1

INDEX
Course Title: Principles of Organic Farming Course No.: AGRO-248
Semester : IV (New) Credits: 2 (1+1)
EXP. TOPICS Page DATE SIGN.
no.
1 Visit to organic farm to study the various components and
their utilization
2 Study of preparation methods for Enriching compost.

3 Study of preparation methods for Vermicompost and

vermiwash.
4 Study of biofertilizers and bio-inoculants

5 Study of preparation of Biodynamic compost and cow pat

pit
6 Study of quality analysis of compost and vermicompost.

7 Study of crop residue management and green manuring

8&9 Study of indigenous technology knowledge (ITK) for

nutrient, insect, disease and weed management.
10 Study the method of preparation and production cost of
Panchagavya, Beejamrut and Jeevamrut in Organic farming
11 Study the method of preparation and production cost of
Dashparni, Neem Seed extract, in Organic farming
12& Study of post harvesting management in organic farming.
13
14 & Study of quality aspects: Grading, Packing, Handling
15
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CERTIFICATE

This is to certified that Mr./Ms. _______________________________

Reg. No.__________ of the B.Sc. Agri (Hons.) class has satisfactorily carried out

the work of the Course No. AGRO–248(New) Principles of Organic Farming

during the IV Semester of the Academic Year 2022-23.

Place:

Date: Course teacher

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Ex.No.1

Visit to Organic Farm to Study the Various Components and their Utilization

Objects: 1.To get the information of Organic farm.

2. To get acquainted with various components used in Organic farming.

Agriculture is now becoming transformed into dynamic productive and profitable sector
because of ever-increasing demand for food and food products. In order to cope up with the food
production target, more emphasis is likely to be given to agricultural inputs. Breakthrough in the
development of different agrochemicals and their widespread use at the farm level indeed has
helped to boost the agricultural production in all countries. In recent years several reports
suggests that the agrochemical, especially the chemical fertilizers are resulting in environmental
degradation by way of polluting plant and soil environment, water bodies, effecting the ozone
layer etc. They also contaminate the ground water and surface water resulting in eutrophication
of water bodies.

Organic farming is one of the several approaches found to meet the objectives of sustainable
agriculture. However, organic farming is based on various laws and certification programmes,
which prohibit the use of almost all synthetic inputs, and health of the soil is recognised as the
central theme of the method.

The origin of organic farming goes back, in its recent history, to 1940s. During this period, the
path breaking literature on the subject published by J.I. Rodale in the United States, Lady
Balfour in England and Sir Albert Howard in India contributed to the cause of organic farming.

The main aim of organic agriculture is to ensure sustained productivity, environmental protection
and making available food and food products raised without chemicals of any kind. With
increasing health consciousness and concern for environment organic farming system has been
drawing attention all over the world.

Organic farming is a holistic production management system, which promotes and enhances
agro-ecosystems health including bio-diversity, biological cycles and soil biological activities.
As a result, there is widespread organic movement and large demands for organic products.

Components of Organic Farming:

Major components of organic farming are crop rotation, maintenance and enhancement of soil
fertility through biological nitrogen fixation, addition of good quality organic manure and use of
soil microorganisms, crop residues, bio-pesticide, biogas slurry, waste etc. Vermiculture has
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become a major component in biological farming, which is found to be effective in enhancing

the soil fertility and producing large numbers of horticultural crops in a sustainable manner.

The various components of organic farming are as below:

1.Crop rotation:It is a systematic arrangement for the growing of different crops in a more or
loss regular sequence on the same land covering a period of two years or more.
Crop rotation is very important for Soil fertility management, weed, insect and disease control.
Legumes are essential in any rotation and should 30 to 50 percent of the land.

A mixed cropping, pasture and livestock system is desirable or even essential for the success of
sustainable agriculture.

2. Crop Residue: Crop residues are materials left on cultivated land after the crop has been
harvested. These residues include stalks and stubble (stems), leaves, and seed pods.husks.Good
management of field residues can increase efficiency of irrigation and control of erosion. Crop
residues can improve soil structure, increase organic matter content in the soil, reduce
evaporation, and help to fix CO 2 in the soil. The residue can be ploughed directly/incorporated
or recycled in organic manure. Although crop residues contain both macro- and micro nutrients,
only values for the macro nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulfur are economically
significant.

In India there is a great potential for utilization of crop residues/ straw of some of the
major cereals and pulses. About 50% of the crop residues are utilized as animal fed, the rest
could be very well utilized for recycling of nutrients. Adequate care is required to use the
residues after proper composting with efficient microbial inoculants. While the incorporation of
crop residues e.g. Wheat and Rice straw, as such or inoculated with fungal species had beneficial
effects on crop yields and important in physico-chemical properties of soil.

3. Organic manure:

The organic manure is derived from biological sources like plant, animal and human residues.
Organic manure act in many ways in augmenting crop growth and soil productivity. The direct
effect of organic manure relates to the uptake of humic substances or its decomposition products
affecting favourably the growth and yield of plants. Indirectly, it augments the beneficial soil
microorganisms and their activities and thus increases the availability of major and minor plant
nutrients.

a) Bulky organic manure: It generally contains fewer amounts of plant nutrients as compared to
concentrated organic manure. It includes FYM, compost and Green manure.
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 FYM: It refers to the well-decomposed mixture of dung, urine, farm litter and left over or
used up materials from roughages or fodder fed to the cattle. FYM becomes ready to apply
after 3-4 months. Well-rotted FYM contains 0.5% N, 0.2% P205 and 0.5% K2O.
 Compost: Large quantities of waste material are available as vegetable refuse, farm litter,
such as weeds, stubble, bhusa, sugarcane trash, Sewage sludge and animal waste in houses
and in areas like human and industrial refuse converted into useful compost manure by
conserving and subjecting these to a controlled process of anaerobic decomposition.
Compost is used in the same way as FYM to all soils and all crops.
 Green Manuring: It is a practice of ploughing or turning into the soil undercomposed
green plant tissues for the purpose of improving physical structure as well as fertility of the
soil. A leguminous crop producing 25 tones of green matter per hectare will add about 60
to 90 kg of nitrogen when ploughed under. This amount would equal an application of 3 to
10 tones of FYM on the basis of organic matter and its nitrogen contribution.
 The most commonly used green manuring crops are: Sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea),
Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata), Cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba), Senji (Melilotus
parviflora), Cowpea (Vigna catjang, Vigna sinensis), Berseem (Trifolium alexandrium).

b) Concentrated Organic Manure: Concentrated organic manures are made from raw materials
of animal or plant origin and contain higher percentage of essential plant nutrients such as
nitrogen, phosphorous and potash, as compared to bulky organic manures.The concentrated
organic manures commonly used are oilcakes, blood meal, fishmeal, meat meal and horn and
hoof meal.

c) Seaweeds andsome permitted fertilizers like basic slag and rock phosphate.

4. Waste:

1. Industrial waste: Among the industrial by products, spent wash from ditilisers and molasses
and pressmud from sugar industry have good manurial value. It is important to use only well
decomposed pressmud at 10 tones/ha. Addition of pressmud improves the soil fertility and
enhances the activity of microbes. Coir waste is the by-product from coir industry and can be
used as manure after proper decomposition.
2. Municipal and Sewage waste: It also forms an important component of organic waste. In
India, the total municipal refuse is about 12 mt/annum containing about 0.5% N, 0.3% P2O5
and 0.3% K2O.
3. Sewage sludge is available to an extent of 4 million tones per annum containing 3% N, 2% P
and 0.3% K (Bharadwaj and Gaur, 1985). Sewage sludge particularly from industrialized
cities is contaminated with heavy metals and these pose hazards to plants, animals and
human beings.
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Separation of the toxic waste at the source will minimize the concentration of such
elements in the sludge.

