Bio pesticides
 5. Organic and botanical/bio-extracts
6. Use of natural predators
7. Use of trap crops
8. Use of barriers Ex: Poly houses, use of nets etc.
6. Integrated non-chemical weed management which includes
a. Crop rotation, use of smother crops
b. Mulching, stale seedbed technique
c. Use of well decomposed manures
d. Bio control agents
e. Bio herbicides
f. Mechanical methods
g. Tillage practices which includes deep tillage, inter cultivation
etc. with or without manual hand weeding.
h. Soil soilarization
i. Cover cropping
7. On farm biomass generation (by exsitu and insitu green manuring),
recycling and their management use of crop residues (stubbles, leaves
etc) to manage soil fertility
8. Integration of eco friendly practice of soil and water
management/conservation.
4.5 The concept of organic farming
Organic farming does not use any inorganic chemicals (which are
synthetically compounded and toxic) as pesticides, weedicides, fertilizers etc.
Instead they are based on the development of biological diversity as well as
the maintenance and replenishment of soil productivity.
The organic farming describes two major aspects with other minor
aspects viz.,
1. Substitution of manures and other organic matter for inorganic
fertilizers.
2. Biological pest and disease control instead of chemical control.

Organic farming signifies the use of wide varieties of natural materials

and practices. What makes organic farming unique that almost all synthetic
inputs are prohibited and soil health improving organic practices are
mandated.
 The material may include animal dung, urine, digested/undigested
manures, oil cakes, plant residues, farm wastes, bodies of dead animals,
fish meal etc. They may also include many unconventional sources
(resources) such as city wastes, sewage, sludge, industrial wastes, wastes of
slaughter house, human excreta and urine, marine wastes etc. The practices
of organic farming include, green manuring, green leaf manuring, microbial
inoculation, several cropping practices (such as trap cropping, crops
rotation, inter cropping etc.) for better pest control and many other practices
which aim at improvement of soil health. Such practices may also include
the use of many bio-agents, soil organisms, predators and natural enemies
for natural control of pests as well as the use of earthworms and many other
means of building up the soil fertility to bring it to the tune of natural
harmony in an agricultural eco-system.
4.6 Different types/terminologies used in organic farming
1. Natural Farming (Nature Farming)
It signifies the method of farming, where cultivation of a crop is left to
the natural forces in a given place. It means cultivation of crop with least
human interference. Thus, seeding and harvesting are the only two
operations involved in such farming. It is comparable to primitive
agriculture, where no cultivation is done, no weeding is carried out, no
manure/fertilizer is applied and pests are not artificially controlled.
Everything is left to nature.
1. No cultivation: It believes that root penetration, soil fauna (microbes,
earth warms, etc) till the land continuously.
2. Total restriction on use of compost or chemical fertilizer: It believe that
the man spoils earth by intervening in natural cycle. If land is left to
nature by plant and animal cycles it becomes fertile.
3. No weeding, no use of herbicides: weeds improve soil fertility and
maintain the balance between living systems. Weeds may be managed
by mulching, impounding water but should not be controlled.
4. No plant protection chemicals: Use of chemicals results in development
of susceptible plants. As a consequence plant protection chemicals
become necessary. In natural farming pest and diseases causing
organisms exist but not at levels causing major economic loss. Main
principle is to use resistant plants.
 5. Natural farming may be best feasible in waste land, where trees,
grasses and legumes are planted and left to nature.
The inspiration for such an extreme form of farming is drawn from the
perception that nature can take care of crop, left to itself. (Fukavoka
(Japanese) was instrumental in demonstrating the importance of natural
farming to the modern world). This may be a useful system to develop soil
micro flora and soil fertility in long run. But it is certainly not an
encouraging method of farming to achieve higher agricultural production, as
the crop yields are bound to suffer very heavily in such a system. It is not
suitable for all types of agro-climate situation, as many drier, eco-systems
cannot support the crop growth as well as build up of micro flora to a
desirable level, if left to nature.
2. Zero-chemical farming: It is method of farming, where the use of
synthetic chemical is avoided in toto. The cultivation of crops relies totally
on naturally available material. In its verbatim meaning zero-chemical
farming implies all the aspects of organic farming. The nutrients are
supplied through all available organic sources. The pests of a crop are
controlled by all possible non-chemical means. As compared to natural
farming, zero-chemical farming is more efficient, because, the supply of
nutrients and control of pests is not left to nature. They are achieved
without using any chemical.
3. Bio-dynamic farming: It was originally started by Dr. Rudolf steiner,
an Austrian philosopher and scientist. His prescriptions include use of one
or more natural forces. The biodynamic farming practices include herbal
preparations against pests, methods to enhance decomposition in manures
and composts. He also advocated a practice of preparation of energy rich
manure contentment by use of cosmic rays, which was believed to enhance
to soil fertility. Adoption of biodynamic farming may not cover all the aspects
of organic farming.
4. Biological farming: It is system of crop production, in which the
producer attempts to improve the biological balance between the flora and
fauna, so that a stabilized situation of agro-eco system helps in natural
control of pests or in supply of nutrients. This is also covers partial objects
of organic farming.
5. Humus farming: It is a type of farming, where in the crops is expected
to grow by utilizing the humus formed out of constant decomposition of
biomass. This type of farming requires a typically tropical climate with warm
temps, high humidity and more insulation. The crop mainly depends upon
humus for all its requirements. No artificial fertilizers and chemicals are
used. Even, application of organically decomposed manure is not necessary.
6. Compost farming: In this system of farming, enormous amount of
compost or conventionally prepared FYM is applied to meet the nutrient
requirement of crops. Heavy reliance is made on digested manure as the
main source of nutrients in this type of farming.
7. Sewage farming: City sewage and industrial sewage water containing
rich sources of plant nutrients and are made use off. The composition of
sewage water needs to be tested thoroughly before using, since it may
contain huge amount of harmful heavy metals (cadmium, selenium etc).
8. Integrated farming (IFS): Integrated farming system which integrates
natural resources and regulation mechanisms into farming activities to
achieve maximum replacement of off-farm inputs. (for more information
refer IFS in farming system chapter).
9. Homa farming: It is a type of farming, where a traditionally performed
homa by uttering specific mantras is expected to relieve the site of
performance from all evil sources of causing the pest attack. It is more a
belief based forming than science based phenomenon.
10. Sludge farming: Use of urban sanitary solid waste as a source of
nutrient for cultivation of crop is called as sludge farming. Precaution has to
be taken for any health hazards to human being.
11. Permaculture/Permanent Agriculture: Permaculture is contraction
(short from) of permanent agriculture. It is concerned with designing
ecological human habitats, food production systems, follows specific
guidelines and principles in the design of this system. It is not a production
system, but rather a land use planning philosophy, not specific to any
method of production. Thus, any site specific ecological farming system is
amenable to permaculture.
Differences between Natural and Organic farming
Sl.
Natural Farming Organic Farming
No.
1. It is not an alternative system of In many aspects close to natural
farming but a part of the farming but does not have the
philosophy of life involving philosophical aspects of natural
continuous search to knows the farming.
true spirit and form of nature.
2. Totally eliminates all components It does not exclude the total
of modern farming. elements of modern farming. It
involves limited and essential
ploughing, hoeing, weeding etc. and
use of organic chemicals.
3. It indicates a do nothing It indicates a soil building
approach. programme-more intensive style of
natural farming. Application of
natural plant protection of
chemicals (not an inorganic
derivatives). Use of organic
manures are permitted (instead of
chemical fertilizer.
4. The essential principles are no Principal elements to be considered
cultivation, no chemicals and no in practicing organic farming are
fertilizers, no weeding, no plant maintaining a living soil, making all
protection etc. available all essential nutrients
organic mulching etc.