5. Biofertilizers:

Bio-fertilizer is microorganism's culture capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen, mobilizing

nutritive elements from non-usable form to usable form through biological process when suitable
crops are inoculated with them. These are less expensive, eco-friendly and sustainable. The
beneficial microorganisms in the soil are biological nitrogen fixers, phosphate solubilisers and
mycorrhizal fungi.

Types of Biofertilizers: There are two types of bio-fertilizers.

1. Symbiotic N-fixation: These are Rhizobium culture of various strains which multiply in roots
of suitable legumes and fix nitrogen symbiotically. Almost 50% demands of N are met by these
microorganisms in legumes.

 Rhizobium: It is the most widely used biofertilizers, which colonizes the roots of
specific legumes to form tumours like growths called rot nodules. The Rhizobium legume
association can fix upto 100-300 kg N/ha in one crop season.

2. Asymbiotic N-fixation: They grow on decomposing soil organic matter and produce nitrogen
compounds for their own growth and development, besides that they leave behind a significant
amount of N in surroundings.This includes Azotobacter, Azospirillium, BGA, Azolla and
Mycorrhizae, which also fixes atmospheric N in suitable soil medium.

6. Bio-pesticide:

Bio-pesticides are natural plant products that belong to the so-called secondary metabolites,
which include thousands of alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolics and minor secondary chemicals.
Botanical insecticides are ecologically and environmentally safer generally affect the behaviour
and physiology of insects rather than killing them. Neem (Azadirachta indica) has justifiably
received the maximum attention. All parts of the Neem tree possess insecticidal property but
seed kernel is most active.

Some of the commonly used botanical Insecticides are Nicotine, Pyrethrum, Rotenone,
Subabilla, Ryanin, Quassia, Margosa, Acorus etc. Their used need to be promoted under the
Integrated Pest management Programmes.
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7. Vermicompost:

It is organic manure produced by the activity of earthworms. It is a method of making compost

with the use of earthworms that generally live in soil, eat biomass and excrete it in digested form.
These are rich in macro and micronutrients, vitamins, growth hormones and immobilized
microflora. The average nutrient content of vermicompost is much higher than that of FYM. It
contains 1.60% N, 5.04% P2O and 0.80% K2O with small quantities of micronutrients.
Application of vermicompost facilitates easy availability of essential plant nutrients to crop.

8.components of pest and disease management-components for pet and disease managemet
should be feasible and sound pragmatic,economic,environmental and social grounds.some
components are optimizing naturally occurring phenomena(host reisstance and biological
control)and some are artificial(cultural and chemical).the various components of pest and diseas
management are as below:

1.Cultural control- it comprise regular farm operations,which are so performed as to destroy the
insects or to prevent them from causing injury.e.g.ploughing,hoeing,irrigation etc.

2.Mechanical and Physical control-these control measures involve the use of force or physical
factors of the environment with or without the aid of special equipmente.g. hand-picking use of
traps etc.

3.Biological control- insects are controlled by natural enemies pests can be controlled by
releasing predator and parasitic insects, mites ,fungi etc.

4. use of biopesticides,use of biofungicides and natual botanical pesticides.

9. Non-Chemical Weed Control Measures

 Mechanical weed control,

 No herbicides are used. Cultural, biological and physical methods.
 Botanical herbicides mycoherbicides and bioagents to control weeds.
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Ex.No.2
Title- Study of Preparation Methods of Enriched Compost
Objects: 1.To know the significance of compost in organic farming
2. To know the various methods of compost preparation and enrichment of composting.
Sir Albert Howard, considered as the father of modern organic farming, workedin India for 29
years, from 1905 until 1934. He combined his scientific knowledge with hisobservations of the
methods used by the local farmers, to develop a method of compost making called the Indore
method, named after the town of Indore. Following his footsteps,several new methods of
compost making were developed by Indian scientists. Methodssuch as Indian Bangalore method,
NADEP model etc. started gaining popularity, whichwere followed by introduction of rapid
composting modules such as Barkley Rapidcomposting (1953), Windrow method, Beccari
process (1971), Indore process of USA (1976)etc. In this regard, Phospho-Sulpho- Nitro
(PSN)compost, product of a newly developed enriched composting methodology has shown
tremendous potential tocater to the needs of quality plant nutrient supplement and soil
conditioners in nutrient starved farmlands of our country.
Advantages of Compost
❖ Excellent way of recycling plant nutrients otherwise locked up and wasted in cropresidue,
weed biomass etc.
❖ Matured compost is a rich source of organic matter as well as macro and micronutrients.
 Application of compost increases the nutrient and water holding capacity of sandy soils, and
improves structure and water movement in clayey soils.
❖ Application of compost improves biological activity in soil.
❖ Compost provides a supplemental amount of slow- release nutrients.
❖ Composts help balance soil pH (acidity/ alkalinity).
❖ Compost helps protect plants from drought and freezes.
❖ Compost moderates soil temperature and reduce weeds when used as mulch.
❖ Some compost has the ability to suppress fungal diseases.
❖ Compost reduces the need for commercial soil conditioners and fertilizers.
Practices of composting can be grouped into 2 methodological categories viz., ‘Traditional’ and
‘Rapid’(Enriched) ‘Traditional Methods’ adopt an approach of anaerobic decomposition,or
aerobic decomposition based on passive aeration through measures like little and
infrequentturnings or static aeration provisions like perforated poles/pipes. These are time
takingprocesses involving several months.
Enriched Compost following practices
1.Involves applicationof treatments like shredding and frequent turning,
2.Use of mineral nitrogen, phosphorus andsulphur compounds,
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3.Use of effective microorganisms (EM),earthworms, cellulolytic organisms,

4.Forced aeration with or without mechanical turnings etc. to expedite the aerobic
decompositionprocess and bring down the composting period.
5.Fortifying the substrate with mineral nutrients to obtain nutritionally superior compost
6.EM (Effective Microorganism)ased quick composting
7.Vermicomposting

One of the pre-requisites for composting technology is theabundance of raw materials,

technically known as ‘substrates’. Substrates can be obtainedfrom two sources:-
i. Biomass generated in arable and non arable areas viz., crop residue, weeds biomass etc.
ii. Different categories of livestock wastes viz., dung, urine, bedding litter, slaughterhouse wastes
etc.
Farmyard manure (FYM), the decomposed mixture ofdung, litter, urine and left over materials
from roughage or fodder fed to cattle (N, P, Kcontents of 0.93, 0.25 and 0.91% respectively) is
an excellent substrate for compost making.
Preparation of compost
Compost:
Well rotted / decomposed plant and animal residue is called compost. It is an amorphous,
brown to dark brown in colour. Compost differs in nature and composition. It contains high
organic matter with higher content of major plant nutrients compared to FYM and hence it is
valuable for improving and maintaining soil fertility.