5. It may be best feasible in waste It can be easily followed in
lands, where trees, grasses and plantation or perennial crop, forest
legumes are planted and left to crop etc.
the nature.
Differences between Organic farming and Modern/chemical
farming/conventional farming
Sl. Modern/chemical
Organic farming
No. farming/conventional farming
1. Ecological orientation Economical orientation
2. Less mechanization More mechanization
3. More and efficient labour inputs Minimum labour inputs
4. Diversification with balanced Specialization, disproportionate
combination of enterprises development of enterprises.
5. Stability, because of Market and demand based
diversification programme.
6. Cycle of nutrients within the Supplementary nutrient,
farm, which are predominantly predominantly through inorganic
farm produced material. fertilizers.
7. Weed control by crop rotation Weed control by herbicides
and cultural practices
8. Pest control by non-chemicals Pest control by pesticides which
which are non-polluting polluting the air.
9. Depends on manure preparation May or may not have manure
because of livestock in preparation due to less dependent
agriculture. on livestock
10. Production is integrated which Exploitation of resource by
are environmentally healthy. chemical and technical
manipulation.
11. Balanced condition for plant Excessive or less
and animals fertilization/chemicals require
frequent correction
12. Optimum input-output ratio Low input - output ratio
13. No pollution Considerable amount of pollution
4.7 Principles of Organic Farming
4.7.1: General principles of organic farming/Objectives
International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movement (IFOAM)
summarizes the principles and practices in their standard manual which are
as follows:
1. To produce food of high nutritional quality in sufficient quantity.
2. To work with natural system rather than seeking to dominate them.
3. To encourage and enhance the biological cycles within the farming
system involving micro organisms, soil flora and fauna.
4. To sustain the soil fertility (maintain and increase) and use of
renewable resources in locally organized agricultural system.
5. To work as much as possible within a closed system with regard to
organic matter and nutrient elements.
6. To give all live stock conditions of life that allows there to perform all
aspects of their innate behavior.
7. To avoid all forms of pollution that may result from agricultural
techniques.
8. To maintain the genetic diversity of flora and fauna including the
protection of plants and wild life habitats.
9. Stability in production and returns for producer.
10. To consider the wider social and ecological impact of the farming
system.
4.7.2: Certain basic principles of organic farming are briefly discussed
as follows:
1. Crop and soil management: Organic farming encourage crop
rotation and use of organic manures including green manuring for
increasing soil organic matter and humus leading to improvement in
soil water retention, ion exchange, soil conservation and soil
organisms life in the soil.
2. Nutrient Management: Composting of all organic wastes, in general,
and farm yard manure in particular, is important in organic farming.
Organic matter produced on the farm should form the basis of the
manurial programme. All the organic matter produced on the farm
 should be returned to the soil to maintain adequate humus content
on a long term basis. Biofertilizers should be regarded as
supplementary and not a replacement for nutrient cycling.
3. Plant protection: Primary strategy in controlling insect, diseases and
weeds is prevention. Healthy soils due to organic farming produce
healthy plants, which are better able to resist insect and diseases.
Organic farmers also relay on diverse population and soil organisms,
insect, birds and other organisms to keep the problem in check.
When the pest population gets out of balance; farmers will implement
a variety of strategies such as use of insect predators, mating
disruption, traps and barriers. As a last resort, botanical or non-toxic
pesticides are used under restricted conditions. Weeds are controlled
through tillage, inter cultivation, through cover crops, mulches, crop
rotation and manual weeding.
4. Soil and water conservation: Only running water can erode the soil.
The velocity of running water can be minimized through contour
cultivations, contour trenching, contour bounding, terracing, gully
plugging, grassing the water ways, etc, depending on slope and other
farming practices. Watershed management programmes play key role
in organic farming.
Organic farming is a viable alternative to conventional agriculture.
However, it is often associated with low yields. As low yields are expected,
the market’s ability to pay a premium price is a key determinant of
sustainable growth of organic agriculture. The European Union is currently
world’s leading market for organic products. The legislation on organic
agriculture varies across countries. At present certification is compulsory for
the organic food exported from India.
4.8 Scope of Organic Farming:
The criteria of assessment and in turn the extent of scope of organic
farming vary according to soil, climate, cropping system, vegetation,
irrigation allied activities (animal husbandry, sheep raring, poultry etc.) as
well as harmony achieved between different components of each eco-system.
 1. Scope for preparing farm yard manure by a farmer with large number
of livestock is certainly brighter than that of a farmer maintaining a few
cattle.
2. An irrigated farmer is able to easily adopt green manuring practice or
the practice of retaining the crop residues for enrichment of soil, as the
availability of soil moisture can facilitate decomposition. But a dry land
farmer is not able to do easily.
3. Temperate climate does not favour faster decomposition of organic
residues as compared to tropical climate due to cold temperatures
preventing in temperate climate for most part of year.
4. A farm nearer to urban area has advantage of obtaining decomposed
compost or poultry manure at cheaper rates compared to interior rural
areas.
5. Regions of better rainfall distribution support two crops and result in
sufficient bio-mass for incorporation Whereas, low rainfall areas may
offer little scope for bio mass incorporation.
6. The global demand for organic food is increasing.
7. Indian farmers are by default in dry land areas. Large area under
certain pulses is grown with very less use of fertilizer or no fertilizer.
Example: Horse gram, Black gram in Rajasthan.
8. Large quantity of plant and animal residues is available which can be
judiciously used.
9. India has large cattle population.
4.9 Advantages of organic farming
1. As both nutrient needs and pest control are met by non-chemical
method, the entire eco-system for which a package of organic farming is
developed remains free from all sorts of hazards by chemicals. The soil
fertility, soil fauna, soil micro flora and crop growth would be retained
in perfect harmony leading to sustainable system. Deleterious effects of
chemicals on human health, animal health, crop growth, natural
predators, microbial population and their activity, availability of
nutrients are completely obviated.
 2. Pollution by agro-chemical at various levels of manufacturing, handling
and packing, application by various inhalation, ingestion and dermal
routes is fully avoided. Contamination of water and agricultural
products as well as the health complications due to such
contamination are also avoided.
3. The soil regenerates its original status of a dynamic living system with
harmonious interactions of its biological, physical and chemical
components. As the soil organic matter is improved, the porosity,
infiltration and structures of soil are drastically improved. This helps in
better moisture conservation and would reduce to erosion losses
substantially.
4. In long term analysis, organic farming practices are more cost effective,
as sustainable yield levels could be achieved at no extra cost of
chemical brought from outside. As the systems can retain their self-
supportive nature in long run, assured returns are possible in most
crops without any cost on fertilizer and other agro-chemicals.
5. Organic farming can result into a fairly pollution free products from
agriculture and in turn helps the society to be pollution free. Human
and animal populations are not passed to the short term and long term
ill-effects of consuming agro-chemicals organic food.
6. Large subsidies on fertilizers and other agrochemicals now draining the
national exchange and foreign exchange reserves are curtailed.
7. Organically grown produce will fetch more price and economical.
4.10 Limitations of organic farming /Disadvantages
1. Uniform practices of organic farming cannot be developed for all
situations and for all crops. Organic materials used in organic farming
also differ in various places. Package of organic farming practice
involving different components will have to be developed separately for
each eco-system.
2. Dramatic and large benefits in terms of yields and returns cannot be
expected in short time from organic farming practice. The increase in
the yields and returns, commensurate with the resource structures of
each eco-system, can be gradually increased, stabilized and sustained
over a longer period of three to eight years.
3. Many organic manures are bulky in nature with low concentrations of
nutrients. Their carriage to distant places may pose problems of
increased cost and labour. This will be a major limitation, where insitu
decomposition of bio-mass due to moisture constrant in not possible
and pre-digested manure has to be insatiably used.