Composting:
Composting is largely biological process in which the micro-organisms including
bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes of both type i.e. aerobic (which require air or oxygen for
development) and anaerobic (which functions in absence of air or free oxygen) decompose
organic matter and lower the carbon-nitrogen(C: N) ratio of refuse. The essential requirements
for composting are air, moisture, optimum temperature and small quantity of nitrogen. For
composting about 3 to 6 months required.

Methods of composting:
There are two methods of compost making
a)Aerobic method of composting: In aerobic method of composting, micro organisms
degrades the organic refuse in the presence of oxygen or air. It means decomposing micro
organisms requires oxygen for its growth. During composting high temperature is developed.
This method is quite suitable for composting in the rainy season.
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b) Anaerobic method of composting: In this method, micro organisms break down

organic materials by a process of reduction in the absence of oxygen. A special group of acid
producing bacteria and facultative heterotrophs degrade organic matter into fatty acids,
aldehydes and alcohols. Then another group of bacteria convert the intermediate products to
methane, NH3 Co2 and H2.
During anaerobic decomposition high temperature is not developed in the pit. This
method is particularly suited near to cities and towns.
Types of compost:
There are two types of compost
a) Rural compost: ( farm waste / refuse)
It is prepared from bhusa or straw, crop residues (cotton stalks, groundnut husk, sugarcane
trash), weeds, crop stubbles, litter from cattle shed, waste fodder, sugarcane trash, coir pith
etc.

b) Urban compost: ( town refuse)

The main components of town compost are night soil, street and dustbin (house) refuse,
wood ashes etc.

Methods of preparation of compost:

1) Indore method (Aerobic method) :
This method was worked out by Sir Alert Howard and Y.D.Wad at Institute of Plant
Industry, Indore in Madhya Pradesh during1930.
a) Pit method: pit method of composting is most suitable where rainfall is less 750 mm
per year.
Procedure: A pit is dug of about 10m x 1.5 to 2.0 m x 1 m in size near the cattle shed on a site
free from water logging.
Woody, hard materials like cotton &tur stalks etc are chopped in small pieces and
crushed by spreading them on farm roads for being trampled under bullock feet & cart wheels.
Soft materials like trash, bhusa, farm waste etc. are mixed and heap of all materials.
Then spread the materials evenly in the pit in layers of about 10 cm deep. Each layer is
spread with slurry made up of 5 kg of cattle dung, 3.5 liter urine, 4.5 kg fungus inoculums (old
compost) and 0.5 kg wood ash in 18 liters of water. Or instead of spreading farm residue in pit,
use it as a bedding material / litter in the cattle shed and then transfer to pit.
Over this layer sprinkle water to maintain optimum moisture which helps for proper
decomposition of the materials.
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In this way fill the pit layer by up to 30 cm above ground level and leave one fourth (1/4)
pit empty to facilitate subsequent turnings.
The filled materials are allowed to decompose for about one month. Then material is
turned three times at an interval of 3, 6 and 12 weeks. As such compost will be ready in about
four months.
Nutrient composition- 0.8 to 1.0 % N; 0.3% P2O5; 1.5% K2O.

b)Heap /Rain water compost: - (Aerobic Method)

This method is used in heavy rainfall areas where the pits are likely to be filled with water
and composting is done only above ground level. The heaps are prepared in the shape of
pyramid, 2.5 x 2.5 m at the bottom, 2.0 x 2.0 m at top and 1.0 m in height. The composting
material is crushed and used as in pit method, but watering is not essential unless there is a long
break of rainfall.
The top is covered with soil. Two turnings are given. In each turning heap gets reduced in
size. The final size of the heap will be 1.2 x 1.2 x 1.0 m. The manure is ready in about 1 ½
months. In heavy rainfall areas heap may be prepared under the shed to avoid excessive leaching.
2) Bangalore method:- (Anaerobic trench method)
In above mentioned methods though there is efficient disintegration of organic matter by
promoting maximum aeration and keeping the heap moist by frequent watering, but there is
heavy loss of N to the extent of 40 t 60 percent and hence C.N.Acharya (1939) proposed a
method in which decomposition could be done under reduced air supply.
This method eliminates the necessity of turning and watering the material. In this method
initially decomposition of the dumped materials in the heap is aerobic (semi-decomposed)
followed by anaerobic decomposition in pits/trenches. Composting material is allowed to remain
in pit or trench throughout the period of decomposition.
Procedure:
Dug out the pits / trenches 10 m x 1.5 to 2.0 m x 1.0 m in size at high elevation, so that
no rain water enter in pits nor water table rises and do not create water logging condition in the
pits during monsoon.
Make the heap of materials near the pit but above ground consisting alternate layers of
farm refuse about 20-25 cm thick covering with cow dung slurry.
The heaped materials is left exposed without covering for about 15 days, during these
period the materials undergoes semi-decomposition and there is rapid increase in temperature
and then falls down.
Then put the semi-decomposed material in the pit up to 30 cm above ground with dome
shape and covered with about 2.5 cm mud plaster.
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The compost becomes ready about 6 months.

The compost contains 1.5 % N, 1.0 % P2O5, and 1.5 % K20.

3) Coimbatore method
It is anaerobic degradation followed by aerobic process.
Procedure:
Pit of 4m long, 2 m wide and 1m deep is formed in which crop residue or farm waste material is
filled to a thickness of about 15 cm.
Apply cow dung slurry to a thickness of 5 cm to enhance the rate of biodegradation. Then add 1
kg of bone meal or rock phosphate to minimize the nitrogen loss.
Fill the pit in alternate layers repeated as above till the height reaches 0.5 m above the ground
level.
Cover the above ground portion with mud plaster to prevent the rain water entry and it becomes
an anaerobic process.
After 30-35 days, open the plaster and turn the material and allow it to become an aerobic
process. The compost will be ready within five months.
1) NADEP compost:(Semi-aerobic)
This method of composting is developed by a progressive farmer Shri. Narayan Devidas
Pandaripande of Pusad in Yeotmal district of Maharashtra. The compost contains 0.5 - 1.5 %N,
0.5 - 0.9 % P2O5 and 1.2 - 1.4 % K2O.

Composting material: - plant wastes, dung slurry, and clay soil are used as raw for
composting.
Procedure:
Build up brick lined enclosures at elevated place in farm area of 10 ft long, 6 ft wide, 3 ft
high and 9 inch thick wall provided with air holes on all sides. First and the last two rows are
provided gap to strengthen the structure. Lining of the bricks is made with the help of mud which
saves expenditure on cement. If upper layer is lined with cement it may lost long. Plaster inner
and outer walls by dung and mud mixture.
Spread the plant/farm waste materials(100-110kg) at bottom of the tank about 18-20
cm thick layer, spread cow dung slurry(4-5kg cowdung+100-150 lit. water) evenly being covered
by 2.5 to 5 cm thick layer of clay soil and moist it.
Likewise fill up the tank layer by layer till it goes 1.5 ft.higher than the structure and
sealed by 3 inch layer of soil.
Plaster the top with mixture of dung and mud to prevent entry of rain water and check gas
leakages.After 15-20 days the trash contracts and decomposed and goes down in the tank by 8-9
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inches. Open the plaster and fill the tank with materials as per earlier procedure and again sealed
with 3 inch of soil layer and plaster with dung and mud.
Compost becomes ready in about three- four months, and approximately three tones
compost is obtained from one tank of above mentioned size. Enrich the compost by addition of
Azotobacter and PSB.
Content may vary with ingredient used for preparing compost. However, this method has
the disadvantage of using large proportion of soil which is not desirable or acceptable under all
situations.
Advantages of Enriched compost
1. Large quantities of crop residues/ stubbles may be recycled back to field.
2. Substantial amounts of rock phosphate and waste-mica may be recycled in agriculture.
3. Huge amount of foreign exchange can be saved.
4. Production of enriched compost may be taken up as a viable rural entrepreneurship.
5. This compost was also effective in terms of its residual effects on the succeeding crops.