4. Most high yielding hybrids/varieties of cultivated crops, developed in
the past 3-4 decades are tuned to their high responsiveness to
application of chemical fertilizers. Their nutrient demands are so high
that, meeting their requirement by organic sources alone in
economically non-feasible in all the situations. Some of them may not
respond positively to organic farming practices immediately. New
varieties/hybrids may have to be identified, with their responsiveness
to organic manures, as the main criteria for selection.
5. Although many non-chemical methods of pest control are already
developed, control of the weeds by non chemical methods may have to
be solely done by cultivation methods. This may pose some problems in
countries where extensive (intensive)agriculture in widely practiced with
large agricultural holdings managed by less man power.
6. Many more efforts are needed to indentify natural enemies and
predators of some pests. If they are entirely absent in an eco-system,
the pests have to be managed by cultural and breeding methods, which
may involve more time and labour.
7. Food demand is increasing, by 2025 it is expected a beat 380 mt.
Producing of this quantity only through organic farming is a major
limitation.
8. Organic matter content of the soil is so poor due to rapid oxidation and
low addition of organic manures in most of the low rainfall areas.
9. Diversion of crop by products as fodder and fuel.
10. Lack of adequate recycling of organic sources.
11. Wastage of crop residues by burning, loss by termite etc.
12. Inadequate non chemical means for control of pests, disease and
weeds.
 13. Organic products need to certified for export or marketing. The
standards are rigid and the certification is costly.
14. The entire farm needs to be converted in to organic first three years is
referred as “under-conversion” (gestation period). The product does not
fetch any premium for product produced of first 3 years.
4.11 Source of materials used in organic farming (refer also organic
farming (4.4) and last concept of (4.5)
I. Traditional or conventional sources
II. Biological sources
III. Non-traditional or non conventional sources
4.11. Traditional/Conventional sources includes
a. Manure, (FYM), compost, green manuring and green leaf manuring.
b. Oil cakes
c. Crops residues (trash stubbles etc)
d. Farm wastes
e. Fish meal
f. Animal wastes
g. Live stock wastes.
h. Bio-gas-slurry.
i. Dropping of sheep, goats, ducks, poultry litter, etc
j. By products of agro industries, oil cakes, baggase and press mud,
fruit and vegetable processing waste etc.
k. Water hyacinth, weeds and tank silt etc.
II. Biological Sources:
a. Vermicompost
b. N-fixing bacteria
c. Phosphorus solublising bacteria
d. N-fixing vegetation
e. Predators
f. Bio herbicides
g. Biological weed control.
h. Natural enemies
i. Bio pesticides/ natural pesticides
j. Botanicals
III. Non-traditional/Non conventional sources:
a. Industrial wastes
b. Industrial sewages
c. Slaughter house wastes-bone meal ,blood meal,hoof meal.
d. Human habitation wastes (night soil, human urines)
e. Marine wastes
f. City wastes
g. City sewage sludge and town refuse etc.
Conventional sources:(Traditional)
a. Green manuring in-situ method and Green leaf manuring
It refers to the incorporation of live bio-mass into the soil in order to
supply the plant nutrients.
1. Ideal green manure should have;
2. Should have seedling vigor and good establishment.
3. Produce more biomass
4. Rich in sufficient nutrients
5. Tolerant to drought, shade, flood and adverse conditions
6. Have effective atmospheric nitrogen fixing ability
7. Can be easily incorporated into the soil
8. Should undergo rapid decomposition.
9. Should have tolerance to pests and diseases.
10. It should not contain harmful substances to plants and soil
Examples:
Green manuring: Sunhemp, horsegram, diancha, cowpea cluster bean etc.
Shrubs: Glyricidia, ponagmia, sesbania, neem, etc.
Leguminous crops produce about 8-25 tonnes/ha of green biomass
that will add about 60-90 kg N/ha when incorporated to the soil. This is
equal to 3-10 tonnes of FYM. Green leaf manuring contains 2.78 % N, 0.29
% P, and 0.19 % K,
4.11(b) Oil cakes: Prior to the introduction of fertilizer the oil cakes were
applied in granulated formulation to the fields. The two important
characteristics are;
 1. Contain N, P, K along with a large quality of organic matter.
2. In water, their nitrogen becomes quickly available to plants in about 7-
10 days after application.
Uses of oil cakes-
1. Good source of nutrients to crops.
2. Edible oil cakes are used as feed.
3. To control certain pest and diseases.
4. Improve soil physical, chemical, and biological properties.
5. Supply lot of organic carbon to soil.
Crop residues
a. Serves as a sources of materials for composting
b. Serves as fuel
c. Contain plant nutrients
d. Easily(locally) available to farmers
e. No transportation cost, and also as a alternate source for fodder to
livestock.
Limitations:
1. Poor decomposability of crop residues, because of high C:N ratio and
high lignin content.
2. It requires more moisture for decomposition.
3. It require time for decomposition.
Bulky organic manures : Relatively low in nutrient content per unit
quantity of the material, on equal nutrient basis, they should be applied in
bulk quantities.
Concentrated organic manure: contain relatively higher nuterients per
unit quantity, hence theyb need to be applied in lower quantity on equal
nutrient basis. Green manures although bulk in nature, are specially grown
for incorporation in soil, need to be considerd differently.
FYM: Most valuable and most commonly used by farmers. It consists of
materials of crop residues; cattle dung decomposed and urine, farm wastes
slurry from biogas plants, live stock wastes and other house hold wastes.
It is a decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along with
waste feeds, fodder, litter, and method of storage. Failure to collect urine
and converting dung as fuel are the two major losses during handling.
Leaching and volatilization are the major losses of nutrients in storage
Classification of manures:
Some manures are relatively low in nutrient content compared with
others. On the basis of nutrient content per unit quantity, manures are
broadly grouped into two classes: bulky organic manures and concentrated
organic manures.
Bulky organic manures:
are relatively low in nutrient content per unit quantity. Hence, they need to
be applied in lesser quantity on equal nutrient basis. Green manure
although bulk in nature, are specially grown for incorporation into the soil
need to be considered differently.
Compost: The process of decomposing organic wastes is called composting
and the decomposed material is called compost. Composting is essentially a
microbiological decomposition of organic residues collected from rural area
(rural compost) or urban area (urban compost).
In Coimbatore method, composting is done in pits of different sizes
depending on the waste material available. A layer of waste materials is first
laid in the pit. It is moistened with a suspension of 5-10 kg cow dung in 2.5-
5.0lit of water and 0.5 to 1.0kg fine bone meal sprinkled over it uniformly.
Similar layers are laid one over the other till the material rises 0.75 m above
the ground level. It is finally plastered with wet mud and left undisturbed for
8 to 10 weeks. Plaster is then removed, material moistened with water, given
a turning and made into a rectangular heap under a shade. It is left
undisturbed till its use.
In the Indore method of composting, organic wastes are spread in the
cattle shed to serve as bedding. Urine soaked material along with dung is
removed every day and formed into a layer of about 15 cm thick at suitable
sites. Urine soaked earth, scarped from cattle sheds is mixed with water and
sprinkled over the layer of wastes twice or thrice a day. Layering process
continued for about a fortnight. A thin layer of well decomposed compost is
sprinkled over top and the heap given a turning and reformed. Old compost
acts as inoculums for decomposing the material. The heap is left
undisturbed for about a month. Then it is thoroughly moistened and given a
turning. The compost is ready for application in another month.
 In the Bangalore method of composting, dry waste material of 25 cm
thick is spread in a pit and a thick suspension of cow dung in water is
sprinkled over for moistening. A thin layer of dry waste is laid over the
moistened layer. The pit of filled alternately with dry layers of material and
cow dung suspension till it rises 0.5 m above ground level. It is left exposed
without covering for 15 days. It is given a turning, plastered with wet mud
and left undisturbed for about 5 months or till required.
In Coimbatore method, there is anaerobic decomposition to start
with, following by aerobic fermentation. It is the reverse in Bangalore
method. The Bangalore compost is not so thoroughly decomposed as the
Indore compost or even as much as the Coimbatore compost, but is
bulkiest.
Sewage and sludge: In cities, human excreta are flushed out with large
quantities of water. This is called sewage system of sanitation. Sewage has
two components solid portion called sludge and liquid portion called sewage
water. Sewage is allowed to stand in settling of organic matter in fresh
sewage to bring down the C: N ration of the sludge. In general, sludge is rich
in N and P and low in K. Sewage water is used for irrigation.
Septic tank to relive it from the solid matter and to undergo preliminary
fermentation and oxidation.
Concentrated organic manures
Concentrated organic manures contain higher nutrient content per
unit quantity than bulky organic manures. Their manorial values are largely
due to their nitrogen content although they supply smaller quantities of
other nutrients.
Oil cakes: These are the most important concentrated organic manures with
low C:N ratio (3:5). They nitrify quickly releasing nitrogen in about a week.
Mahua cake is an exception and cakes about two months for nitrification.
Cakes are usually applied before sowing. Edible oil cakes are valuable as
cattle feed. castor, pongamia and neem cakes are largely used as manures.
Bone meal: Bones from carcasses of dead animals, slaughter houses and
meat processing industries are the different sources of bone meal. Bones are
the rich sources of phosphorus and calcium. Crushed bones are used either
in raw form or after steam sterilization. The glue separated form bones has
commercial value and the residue in powdered from is used either as
manure or called feed. bone meal is slow acting and ideal for acid soils and
for long duration crops.
Guano: It is an admixture of excreta and dead remains of sea birds rich in N
and P. It is collected periodically from islands. The refuse left over after
extracting oil from fish in factories is dried and used as manure known as
fish guano. It is comparable to bird guano in its effect on soil and crops.
Vermi composting
It is a system of composting in which organic wastes are decomposed
using biological agent, earthworm, for making vermincompost for use in
agroecosystems and aquaculture for sustainable production. Earthworms
along with soil micro organisms play a vital role in degrading organic wastes
and thus maintain a nutrient flux in the system. Earthworm is physically an
aerator, crusher, mixer, chemically a degrader and biologically a stimulator
in the decomposers system.
The entire biodegradation process of organic wastes by earthworms
and micro organisms is called vermin composting and the end product is
vermincompost. It contains 1.2 to 1.6 per cent more nitrogen, 1.8 to 2.0 per
cent more phosphorus and 0.5 to 0.75 per cent more potassium compared
to usual FYM. Besides major nutrients, it contains nearly all the
micronutrients, hormones like auxin and cytokines, enzymes, vitamins and
several useful bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi etc. Earthworms are highly
sensitive to sunlight and drain. As such, composting should be done in
shade.
Two methods are adopted for waste treatment by earthworms. In the
first method, solid organic wastes are spread on the soil surface for
incorporation into the soil directly where earthworms contribute to the
burial and decomposition of the waste material. In the second method, the
wastes are stacked into heaps and earth activity results in the production of
large quantities of earthworm casts, sold as vermin compost for application
to soil. In India, two species of earth worms (Eudrillus evegeniae and Eisenia
foetida) are used for vermi composting.
 For field crops, the rate of application is 2.5 to 3.0 t ha-1 as basal
application, 1.2 to 1.5 t ha-1 as top dressing 4 leaf stage at and 1.2 to 1.5 t
ha-1 at flowering. For fruits trees, 1 to 10 kg tree-1 depending on the age. For
vegetable crops, the rate of application is around 10 t ha-1.
4.12 Biological intensive nutrient management
Millions of living organisms in the soil make it a living and dynamic
system. These organisms carryout a number of transformations facilitating
the availability of nutrients to the plants beside their role in the development
of soil. Organisms present in the soil can be classified in to two groups.: soil
flora (plant kingdom) and soil fauna (animal kingdom). These further divided
into two sub groups: Macro organisms (seen by unaided eye) and micro
organisms(seen only after magnification)
Organisms in soil

Fauna (Animals) Flora (plants)

Micro fauna Macro fauna Micro flora Macro flora

Protozoa Earth worms Bacteria Plant roots
Nematodes Termites, mites Actinomycetes Algae
Rotifers Ants, Grubs, Fungi
Scorpions,slugs
Centipeds .

The three major beneficial functions of soil micro organisms are

decomposition of organic residues, inorganic transformations and
atmospheric nitrogen fixation
Role of organisms in soil fertility
Soil organisms, being mostly saprophytic(which feed on dead and
decaying organisms) in nature, derive carbon and energy from organic
matter and multiply. Upon death and decomposition, they release plant
nutrients hooked with organic matter.
Organic matter decomposition: Soil organisms use organic matter as a
source of energy releasing CO2 and converting nitrogen to NH4. Which is
further oxidized to NO3 for crop use. Similarly, other nutrients one also
converted to available forms. This is called as mineralization.
Nutrient transformations: The process by which nitrogen in organic
compounds gets converted into inorganic ammonium or nitrate ions is called
as mineralization of organic nitrogen. The process includes steps like
ammonisation, ammonification and nitrification.
Detoxification of soil pollutants: Agro chemicals (pesticides, fungicides,
herbicides etc) are usually detoxified by soil microbes, if used at
recommended rates, within reasonable period, thus preventing their
residues in soils, water and crop produce. Soil organisms decompose several
other chemicals including heavy metals added to soil through city garbage,
sewage and sludge.
Bio remediation of spoilt soils: It involves use of micro organisms in
associations with plant host, soil amendments and organic techniques to
remove soil contaminant.
Bio fertilizers: There are mainly two types of bio fertilizers
A. Nitrogen fixing bio fertilizers
B. Phosphoric bio fertilizers
Nitrogen fixing bio fertilizers
1. Rhizobium is used for pulses crops. The seeds are treated before
sowing.
2. Actinorhize: It can be used for other than leagues.
3. Azospirilum : it is a non-symbiotic bacteria that can fix nitrogen
independently in the soil. Ex: Onion, brinjal, cabbage, tomato, maize
and potato independently in the soil. It suits to grass family crops like
maize, sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet and sugarcane.
4. Azatobacter is non-symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria for inoculating a
wide range of crops.
5. Azolla is used in rice as green manure form
6. BGA is used in rice and other crops
P-fixing organisms
1. Bacteria belonging to genera Pseudomonas and Bacillus can solublise
unavailable phosphate into available from.
2. Fungi belonging to genera Penecillium and can Aspergillus solublise
unavailable phosphate into available form.
Advantages of biofertilizers
1. Cheap sources of nutrients
2. Suppliers of Micronutrients.
3. Supplier of organic matter.
4. Counter acting negative impact of chemical fertilizers.
5. Secretion of growth hormones.
6. Which are better able to resist insect pest and diseasesorganically.
Mycorrhizae: It improves the nutrition to host plants for nutrients that
diffusion limited. Such as P, Zn, Ca and Fe. In this symbiotic association,
the fungi utilize carbohydrates of the plant, while plant benefits by increased
uptake of nutrients.
Ex: Vasicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (VAM)
4.13 Weeds, pests and disease management practices in Organic
farming
4.13.1: Introduction
Primary strategy in controlling pests, disease and weeds is prevention.
Healthy soils due to organic forming produce healthy plants, farmers also
relay on diverse population and soil organisms, insects, birds and other
organisms to keep the problem in check. When the pest populations get out
of balance, farmer will implement a variety of strategies such as use of
insect predators, mating disruption, traps and barriers. As a last resort,
botanical or non-toxic pesticides are used under restricted conditions.