6. Significant build-up of organic C, available N, P and K were noticed with the addition of
enricheds compost over ordinary compost.

7. Enriched compost enhanced exchangeable, non-exchangeable and total K in soil after crop harvest.

Enriched compost preparation

1.Rock phosphate and waste-mica enriched compost-Waste micas which are generated in
large quantities during cleaning of raw micas after their mining are dumped near mica-mines.
Further, huge quantities of crop residues, which is generally burnt in the field can be effectively
recycled by converting into good quality manure

Filling trench or pit.: 1. Trench or pit is filled layer-wise (5-6 layers).

2.Biodegradable organic material—crop residues, farm wastes, animal feed wastes and tree
leaves are spread on the floor of the trench (about 20-cm thick layer).

3.A layer of rock phosphate, followed by waste mica is then spread over biodegradable organic
material. Cattle-dung is made into slurry by adding water, and this is sprinkled over rock
phosphate and waste-mica layer.

4. Layering is repeated till whole compostable materials are added. Moisture content is
maintained throughout the composting period at 60% of water-holding capacity. Periodic turning
(monthly interval) is done to provide aeration.
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5.After one month of composting, surface of composting mass is plastered with slurry of cow-
dung and soil. To protect composting mass from rainwater, the surface of composting trench or
pit is covered by suitable polyethylene.

6.Composting is continued for 4 months. This compost contains higher available P2O5 and K2O than ordinary
compost.

2.Preparation of Enriched Phosphocompost/Phosphomanures

Phosphorus is an essential major nutrient required plant development and growth. It makes
up to about 0.2 per cent of plant dry weight.
It plays important role in plant metabolism such as
i) Cell division, development,
ii) Photosynthesis,
iii) Breakdown of sugar,
iv) Nuclear transport within the plant,
v) Transfer of genetic characteristics from one generation to another and
vi) Regulation of metabolic pathways.
Phosphocompost is P-enriched compost and it is prepared by mixing rock
phosphate@5%P2O5 (about 25% rock phosphate) with composting mass. Preparation of
Phosphocompost using crop waste, rock phosphate and iron pyrite but the time required is almost
four months. To produce 100t Phosphocompost, on dry weight basis, the following materials are
needed.
Organic refuse Cow dung Soil FYM Mussooorie Rock Phosphate
80t + 10t + 10t + 0.5t + 20t +
Iron Pyrites(FeS2)@10%of the amount of rock phosphate for sulphur enrichment.
Use of phosphate solublising organisms may be helpful.
Rock phosphate is added by mixing it with soil.
Prepare slurry of FYM and Cow dung in water and mixed uniformly with composting
material. Entire biomass should be put for composting.
During composting about 50% of the insoluble P of the rock phosphate is converted into
citrate soluble P.
A production technology is developed to prepare Phosphocompost which would found
alternative source to SSP.
Materials required (6:3:1:0.01)
I) Organic manure: - Six organic manures with P2O5 content used for production of
Phosphocompost. Viz.,FYM (0.82 %), Compost (0.98 %), City compost (0.67 %),
Vermicompost (0.85 %), Press mud (3.83 %) and Poultry manure (2.73 %)
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II) Rock phosphate (20 %): Needs acid treatment.

III) Iron Pyrite: In the process of acid formation during composting oxidation reduction of iron
pyrite, phosphate changes to monocalcium by destroying apetite bond.
IV) Microbial culture: Aspergillus awamori:
Helps in decomposition of organic manure and solublize phosphorus from organic manures
and rock phosphate.
Method:-
Six pits of 1 m x 1 m x 1 m were prepared of cement concrete.
I. For preparation of one quintal of Phosphocompost take from each source of dry organic
manure, rock phosphate, Iron pyrite and microbial culture 60, 30 10 and 100 kg
respectively.
II. Rock phosphate and Iron pyrite were mixed together and water was added to form the
slurry. The slurry solution was kept in plastic drum for 24 hrs.
III. Microbial culture was mixed with each organic manure.
IV. While filling the pits a layer of 15 cm dry organic manure followed by layer of slurry of
rock phosphate and iron pyrite were placed alternately.
V. Turning and sprinkling of water was done weekly.
VI. Phosphocompost by this way were ready within 6 weeks.
Beneficial effects:-
1. Phosphocompost is found alternative to single super phosphate besides the supply of
nitrogen, potash and micro nutrients therefore it was found most useful to pulses and
legumes.
2. The residual effect of Phosphocompost was found beneficial to succeeding crop in the
cropping system.
3. Improves the fertility and productivity of soil.
4. Increase the activity microorganisms in the soil and will improve the soil health.
5. Help for sustainable crop production in the cropping system.
6. Economical, reduce the cost of input and also the production cost, therefore it will increase
profitability.
The dose of one tone of Phosphocompost supplies 20 kg N, 70 kg P 2O5 and 16 kg
K2O/ha satisfies the need of pulses, legumes and initial dose for cereals and other crops.
Preparation of enriched (Phospho-Sulfo-Nitro (PSN) compost
Ingredients
I. Substrate
Two types of organic substrates were used:
(a) Crop residue viz., paddy straw, maize stover, groundnut and soybean stalks and
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(b) Weed biomass viz., locally available weeds.(Ambrossia artimisifolia, Eupatorium spp. and
Ageratumconyzoides, Lantana camara)
II. Slurry
The slurry consisted of cow dung/ poultry excreta soil and well rottencompost in the ratio of
1:1:0.5. Slurry prepared from 100 l of water containing 35 kg of10 fresh cowdung/poultry
excreta (one month old), 35 kg dry soiland 17 kg of well rotten compost is enough for a single pit
of 3m (L) x 2m (B) x 1 m (D)dimension. Before making slurry, poultry excreta dried under
shade, debris removed and lumps broken. Slurry is used as microbial inoculum and for
supplementing nutrients to the compost.
iii. Mineral additive
External addition of nutrients such as N, P and S to the substrate hastens the processof
composting and improves the quality of compost. Urea, rock phosphate (Mussoorie rock
phosphate )and elemental sulphur are added as mineral additive.