Weeds are controlled through tillage; inter cultivation, through cover crops,
mulches crop rotation and manual weeding.
Permitted materials for pests and disease control
Sulphur, Bordaeux mixture, sodium silicate, Sodium bicarbonate,
potassium soap, pheromone, Granulated virus (NPU, plant and animal oils.
4.13.2 Weed management in organic farming/ integrated non chemical
method of weed management in organic farming.
a. Prevention
b. Eradication
c. Control
Prevention: Weeds can be prevented by
1. Using weed seed free in crop seeds and weeds seedlings free in crop
seedlings in nursery.
2. Not to use fresh or partly decomposed FYM or compost.
3. Proper cleaning of farm machinery before moving from infested area.
4. Keeping the irrigation and drainage channels free from weeds.
5. Keeping the field bunds and fence lines free from weeds.
6. Following legal and quarantine measures to check interstate and inter
country movement of noxious weed.
Eradication
Eradication infers that a given weed species, it seed and vegetative
parts, has been killed or completely removed from a given area that the weed
will not reappear unless reintroduction. This may be desirable and
economical when the weed species is extremely noxious and persistent as to
make cropping difficult and uneconomical.
Eradication of perennial weeds cannot be accomplished in one season
or year as viable seeds and underground plant propagules may remain
dormant in soil for years. Underground parts can be destroyed by tillage.
Control methods: The process of minimizing cropped field from weed
infestation for remunerative crop production is called weed control. The
extent to which the weed growth is desired to be limited depends on the cost
of weed control and the expected benefits. Weed control methods are broadly
classified as follows:
A. Mechanical method
B. Agronomic (cultural) practices.
C. Biological methods
A. Mechanical and/or physical methods are being employed ever since
man began to grow crop. They include hand hoeing, hand pulling, tillage
digging, sickling, , burning, and flooding and mulching.
Tillage: operations such as ploughing, discking, harrowing and leveling for
seed bed preparation promote weed seed germination which can be
destroyed by subsequent tillage operations. Annual and biennials weeds
without well developed tap root system can be effectively controlled.
Perennial weeds can also be controlled considerably by continuous deep
ploughing for a periods of 3 to 5 years.
Sickling: Sickling by hand is used to remove top position of weed growth, to
prevent weed seed production and to starve the underground part. If the soil
condition does not permit the use of implements or tools for controlling
weeds, sickling can be practiced.
Soil solarisation: High soil temperature can suppress weed seed
germination and kill weed seedlings. The process of increasing temperature
of soil surface is termed as solarisation. Placing transparent and opaque
polyethylene sheets on moist soil and trapping solar radiation can achieve
solarisation.
Digging: it is very useful to remove underground propagating parts of
perennial weeds from deeper layers of soil. Digging is followed by hand
pulling of weeds and stubbles has to be collected and destroyed.
Burning: It is an economical and simple means of weed control. Fire used to
burn crop residues and weeds after the harvest of crops like sugarcane,
cotton, potato, maize, etc.
Flame cultivation: When burning is used for selective control of annual
broad leaf weeds and grasses in widely spaced crops rows is known as flame
cultivation.
Flooding: Weed infected field is ploughed deep and flooded with 20-30 cm
standing water for 5 to 10 weeks. It is successful against weed species
sensitive to longer periods of submergence. Low land rice is usually rotated
with other irrigated crops for controlling such problematic weeds.
B. Agronomic (cultural) practices
Agronomic practices for weed control are mostly non-monetary or
involve relatively less expenditure. It may not be possible to solely depend on
agronomic practices for complete weed control. The main objective of
cultural practices is to provide a short term relief to crop during initial
growth periods so that the crop may take a lead in its growth and
development.
Such management practices are:
1. Good seedbed preparation to minimize early weed infestation such that
the crop dominates to weeds.
2. Timely sowing optimum stand establishment and adequate non chemical
organic fertilizer use leading to vigorous crop for better competition with
weeds.
3. Weeding before the weeds produce seeds for minimizing weed infestation
in the succeeding season.
4. Crop rotation for controlling crop associated weeds.
5. Including smother crop such as legumes in inter cropping and mixed
cropping.
6. Line sowing for using inter cultivation implements.
7. Summer ploughing to desiccate the weed seed and vegetative propagules
by exposing them to hot sun.
8. Adopting stale seed bed technique. The objective of this technique is to
induce germination of weed seed with irrigations before sowing the crop,
so that 2-3 flushes of germinated weeds seedlings are destroyed by tillage
practices. Majority of weed infestation can be reduced by this method.
Here the germination of crop and weed seeds are non-synchronized.

9. Mulching and crop residue management: Mulches are effective in

minimizing weed growth in wide row crops like sugarcane, cotton, maize
etc. Besides suppressing the weed growth, mulches aids in conserving
soil moisture. Any crop residue can act as mulch. Straw, plastic and
paper mulches can also be used. Close growing pulse crops are effective
live mulches.
 The objective of this technique is to induce germination of weed seed
with irrigations before sowing the crop, so that 2-3 flushes of germinated
weeds seedlings are destroyed by tillage practices. Majority of weed
infestation can be reduced by this method. Here the germination of crop and
weed seeds are non-synchronized.
C. Biological method: It involves utilization of natural living organisms (bio
agents) such as insects, pathogens and competitive plants to regulate
(limit) the weed infection. (Not eradication). A bio agent may be either
specific which attacks only one or few specific weeds or non specific
which attacks upon variety of vegetations.
Certain criteria for successful as bio agents are:
1. Host specificity.
2. Fast damaging ability
3. Adaptability to new environment
4. Fasting ability for long periods of declining weed population
5. Efficient reproduction
6. Freedom from natural enemies,
Advantages
1. Relatively cheaper.
2. Comparatively long lasting effect
3. Least harm to environment
Examples for specific bio control agents
1. Control of Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) using Neochetina
eichhoroniae, Neochetina bruchi (hyacinth weevils)
2. Control of Opuntia dillenii (Prickly pear) using Dactylopius tomentosus
in many parts of India.
3. Control of Lantana camara (Lantana weed ) using moth Crocidosema
lantana and a buy Telenonemia scrupulosa
4. Bio herbicides/Micro herbicides: Using pathogens such as fungi,
bacteria and virus are also used as specific bio control agents.
A Bio herbicides is a plants pathogens used for weed control through
application of its inoculums (Ex: formulation of fungal spore/ the
inoculum germinate/establish in plant and penetrate the plant
tissue/system and cause a disease which eventually kills the weed
plant)
 Bioherbicide Bioagent Target weed Crop
Biopolaris Bioplaris Sorghum Rice and wheat
sorghicola halepense
Emmalocera sp Stem boring Echinochloa sp Rice and wheat
moth
Batra verutana Shoot boring Cyperus rotundus Rice and wheat
moth

Non specific Bio-agents

Grass carp also called white amur is voracious feeder on several
weeds including Lemna, Hydrilla, Chera and Eloode. Besides silver carp,
common carp and tilapia also feed on algae.
4.13.3 Pest management in organic farming/ Integrated non- chemical
of pest management in organic farming
Cultural method, Behavioral method and Biological method are the three
major components in integrated non chemical method of plant protection.
A. Cultural methods include sanitation, tillage and inter cultivation,
cultivar selection, time of sowing, plant population, water management
and habitat diversification.
Sanitation: It includes removal or destruction of breeding refuges in seed
materials, FYM, carrying insect eggs or its stages of development,
destruction of alternate hosts etc, to minimize the pest population build up.
Tillage and inter cultivation: Ploughing and inter cultivation brings almost
unfavorable conditions for multiplication of pests as well as disease and
weed. Quiescent stages (pupae) will be exposed to dehydration or to
predation by birds and other stages may be mechanically damaged
(rotavator) or buried deep in the soil.