Preparation of PSN compost

(a) Shredding: chop the dry and hardy substrates (weed biomass & crop residues) using sharp
knife. substrate size as low as 2.5cm, suitable for rapid composting is however about 10 cm size
economical.
(b) Mixing: The naturally dry crop residues and weed biomass are mixed with greenand
succulent ones in equal proportions. Carbon (C) to nitrogen (N) ratio of the substrate should be
around 30:1. Mixingof dry and green substrates in equal proportion helps to bring down the C: N
ratioto the desired range.(30:1)
(c) Pit making and filling with substrate
dug Pit in a high location free from water stagnation of 3m (L) x 2m (B) x 1m (D) can
accommodate approximately 3 quintals of mixed substrate. The sides and the bottom of the pit
should be plastered.
.Pit filling: Involving the following activities in sequence:-
1: Placing the substrates in layers
Place approximately 20 cm thick layer of the substrate uniformly on the pit bottom.avoid too
much compaction of the substrate while putting in layers.
2: Sprinkling and mixing of slurry
After placing each layer of the substrate, the slurry (cattle dung/poultry droppings+ soil + well
rotten compost + water) sprinkle over each of the layers in sufficient quantity to ensure a coating
of the whole substrate with slurry. The slurry acts as a sticker that helps the mineral additives to
adhere on the substrate.
 17

3: Application of mineral additives

Immediately after sprinkling of slurry, add mineral additives to the substratelayer.
Viz.,phosphorus (P2O5) @ 1.5% as Mussoorie rock phosphate and sulphur (S) @ 0.5% as
elemental sulphur. After adding mineral additives, place another new layer of substrate.
4:Step- I to III is repeated in similar sequence till the pit gets filled up with substrate andreaches
a height of 1ft above the ground level. Moist the materials inside the pit with water sufficiently
(70% moisture content).
5: Plastering of pit top
After filling the pit, a dome shape is given to the substrates remaining above the ground level.
Plaster the pit top with a thick layer of the slurry. Care should be taken to maintain proper
consistency of the slurry so that cracks do not develop easily on drying.
6: Turning the substrate
After plastering the pit top, the compost pit is kept as such for 20 days. After 20 daysthe
materials inside the pit is turned manually. The moisture content of the partiallydecomposed
substrate inside the pit is to be checked and water is added, if necessary, tomaintain moisture
level of nearly 70%. The pit top should be covered again with slurry.Same process need to be
repeated at an interval of 20 days till the completion of composting(till 100-105 days,
approximate time of completion of the composting process
7: Judging the completion of decomposition
The completion of the composting process is marked by a number of indicators-bothphysical and
chemical. These indicators are known as compost maturity and stability indices.As it is not
possible for the farmers to evaluate the chemical indices, they have to rely on thephysical
indicators.
8: Harvesting of matured compost
Once composting process is complete, the compost is collected from the pit. Avoid scraping of
the pit-bottom-soil along with compost which deteriorate uality of the compost
9: Post harvest processing of compost
After collection from the pit, Compost dried under shade is sieved using 1 inch mesh to obtain a
uniform size. Compost is spread under a shade to remove excess moisture and unwanted
materials like, stone, pebbles, plastics, metals etc. The quantity of final product to be obtained
from each compost pit of 3 m x 2m x1 m dimension is estimated to be 110 kg (35-40% recovery,
each pit can accommodate 300 kg of substrate).The final product should contain 35-50%
moisture.

Nutritive value of PSN using Cow dung slurry

pH- 7.2, C(26.2 %), N (2.5 %) ,C:N 10.48,P (4.4%),K 1.3 (%),S (0.74%)
 18

Applications of PSN compost

❖ Broadcasting: Compost is broadcasted@ 2.5 and 5.0t/ha at least 10 daysprior to sowing or
planting of crop and mix thoroughly with the soil.
❖ Placement in pit: Compost is applied in pits@250-300 g per pit during planting of crops like
ginger,turmeric, potato tubers, seedlings of vegetables such as cabbage, cauliflower, knolkhol
etc.
Compost as potting mix: An ideal potting mixture for flowers and vegetables can beprepared by
mixing PSN compost, sand and garden soil in a ratio of 1:1:1.
Compost as mulch: Compost can be applied as mulching material.. Three to four inchesthick
layer of finished or unfinished compost can be applied as mulch on the soil surface
withoutincorporation.
Use of Compost Tea: Compost Tea is the waterextract of compost. It is rich in micronutrients,
humic acids and growth promotingsubstances. It can be sprayed to crops as growth booster.It can
be prepared followinga few easy steps:
Step 1: - Fill a cloth bag with finished compost.
Step 2: - Place the bag in a bucket of water.
Step 3: - Let it sit for an hour.
Step 4: - Remove the bag after one hour.
Step 5: - Collect the resulting liquid, the “compost tea”
Top Dressing: Mostly used for maintenance of grasses in lawns etc. Top dressingwith a 1/8 to
½ inch layer of well decomposed compost is advocated at least twice ayear. .

Source: 1.Promising Technologies –Production of Enriched Compost: ICAR -A science and

Technology News Letter. 14 .( 3)July-September 2008.
2.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273948143-Nutrient Enriched Compost - A
Technical Bulletin. Technical Report · March 2015
 19

EX. NO. 3

Title:- Study of Preparation of Vermicompost and Vermiwash

Vermicompost is potential organic manure, rich in NPK nutrients as compared to FYM or

other organic manures. It is also contains micronutrients, vitamins, antibiotics, plant growth
hormones, enzymes and immobilized micro flora. The beneficial organisms also grow fast in
vermicompost. Vermicompost generally have wide C: N ratio as compared to FYM. It
influences the physico chemical and biological properties of soil. It is an excellent tool of
organic farming, which is helpful in maintaining soil fertility status for long time.
Vermicompost is organic manure prepared by earthworms. It contains a mixture of worm
castings, organic matter including humus, live earthworms, their cocoons and other organisms.
Vermi cast is a rich source of macro and micronutrients, vitamins, enzymes, antibiotics,growth
hormones and immobilized microflora.

Earthworms feed on any organic wastes. The food of earthworm consists of organic
matter small organisms living or dead and the microorganisms present in the soil or organic
matter. After consumption the organic matters undergo physical and chemical breakdown
through the activity of muscular gizzard which grinds the material to a particle size of 1-2
micron usually ,under ideal condition an earthworm consumes organic wastes as per its body
weight in 24hours. Thus on an average 1kg earthworm can consume 1kg of organic waste per
day.

The material required for vermicompost:

i) Cattle dung
ii) Agricultural waste-crop residue, sugarcane trash, vegetable wastes, kitchen wastes etc.
iv) Plant products-sawdust and pulp, various types of leaf litter
v) City refuse or garbage
vi) Biogas slurry and poultry droppings in equal quantities
vii) Agro Industrial wastes
 20

Procedure
1) Selection of earthworm
Earthworm which is native to the local soil and environment may be used. The important
species of earthworm are Eisenia foetida, Eisenia andrie and Perionyx excavatus
2) Size of pit
The pit of convenient size such as 2mx1mx1m (LxBxH) may be prepared. This can hold
10-40 thousand earthworms giving one tonne manure per month.
3) Preparation of vermi-bed
A 15-20 cm thick layer of good loamy soil above a thin layer 5cms of broken bricks and
sand
should be made. This layer is inhabited by earthworms.
4) Inoculation of earthworms
About 100 earthworms are introduced as an optimum inoculating density into compost
above sized pit provided with a vermibed.
5) Organic layering
It is done on vermin-bed with fresh cattle dung. The compost pit is then layered to about
5cm with dry leaves or hay. Moisture content of pit is maintained through the addition of water
without flooding.
Wet organic layering: - after four weeks spread moist /green organic waste to a thickness
of 5cm over dry organic laeyring.This practice can be repeated every 3-4 days till the compost
pit is nearly full. Cover it with jute cloth.
6) Harvesting of vermicompost
At maturity decomposed material will be soft,spongy,dark brown in colour with earthy
smell(no foul smell).at this point the moisture content is reduced by stopping water application
for 3-4 days. This ensures drying of compost and migration of earthworms into the vermin-bed.
The mature compost, a fine loose granular mass is removed out from the pit, sieved, dried and
packed.
7) Rate of application
The vermicompost application for horticultural plants roughly @100g for a seasonal plant to 1-
5kg for a tree.viz., garden pots/flowers and trees.
 21

In Agriculture estimated requirement of vermicompost is about 5-10tonnes per hectare per

year.is Application of vermicompost varies according to the nature of crop, its age,climatic
conditions and soil quality.
Nutrient content in vermicompost
1 Organic carbon 9.15-17.98 %
2 Total nitrogen 0.50-1.50 %
3 Available phosphorus 0.10-0.30 %
4 Available potassium 0.15-0.56 %
5 Available sodium 0.06-0.30 %
6 Calcium and magnesium(100g) 22.67-47.60
7 Copper (ppm) 2.00-9.50
8 Iron (ppm) 2.00-9.30
9 Zinc (ppm) 5.70-11.50
10 Available sulphur (ppm) 128.00-548.00

Preparation of vermi-wash
Preparation of vermi-wash is made from earthworms reared in earthen pot or plastic
drums. It contains Vitamins (B-12), hormones (gibberellins) etc.

Steps in Preparation of vermi-wash are as follows:-

Take big earthen pot/plastic drum (200lit.capacity) with minute hole in bottom

Lay concrete and sand (5cm each) in the bottom of the pot for effective drainage
Fill the pot with 30-40cm layer of kitchen waste or one week old Cowdung

Release 200-300 earthworms in the pot /drum

Arrange water pouring drop wise by an earthen pot after 30 days of earthworm inoculation

After 2-3 days, collect the extract from the top pot/drum in another drum placed in bottom

Collected extract is called vermin-wash

Use diluted extract (1:5) in water as foliar spray

 22

Ex.No.4
Study of Biofertilizers and Bio-inoculant
Bio-fertilizer is microorganism's culture capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen when suitable
crops are inoculated with them. The main inputs are microorganisms, which are capable of
mobilizing nutritive elements from non-usable form to usable form through biological process.
These are less expensive, eco-friendly and sustainable. The beneficial microorganisms in the soil
that are greater significance to horticultural situations are biological nitrogen fixers, phosphate
solubilisers and mycorrhizal fungi. Bio-fertilizer offers an economically attractive and
ecologically sound means of reducing external inputs and improving the quality and quantity of
internal sources.
advantages:
 They help in establishment and growth of crop plants and trees.
 They enhance biomass production and grain yields by 10-20%.
 They are useful in sustainable agriculture.
 They are suitable organic farming.
 They play an important role in Agroforestry / silvipastoral systems.
Types of Biofertilizers: There are two types of bio-fertilizers.
1. Symbiotic N-fixation:These are Rhizobium culture of various strains which multiply in roots
of suitable legumes and fix nitrogen symbiotically. Almost 50% demands of N are met by these
microorganisms in legumes.
 Rhizobium: It is the most widely used biofertilizers, which colonizes the roots of
specific legumes to form tumours like growths called rot nodules. It is these nodules that
act as factories of ammonia production. The Rhizobium legume association can fix upto
100-300 kg N/ha in one crop season.
2. Asymbiotic N-fixation: This includes Azotobacter, Azospirillium, BGA, Azolla and
Mycorrhizae, which also fixes atmospheric N in suitable soil medium. They grow on
decomposing soil organic matter and produce nitrogen compounds for their own growth and
development, besides that they leave behind a significant amount of N in surroundings.
 Azotobacter: Application of Azotobactor has been found to increase the yields of wheat,
rice, maize, pearl millet and sorghum by 0-30% over control. The beneficial effect of
Azotobactor biofertilizers on cereals, millets, vegetables, cotton and sugarcane under
both irrigated and rainfed field conditions have been substantiated and documented
(Pandey and Sushil Kumar, 1989). Apart from nitrogen this organism is also capable of
producing antibacterial and anti-fungal compounds, hormones and siderophores.
 Azospirillium: It is an important bacterium, which colonize the root zones and fix
nitrogen in loose association with plants. The crops which response to Azospirillum is
 23

maize, barley, oats, sorghum, pearl millet and forage crop. Azospirillum applications
increase gain productivity of cereals by 5-20%, of millets by 30% and of fodder by over
50%.
 Blue Green Algae: The utilization of blue-green algae as biofertilizers for rice is very
promising. Recent researches have shown that algae also help to reduce soil alkalinity
and this opens up possibilities for bio-reclamation of such inhospitable environments.
 Azolla: A small floating fern, Azolla is commonly seen in low land fields and in shallow
fresh water bodies. This fern harbours blue-green algae, anabaena azollae. The Azolla
anabaena association is a live floating nitrogen factory using energy from photosynthesis
to fix atmospheric nitrogen amounting to 100-150 kg N/ha/year from about 40-64 tones
of biomass (Hamdi, 1982; Singh, 1988).
Mycorrhizae: Mycorrhizae are the symbiotic association of fungi with roots of Vascular plants.
The main advantage of Mycorrhizae to the host plants lies in the extension of the penetration
zone of the root fungus system in the soil, facilitating an increased phosphorous uptake. In many
cases the Mycorrhizae have been shown to markedly improve the growth of plants. In India, the
beneficial effects of Vascular-arbuscular Mycorrhizae (V AM) have been observed in fruit crops
like citrus, papaya and litchi.
Biofertilizers are treated with seed / seedlings after other seed treatment. It should be
given at the last. After giving seed treatment of biofertilizers, the treated seed material is dried
under the shade & cowing should completed within 6-8 hrs. once seed treatment is given to seed
the said seed materials should not used for consumption.
Rhizobium species for different crop groups:-
1. Rhizobium leguminosarum : - Peas
2. Rhizobium phaseoli : - Beans
3. Rhizobium trifolii : - Clover
4. Rhizobium meliloti : - Alfalfa
5. Rhizobium lupine : - Lupini
6. Rhizobium japonicum : - Soybean
7. Rhizobium spp. : - Cowpea
 24