Cultivar selection: Cultivars with high yield potential and quality without
resistance to pests and diseases are the main causes of frequent epidemics
and mass multiplication of pests and disease. A large number of cultivars
resistant/ tolerant to pests and diseases have been developed.
Time of sowing: As weather influences developmental rhythms of plants as
well as growth and survival of pest and disease which coincidence of
susceptible growth stages with highest incidence of pests and disease.
Therefore, adjustments in sowing data are aften resorted to as an agronomic
strategy to minimize the crop losses.
Ex:
Maize: Late sown will suffer due to seedling borer.
Rice: May suffer less from borer attack if planted early (early June)
Cotton: Early maturing cotton has become popular as they escape from
pink bollworm.
Plant population: Plant population influence crop micro climate. Dense
plant canopy leads to high humidity build up congenial for pests and
disease multiplication. Hence inter and intra row spacing can be adjusted
(without altering the required population) to minimize the humidity build up
with in plant canopy.
Water management: Irrigation can reduce the soil inhabiting pests by
suffocation or exposing them to soil surface to be preyed upon by birds.
ex:root grub
Ex: Irrigation potato crop at tuber formation can minimize potato scab
Anthracnose of beans, early blight and charcoal rot of potato can be checked
by furrow irrigation than sprinkler irrigation.
Habitat diversification: Many pests prefer feeding on a particular plant
than others. This preference may be exploited to reduce the pest load by
adopting crop rotation, inter cropping, trap cropping and strip cropping.
B. Behavioral Methods
Pheromones: These are ectohormones secreted by an organism, which elicit
behavioral responses from other members/sex of its own species. These are
extremely selective, non toxic, highly bio degradable and effective at low
application rates. Synthetic sex pheromones are commercially available and
are used for surveillance, monitoring and control of many lepidopterous
pests such as spotted boll worm, tobacco caterpillar, potato tuber moth,
diamond back moth, leaf folder etc.
Pheromones: These are volatile compound that evoke behavioral response
adaptively favorable to the receiver. Pheromones are released either by the
host plant or by the host insects. Pheromones from host plant can be
effectively used to mass trap pest species as well as for monitoring. Use of
pheromones compounds to increase the efficiency of the predator C. carnea
and the egg parasitoid T. chilonis has been successfully demonstrated.
An entamophagous insect consists of two groups
a. Predators: it is an organism which attacks individuals of one or more
species for the purpose of feeding upon it. It requires several
individual hosts for the completion of its life cycle. The insect killed by
the predator is referred as prey, the predator is active and hunts for
its prey and there is no intimate relationship between the predator
and its prey.
b. Parasitoid is an organism, which lives and feeds internally or
externally on another organism, which is usually larger and completes
its life cycle on a single host. A single host can sustain several
parasitoids. There is a close association between the parasitoids and
its host, often, there is searching or hunting occurs in parasitism.
C. Biological Method: It includes:
1. Biological agents which includes
a. Pathogens causing diseases in insects and destroying them
b. Insect parasitoids (parasites thriving on insects)
c. Insects predators.
2. Biopesticides
3. Use of Botanicals
4. Use of trap crops in mixed/Inter cropping system
1. Biological agents: Biological agents do not destroy the crop. They
destroy insect pest. Classical biological control involves deliberate
introduction and natural establishment of natural enemies in areas
where they did not previously occur. In addition to deliberate
introduction of bio control agents, proper attention needs to be given for
conservation and augmentation of natural enemies that already exist in
an area. This should be treated as important as many insect predator
are much more susceptible to insecticides than they pest they attack.
Biological control agents for insect pests are available in nature
abundantly.
Examples:
a. Pathogens causing diseases in insects and destroying them
Viruses: Nuclear polyhedroses virus (NPV) Granulosis virus (GV)
Bacteria: Bacillus thuringensis
Fungi: Metarhizium, Beauveria, Verticillium
b. Insect parasitoids (parasites thriving on insects)
Trichogramma Bracon
Trichospilus Goniozus
Elasmus, Tetrastichus
Eribor, Chelonus

Sl Frequency of
Parasitodis Pest Dosage
No. release.
1.. Trichogramma Sugar cane, shoot 50,000 4-6 release at 10
chilonis barer, internode days intervals
borer, cotton boll
worm, paddy stem
borer
2. T. brasiliensis Tomato fruit borer “ “
3. T. japonicum Paddy stem borer “ “
4. Elasmus Black headed “ “
nephantidis caterpillar
5. Goniozus “ “
nephantidis
C: Insect predator: Chilicorus pharoscymnus
Cryptolaemus scymnus ,Meoichlus
These predator feed on mealy bugs, coccids, scales and mites on citrus,
grapevine and guava.
i. Crytorhinus attack brown plant hopper(BPH) of rice
ii. Chrysopa is effective on aphids, mealy bugs and young
caterpillar.
2) Biopesticides/Natural pesticides: Natural occurrence of diseases caused
by micro organisms is common in both insects and weeds populations
and is a major natural mortality factor in most situations. Use of micro
organisms for pest control involves their culture in artificial media and
later introduction of larger amounts of inoculums into the field at
appropriate time. Many fungi and bacteria can be handled in this way but
insect viruses have the limitation that they have to be raised in living
insects. As the biocontrol agents, (microbial pathogens are applied on
targeted pest in same way as chemical pesticides, they are often termed
as biopesticides or natural pesticides.
a) Bacterial pathogen:
Bacillus thuruingensis a bacterial pathogen infesting a wide range of
insect pests (particularly caterpillar) is the most common microbial
insecticides in use today. Unlike most other chemical insecticides, it
can be used on edible products upto the time of harvest. It is selective
in action and doesnot harm parasities predators or other pests.
Bacillus popilaleis also commonly available against white grubs
Papillae japonica and Holotricha sp. For downy mildew diseases
Pathogenic fungi:
Commercial preparations of Verticuillium lecanii are available for
control of aphids, thrips and white fly under glass house condition.
Metarrhizium anisopliae: used for managing catterpillar, leaf hopper.
for wilts and rot.
b) Viral preperations: Heliothis NPV (HaNPU) is used for managing
Helicoverpa, spodoptera
3) Use of Botanicals: Some weeds like lantana, notchi, tulsi, adathoda etc.,
act as natural repellant to many pests. Trees like pongamia, wood apple,
anona and their by products have excellent insecticidal value in
controlling diamond back moth, heliothis, white flies, leaf hoppers and
aphid infestation.
Most commonly used botanicals are neem (Azadirachta indica), pogamia
(Pogamia glabra) and mahua (Madhuca indica). Neem seed kernel extract (2
to 5%) has been found effective against several pests including rice cut
worm, diamond back moth, rice BPH, rice GLH, tobacco caterpillar, aphids
and mites. The pesticidal ingredients of neem formations belongings to
general class of natural products called triterpenes, more specifically,
limonoids. They act as repellents and also disrupts growth and reproduction
in insects. Commonly known limonoids are Azadirachtin, meliantriol,
salannin, nimbin and nimbidin.
The efficiency of vegetable oils in preventing infestation of stored product
pest such as brucihds, rice and maize weevils has been well documented.
Root extracts of asparagus work as a nematicide. Similarly, leaf extracts of
many plants can inhibit a number of fungal pathogens.