Ex. No.5
Title:- Study of preparation of Biodynamic compost and Cow Pat pit
Bio-dynamics, derived from two Greek words, "bios"- life and "dynamos"- energy, refers
to the agriculture science that recognizes basic principles at work in nature and applies this
knowledge of life forces to bring about balance and healing in the soil.
Biodynamic agriculture developed out of eight lectures on agriculture given in 1924 by Rudolf
Steiner (1861−1925), an Austrian scientist and philosopher. A basic ecological principle of
biodynamic is to conceive of the farm as an organism, a self contained entity. A farm is said to
have its own individuality. Emphasis is placed on the integration of crops and livestock,
recycling of nutrients, maintenance of soil, and the health and wellbeing of crops and animals;
the farmer too is part of the whole. Biodynamic can be understood as a combination of
“biological dynamic” agriculture practices.
Today biodynamic agriculture is practiced on farms around the world, on various scales,
andin a variety of climates and cultures. However, most biodynamic farms are located in
Europe,the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. Biodynamics is set apart from other
organic agriculture systems by its association with the spiritual science of anthroposophy
founded by Steiner, to acknowledge the influence of cosmic and terrestrial forces;
I)Biodynamic Compost
Biodynamic compost is a fundamental component of the biodynamic method; it servesas a way
to recycle animal manures and organic wastes, stabilize nitrogen, and build soil humusand
enhance soil health. Biodynamic compost is unique because it is made with BD
preparations502−507. Together, the BD preparations and BD compost may be considered the
cornerstone of
biodynamics.
biodynamic compost serves as a source of humus in managing soil health and emanates energetic
frequencies to vitalize the farm. After the compost windrow is constructed, A distinguishing
feature of biodynamic farmingis the use of nine biodynamic preparations described by Steiner
for the purpose of enhancing soil quality and stimulating plant life. They consist of mineral,
plant, or animal manure extracts, usually fermented and applied in small proportions to compost,
manures, the soil, or directly onto plants, after dilution and stirring procedures called
dynamizations.
The original biodynamic (BD) preparations are numbered 500−508. The BD 500 preparation
(horn-manure) is made from cow manure (fermented in a cow horn that is buried in the soil for
six months through autumn and winter) and is used as a soil spray to stimulate root growth and
humus formation. The BD 501 preparation(horn-silica) is made from powdered quartz (packed
inside a cow horn and buried in the soil for six months through spring and summer) and applied
as a foliar spray to stimulate and regulate growth. The next six preparations, BD 502−507, are
used in making compost.
Finally, there is BD preparation 508 which is prepared from the silica-rich horsetail
plant(Equisetum arvense) and used as a foliar spray to suppress fungal diseases in plants.
The BD compost preparations are listed below:
 25

• No. 502 Yarrow blossoms (Achillea millefolium)

• No. 503 Chamomile blossoms (Chamomillaofficinalis)
• No. 504 Stinging nettle (whole plant in fullbloom) (Urtica dioca)
• No. 505 Oak bark (Quercus robur)
• No. 506 Dandelion flowers (Taraxacum officinale)
• No. 507 Valerian flowers (Valeriana officinalis)

Composting material:-crop stalk,stover viz., mung,black gram,soybean ,wheat, cotton stalk

etc,cattle dung,BD-S9,soil,geen foliage, farm soil.

Preparation:- in biodynamic compost crop residues of above crop are arranged in layers.mark
leveled and elevated spot at east west side to make a 15’long and 5’wide heap. for this in
advance collect composting raw material together viz., crop residues and moist it by water.It
helps to decomposition.One cartload cattle dung (moist it),1kg BD-S9, It should be stirred well
in 13 litres of water and kept for an hour in container.Volume can be made as per requirement by
adding water. Prepare slurry of previously collected cattle dung. Fresh cattle dung slurry should
be kept separately.

BD-S9-S9 culture is a name given to the extended inoculums produced with the help of BD
preps 502–507 as well a few more inputs like basalt and crushed egg shells.The product is then
used at the rate of 1 kg in a bio mass heap comprising of 200 cu ft comprising 10 to 15 quintals
of biomass mix with cow dung.

Use and Application of S9 are:

 As innoculum for composting @ 2kg/1- 1.5 ton biodegradable composting material.

 Foliar Spray for nursery and mature fruiting crops as plant vigour and also for fungal
disease
 As Seed treatment/root dip, tree pasting etc.

Procedure:-

I)Preparing Heap

1.Mix BD-S9throughly in 13 litres of water and keep it ready an hour in advance.

2.in the beginning arrange the layer of moist crop residues upto 1’ height.

3. Sprinkle or hand watering of BD-S9or liquid valerian on this layer .then spread cattledung
slurry sufficiently to cover the residue.

4. Spread green foliage upto 1’ height,sprinkle BD-S9 on it.add cattledung slurry uniformly
and2baskets soil from fieldlike this prepare one layer.
 26

5. Likewise arrange rest of the composting material layerwise and in sequenceand make a heap
of 5’height .

6. Once heap has been completed upto 5’height plaster it by cattle dung and soil mixture if
available add wheat straw bhusa in this mixture. Plaster the heap completely till base covering all
sides.

Like this biodhynamic heaps can be arrange in rows.

II) Turning

1. One month after heap plastering biodynamic compost heap size is reducedthat time break the
plaster using sped or tooth peg hoe and mixed the layers thoroughly.

2.Sprinkle sufficient moisture on this pulverized heap and moistened it.

3.Prepare cattledung slurry and plaster the heap second time allow further decomposition.

4.Turing this turning application of BD-S9is not necessary.

Compost: biodynamic compost is ready within 60 -70 days/ (2-21/2 months)after heap making.

It is brownish black coloured and well decomposed.

Care to be taken

1 .while plastering do not climb on heap otherwise it become unaerobic due to air expelling.

2. In case of cracking /breaking of plaster repair it by catlledung slurry. Do not add/stake

cattleshed waste/crop residue on the heap.

3.Once plastered,do not sprinkle water on heap.

4.Biodynamic compost can be use immediately to crops or it can be store for

next/season,providing shade and maintain moisture.

Advantages of biodynamic compost

1. Crop residues can be used to get orgnic manure in less timeinstead wasting /dumping in
manure pits.
2. From 15’x5’ heap about 10 quintals of well decomposed compost is available.
3. Biodynamic compost preparation does not required pit/trenchno daily watering and no
shade arrangement..
4. If all composting material arranged well in advance with the help of two laboures two
heaps of 15’x5’ can be prepared .
 27

5. From one heap of (15’x5’) about 18-20 kg Nitrogen, P2O5-18-20kg and Potassium-10 kg
is availablealso it provides sulphur,zinc,calcium,magnesium,and iron.
6. According to crop need biodynamic compost can be prepared viz. BiodynamicNitrogen
compost,Phosphorus compost,Potas compost and Sulphur compost.
7. It enhance growth of earthworms and other beneficial microbial population.
8. For one acre compost prepared from 2-3 heaps is sufficient.
9. It should be apply by band placement or drill below the surface of the soil before
planting.

II) Cow Pat Pit

Cow Pat Pit, known as CPP, is also a ferment. It is developed by leading Biodynamic
proponent, Maria Thun who conducted extensive research into its benefits.
Today, CPP is widely used in Biodynamic farming as vibrant soil activator and
conditioner.Indian farmers have developed this biodynamic activity to a high degree since 1994
and now there are large amounts of CPP being made and used throughout India and also
supplied to farmers converting to BD.
Benefits
CPP is a very effective over a large area of farmland, orchard or garden.
Well made CPP has within it all the energies associated with the biodynamic preparations 502-
507.
It will also contain a wide range of beneficial fungi and bacteria and growth promoting
hormones,very helpful in many areas of agriculture and horticulture.