4) Use of trap crops in inter mixed/inter CS
a) Sorghum/bajra + G.nut – Controls sucking pest, thrips, mites.
b) G.nut + castor – reduces defoliators i.e S.litura
c) Redgram+sorghum, Sorghum + bengalgram- reduces wilt incidence
d) Bajra /sorghum + red gram reduce steritlity mosaic virus in red gram
e) Cotton+ bhendi – reduces boll worms in cotton.
f) Cotton +coriander +turmeric encourage predator and parasitoides
4.13.4 Integrated non- chemical disease control method (IDM)
In general for mitigating the losses due to diseases, several methods
such as fungicides, organic mercurials, chemotherapy, thermotherapy,
cultural methods and host resistance are employed. However, no single
method is effective in controlling a disease. Therefore in organic farming,
integrated non chemical method of disease management became imperative
for effective disease control.
All the cultural methods discussed under IPM (non-chemical) holds
well for IDM (non-chemical). For many diseases the role of host resistance,
cultural methods, use of trap crops, bacterial pathogens and use of
botanical are integrated.
Example:
a) Bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas fluorescence for management of
blast in rice sheath blight, stem rot, root rot and tungro virus.
b) Pathogenic fungi
Trichoderma harzianum Control of wilts, rot.; Trichoderma virdae
 c) Use of botanicals
Root extracts of asparagus work as a nematicide
c) Trap crop Inter mixed/Inter CS
Redgram+sorghum, sorghum +Bengal gram – reduces wilt incidence
Bajra/Sorghum + Redgram –Reduces sterility mosaic virus in redgram.
4.14 Permitted and restricted inputs in organic farming-
In general the natural inputs are permitted and synthetic inputs are
prohibited but there are exceptions in both the cases , certain natural
inputs which are harmful to human health or to the environment are
prohibited. As well as certain synthetic inputs determined to be essential
and are not harmful for both humans and environment are permitted
(pheromones).
a) Choice of crop and seeds: GM/ non-GM, organic/inorganic
b) Crop rotation: minimum standards for fertility maintenance, for
reduced leaching, to control pest and diseases.
c) Manures and fertilizers
➢ Manure that is produced on certified organic farm- permitted
➢ Restriction on use of dung/excreta from animals in which feeds are
synthetically grown feed.
➢ Organic products: not come in the way of nutritive value- permitted
➢ Untreated sewage, fecal matter- restricted
➢ Heavy metals in irrigation water- restricted
d) Pesticides based on the synthesis
➢ Farm products, local plants, microorganisms- permitted
➢ Thermal sterilization of soil- permitted
➢ Soil solarization- permitted
e) Growth regulators
➢ All synthetic-excluded
➢ Plant prepared- permitted with permission
Banned- all synthetic fertilizer, sewage sludge, all synthetic pesticides.
Restricted –
➢ Organically grown mushrooms, oil cakes and milk products, human
excreta.
 ➢ Products from uncertified farm like FYM, slurry, compost, weeds,
biofertilizer.
➢ Sawdust, product from textile industry, fish and fish products
➢ Gypsum, limestone, magnesium rock, rock phosphate, basic slag and
minimal photassic-permited
Allowed: The manures that is produced on certified farm like FYM, slurry,
urine, poultry manure, vermin compost, compost from residues, green
manuring and green leaf manuring, biodyanamic pesticides, azolla,
mulches, kitchen wastes, coirpith, organic compost of tea/coffee etc.
Banned for pest control: All synthetic pesticides
Permitted: Mechanical traps, plant based repellants, bio-dynamic
properties, azadirachtin, pyrethrin, cinerafolin, tobacco tea, etc.
Restricted: plant/ animal oils,
other plant extracts.
4.15 Organic certification
Certification means having ‘farm’ and ‘farming methods’ inspected by
an organic certifying group to ensure that they comply with the guidelines
on organic farming. It is a procedure by a third party (other than consumer
and producer) gives written assurance that a product, process or services is
in conformity with certain standards. Organic certifying agents evaluate the
mode of production processing and handling to determine whether they
confirm to an established set of operating guidelines called ‘organic
standards’ those which conform are certified by the agent and allowed to use
a logo, product statement, or certificate to document their product as
‘certified organic’.
Group certification: Individual farm has to be inspected annually for
certification. The effort and cost will be more. In order to make it affordable,
group certification based on internal control system (ICS) with assigned staff
and responsibilities is practiced. The grower groups may range from less
than a hundred to several thousand small scale producers who co-ordinate
marketing and thus simplify the control of product flow. IFOAM has
developed criteria for grower group certification.
Steps in organic certification:
Certification is offered to a farm and not to a product at production
level. But certification is applicable to productions, processing, packing,
storage and even transportation. At every stage of handling, organic
products certifications insist on certain procedure and certain materials.
Although certification at production level considers the whole form as a unit,
in subsequent stages, the products and their handling are also involved.
At a form level, the certification is awarded to whole form looking to various
considerations
Steps for conversion of conventional (chemical method) farm into an
organic farm
1. An organic form recognized and certified as an organic, only after its
conversion.
2. Conversion is a process of converting a conventional farm (chemical)
into organic which usually takes about three years.
3. Farmer submits his request to seek the certification; the certifying
agency approaches the farmer and collects all information about
farmer including soil, extent of form, animals, cultivation about form
cropping system, yield level and chemicals used by him.
4. The agency also collects samples of soil, water, produce and analyze
them for pollutants.
5. Based on these, the agency suggests the practices and inputs to be
used for conversion.
6. In first year of conversion usually, the farmer changes his cropping
system and stops using all chemicals including fertilizer/practices.
7. In first year, he may be allowed to use restricted inputs.
8. In second year, he should use all permitted inputs only including the
seed from organic sources.
9. By the end of the second year, the farmer would have followed all the
practices suggested by agency using only permitted inputs.
10. Third year is normally reserved for production of organic
food/product.
 11. At the end of third year the agency certifies that a form is organic
after testing the soil, water and produce to ensure that no
pollutants are found.
12. Then the form will be awarded certification and is allowed to sell its
products under ‘organic’ tag, usually carrying logo of certifying
agency/ standard used.
13. If processing is involved, the products are sent for processing,
which again would be certified under similar standards. Otherwise,
the product is packed and transported according to stipulated
standards.
Quality consideration: Organic forming, the world over embraces certain
production practices and processing procedure. The International federation
of organic agriculture movements (IFOAM) has developed basic standards
for organic agriculture which are the basis for most natural standerds. India
has prepared adopted the basic standards an applicable to Indian
conditions which were drafted by the Nationals Standards committee.
According to this the following are some of the quality considerations.
1. Certification for farm as organic farm and farming methods adapted to
obtain a organic product; processing and handling of these product
should be inspected for conformity of following set of operating
guidelines to meet the organic standards, by an authorized
certification group.
2. Production and processing methods should not affect the original
products to any extent. The inputs used in production and
ingredients, used while in processing should be only from organic
origin and labeled as organic.
3. Mechanical and physical processes such as grinding/ blending/
mixing: Biological processes such as fermentation, extraction and
distillation should be only with water, ethanol or oils and
precipitation, are approved. Water and salt (with or without calcium
carbonate as antiquating agent may be used in organic products.
4. Avoid use of additives and processing acids. If used they should be
from organic ingredients.
 5. Micro organisms and enzymes used in food processing may be
permitted.
6. The whole system of packing and transportation should be examined
to use biodegrading and recyclable materials, avoiding unnecessary
packing material.
7. When full standard requirements are met, products may be sold as
produce of organic farming (organic agriculture “In conversion” labels
should be distinguishable from “Full organic” labels. Name and
address of person/organization legally responsible shall be displayed.
All raw materials shall be listed on the product label in order of weight
percentage. It shall be apparent which raw materials are of organic
origin and which are not. Additives be listed with their full name.
History of certification in organic farming
The production of organic goods necessitated an elaborate method of
certification mainly because the organic products are sold more easily at a
remunerative price only when they have a tag “ORGANIC”. As the awareness
towards consumption of organic goods improved globally, the consumer and
marketing organizations insisted on organic tag to be sure that the
concerned product is grown under organic management and be sure that it
is free of pesticides. The necessity to obtain the organic certificate arose also
because most of the farms converted their chemical agriculture to organic to
certify that synthetic chemicals are not included in cultivation of crops
organic agriculture and a third part certifying agency should for certifying, a
standard is necessary to be followed. These standards differ in differ in
different countries.
In this background, the concept of certification of organic goods
commenced. European Countries were pioneers in demanding the specific
standards required under certification. Later on, certification standard were
evolved in US and many other countries. Even in India number of third
party certification agencies have been identified to award the certificate with
the tag organic. IFOAM (International Forum for Organic Agriculture
Movement) is an international organization based in Germany, has
developed standards acceptable to most of the countries. It even launched
accreditation program from which the certifying agencies get accredited
internationally.
In the context of Indian organic agriculture, certification has remained
mainly as a facility to export organic goods than to supply of pollution free
food to domestic markets. For examples, an Indian organic fruit producer
needs to seek certification acceptable through European Union if he wants
to export fruits to any country in Europe. But the same farmer may not be
able to export to Japan, if he does not seek certification under Japanese
certification standards. In India, the same fruits can be sold for domestic
consumption with or with or without certification.
Ministry of Commerce launched National Organic Programme in 2000
and currently, it is implemented through APEDA vividly indicating that
organic certification is mainly for international business. In domestic Indian
market the public awareness about organic goods are still nascent. Neither
the consumer nor the marketing organization has been strictly demanding
the certification. The additional load of cost of certification charged by the
certified organizations may escalate the market prices of such goods-which
is not in tune with competitive moods of Indian market.
International standards for organic certification
Although European Community fixed the standards of organic
products for the purpose of importing them from producing countries, the
international standards for organic agriculture were developed by IFOAM
popularly called as IFOAM standards. They are valued and accepted by
many countries for trading in trading in organic products. In addition to
IFOAM Standards, following standards are followed by different certifying
agencies.
• Joint commission of FAO and WHO was established in 1962 as inter
governmental body to evolve standards in the name of Codex
Elementarious Commission. It was successful in shaping the
fundamental basis for certification of organic production as early as
1962.
• EU regulations were established to evolve European organic standards
in 1991 to give the details of production practices of organic crops.
 These were made applicable for both domestic producers and
producers from exporting countries.
• Demeter International is a worldwide network of international
certification bodies in Africa, Australia and Europe. They developed
standards for production of biodynamic preparations and organic
production.
• JAS standards were developed by Japan mainly to satisfy the needs of
certification for organic products reaching Japan.
• USDA’s Nationals Organic Standard Board was established under
Organic Food production Act of farm bill in USA. They defined the
complete set of practices and residual levels of pollutants to be
acceptable as organic products.
• IFOAM also established international organic accreditations service in
2001 mainly to bring the global certifying agencies under one
umbrella to maintain the uniformity of certification.
NPOP standards in context of Indian organic farming
Ministry of commerce, government of India launched the National
programme for organic production (NPOP) in 2000. Some of the objectives of
this programme include declaring standards for organic production, policy
accreditation system, inspection and certification, process and institution of
logo. The natural standards deal with conversion requirement, maintenance
of organic management, general principles of crop production, diversity,
fertilizer, nutritional management, contamination control, animal
husbandary, labeling, etc. NPOP has developed a national organic logo
“Indian Organic” which will be used on certified organic products. The
National Steering Committee functioning under the ministry of commerce is
monitoring the programme of the NPOP. The national steering committee
consists of representation from the ministries of Agriculture, food
processing, forest and environment, Science and Technology, rural
development, commerce, trade and export. This will be the Apex advisory
body for declaring national standards and formulating accreditation policy.
Accrediation: Accrediation is a procedure by which an authoritative body
gives a formal recognition that a body is competent to carry out specific
tasks.
As per the NPOP, an accreditation refers recognition of certification
agency for certifying organic farms, products, and processes as per the guide
lines of the National Accreditation policy and programme for organic
products.
The ministry of commerce, govt. of India has designated the following
accreditation agencies
1. Agricultural and processed food products export development
authority (APEDA) New Delhi
2. Coffee Board Bangalore.
3. Spice Board Kochi
4. Tea Board, Kolkata.
5. Coconut board,
6. Cashew and Cocoa board.
Besides this a “National Institute of organic farming is being setup at
Guazia bad with its 6 regional centre at Bangalore, Bhuvaneshwar, Nagpur.
Accredated inspection and certify agency
1. Association for promotion of organic farming, organic certification
agency (AOCA) Bangalore.
2. ECOCERT International (Germany), Aurangabad.
3. Indian organic certification Agency (INDOCERT), Kerela.
4. IMO control private limited, Bangalore.
5. SGS India pvt, Ltd Gurgaov (Haryana)
‘National Standards for Organic Products’ published by APEDA when
they have four categories for organic standards and their meanings are:
1. Permitted: Practices or materials that are permitted in specific
condition.
2. Not permitted: Use of practice will disqualify crop or product for
certification.
3. Recommended: The practices that are preferred or materials that
maintain or improve the soil and other part of the farm system.
 4. Permitted with prior approval from certification Agency (CA): Practices
or materials that are permitted in the absence/ non-availability of
recommended alternatives after considering various factors mentioned
in National Standards. In such cases CA will set some conditions and
time limit for implementation of recommended practice.
Stages of certification In Organic Farming/categories
There are six stages/ categories
1. Conversion
2. Crop production
3. Animal husbandry
4. Processing & handling
5. Labelling
6. Storage and transportation
Animal husbandry:
1. Select local breeds which are resistant to adverse climatic condition
and also adjustable to local condition. Provide sufficient
2. free movement with fresh air, day light etc.
3. The herd/ flock size should not affect the behavioral pattern of
animal.
4. The mutilation like dehorning, tail cutting, castration etc., are not
permitted.
5. Animal feed should be from organic product live stock shall be born
and raised or organic forming.
6. Allopathic medicines, hormones usage, synthetic growth promotors
are not permitted.
7. Ayurvedic & Homeopathic medicine are permitted for animal care.
Market & Export potential for organically grown produce:
Consumer concern over high levels of saturated fats, sugar and in
foods as well as the risks from food additives and pesticides residues has
stimulated the demand for healthy food particularly organic foods.
Furthermore, there is an increasing awareness of the environmental damage
associated with the use of modern agricultural techniques; especially agro
chemical. At the same time, food surpluses especially in Europe have
resulted in encouraging organic farming where in the yield levels are low,
resulting in reducing the supply. Even though the above factors have
contributed to the growth of market for organic food, it is interesting to note
that there have been no major promotion campaigns in catering organic
food. Neither there has been any rapid and innovative product development
nor any development within relating trade to enter consumer to buy the
products in favor of other. Thus, the development of the market for
organically produced food has been largely consumer led, often in the face of
indifference farm the industry too. Luckily, the media has been relatively
sympathetic to organic farming which has compensated to a great extent for
the lack of product promotion through commercial advertising channels.
There has been an upsurge in the demand for organic food and this
has been taken into cognizance by both producers and retailers. The
HOPCOMS model of retailing fruits and vegetables could be replicated for
organic produce both in respects of collection and distribution in Karnataka
and other states. In organic food movements, both producers and
consumers need protection. The development of production standards laid
and implemented by independent competent bodies without direct
commercial interest will benefit both producers and consumers. There is a
need to educate both producers and consumers. Government support is
necessary to promote and expand the market by encouraging producers’
organization. The trading in organic food is at a low level with dominant role
of retailers. There is vast scope for direct marketing. Also there is a sizeable
role for the corporate entities in the marketing of organic food through
branding and organizing multiple retailing businesses. It would be also
beneficial to develop a generic advertisement campaign for promoting
organic food.