Ingredients: - fresh cow cow dung , basaltic rock dust(or blue granite quarry dust or bore well
soil) and crushed eggshells,water.
.
Making of Pit for(CPP)
1. Choose a site with good drainage, well-shaded and aerated.
2. Dig a pit 90cm x 60cm x 30cm deep (3ft x 2ft x 1ft)
3. Line the side of the pit with used bricks. Ensure that the bricks are wet prior to
placing the dung. The bricks are a good medium for the walls of the pits in that they
absorb moisture, and can be watered to keep the dung from drying out.
4. The bottom is left as bare earth.
5. The pits can be made in series of up to 100 pits in a group with a central path in
between two double rows, or some system that suits the farm's needs.
 28

6. The pits are usually situated within a shade house which is usually roofed with
thatch. This will keep the pits cool during the hot months and stop the dung from
drying out, and will be shelter against the rain during monsoons. Make sure the
shade house is elevated.
Making the Slurry
1. Collect 60kgs of cow dung from lactating cows preferably fed on biodynamically
grown fodder. No concentrates or grains should be fed two to three days before
collecting the dung.
2. Add water by sprinkling it over the cow dung if dry. Cow dung should not be too dry
or too wet. The dung should be firm as this facilitates the breakdown processes.
3. It is mixed with 200 grams of powdered egg shell. Heat egg shells in a hot oven for
ten minutes which will aid the grinding of the shell into powder and 200 grams of
powdered basalt dust. If there is no basalt, use blue granite quarry dust or bore well
soil instead. Sprinkle the basalt rock or bore well soil, and crushed egg shells, over
the cow dung.
4.Knead (mix) for 10 - 30 minutes or as long as 1 hour.The kneading of the dung is important to
aerate it. Knead (mix) till the consistency will change.
5. Place the dung mixture into the pit. When filling the pits make sure that they are not
filled more than a brick and a half deep (12cm). The dung should not be tightly
packed. Smooth off the top of the dung.
 Inserting the BD Preps
1. Make six holes : 2 inches (3-4cm) deep after gently patting the dung into the pit.
2. Insert 3 sets of preps BD502-506 individually into the holes by placing each into a
handful of compost
o 3 sets of BD502 in a handful of compost into hole #1,
o 3 sets of BD503 in a handful of compost into hole #2, and so on
3. Then close the holes with some compost.
 Stir BD507 in 350 ml of clean water for 10 minutes.
 Add 1/2 of stirred BD507 into the remaining hole, then sprinkle the balance evenly over
the entire pit and the jute bag that will cover the pit.
 Stir BD507 in 350 ml of clean water for 10 minutes.
 Add 1/2 of stirred BD507 into the remaining hole, then sprinkle the balance evenly over
the entire pit and the jute bag that will cover the pitto maintain moisture.
Maintenance
Once in a month gently turn/aerate with a garden fork, leaving the
 29

surface smooth and covered on completion to avoid excessive drying.

Earthworms Eisenia foetida or Lumbricus rebullus if not already present
they can be introduced to aid the later stages of break down.
 After the first month, turn each week. This will speed up the
breakdown process.
 Remove mature CPP in 3 to 5 months.
 When ready the CPP will be well broken down with a good
humus content. It will have a good earthy smell. It can be used
straight away, or stored in an earthen pot in a cool place. Maintain
moisture and use within 6 months.
 The empty pits can be refilled again.

Application of CPP

60 kgs of cow dung gives about 30-35 kgs of CPP after fermentation.

When it is mature, it is mixed with water at the rate of 1kg in 40 litres of water per
acre. (one CPP pit should be enough to cover 40 acres.) It should be stirred for at least
10 minutes as this encourages good bacteria development. For larger areas the greater
amount of liquid can be stirred in a 200 litre drum for 15 minutes before using.

It can be sprinkled or sprayed over the land. If it is sprayed onto trees or foliage, it
should be first strained through a fine mesh.

 Soil application- 1kgs per acre CPP to 40 litres of water. Soak overnight prior
to application, stir for 10 minutes, if necessary strain through a cotton cloth,
and spray as required.
o Stir with preparation BD500 at 25gms BD500 to 100gm-1kg CPP. Add
during the last 15 minutes of stirring.
 Soil inoculant over land being converted to BD/organic management. Use on
the soil around all fruit trees as a soil inoculant or soil conditioner. Use before
any mulching is applied around the trees
 Soil or foliar feed on all crops at all stages except those close to harvest. It can
be sprayed every 7 or 14 days. Best sprayed in the evenings. Excellent for all
field crops, i.e. wheat, lucerne, paddy and potatoes. Also mangos, papaya, all
tropical fruits and citrus, apples, stone fruit, avocados, grapes, coffee and tea.
 30

When used as a foliar feed on all fruit trees, it will strengthen the plants against
possible fungus or insect attack. Apply every 14 days before and after
flowering.
 Liquid Manure Tonic: stir 50gm CPP with any liquid manures
at( approx.4.5litres). Dissolve in water and use as a liquid manure.
 Pruning Paste Balm: Add water to a handful of CPP to make a slurry and
apply as pruning paste to stop bleeding and help healing. Apply CPP slurry to
the barks of trees to stimulate cambium growth, strengthen the bark to bring
the good soil micro organisms up onto the tree.
 Root Dippings: use to dip roots of all young trees, shrubs, or grapes prior to
planting. This will encourage new root development. Soak seeds in CPP slurry
overnight before sowing. If not overnight, soak for at least 30 minutes, dry off,
and sow immediately.
 Seed Soak: soak seeds in CPP slurry overnight before sowing. If not overnight,
soak for at least 30 minutes, dry off, and sow immediately. Soak seed potatoes
for 1 hour before planting. Dip potatoes and dry before planting. This seems to
help control late blight. Cuttings can be soaked in CPP slurry overnight to
enhance root development.
 Inoculate Compost: inoculate compost heaps where there is a shortage of
biodynamic preparations. Use 1kg of CPP in 40 litres of water for each 5
metres of compost and pour into holes along the top of the heap.
 31

Exp.No.6
Study of quality analysis of compost and vermicompost
32
 33

Exp.No.7
Study of Crop residue management and green manuring
Object: 1) To know the methods of Crop residue management
2) To study the sicance of Green manuring in organic farming
Crop residue management
Substantial quantities of crop residues are produced inIndia every year .major crops like
rice ,wheat,sorghum ,maize and pearlmillet alone yield approximately 236Mt straw per
year.Nutrient potential of cereal straw/residue from these crops come to 1.13Mt N,1.41Mt.P 2O5
and 3.54Mt K2O per year..Although crop residues contain both macro- and micro nutrients, only
values for the macro nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulfur are economically
significant.

besides Crop residues use as a fuel and cattle feed ,for certain industrial purposes crop
residues are used as raw material.e.g.bagasse is now used as raw material in paper manufacturing
and co-generation of electricity.Due to such uses, a small fraction of crop residues is available
for recycling in agriculturewheras availability of paddy- wheat crop residues are at higher
sides(1/4 )of the total crop residue production in the country. Sugarcane trash also available in an
enormous quantity in India. It contributes about 8 to 12 per cent of millable cane and on an average a
hectare of the sugarcane crop leaves behind 9 to 10 tons of trash.
Crop residue-Crop residues are the parts or portion of a plant or crop left on cultivated land
after the crop has been harvested. These residues include stalks and stubble (stems), leaves,
and seed pods.husks
Crop Residue Management(CRM) involves use of the non-commercial portion of the plant or
crop for protection or improvement of the soil.
Crop residues can be recycled either by composting or by way of mulch or direct
incorporation in the soil.

Benefits of crop residues in organic farming

1.Good management of field residues can increase efficiency of irrigationand control of erosion.
2. Crop residues can improve soil structure, increase organic matter content in the soil,
 34

3. Reduce evaporation, and help to fix CO2 in the soil.

4. Benefits soil chemically, physically and biologically with resultant increase in crop
production.

Practices of crop residue management

1.In –situ burning-with wide adoption of combined harvesters large quantities of crop residues
are left in the field.particularly in rice-wheat dominanted areas surplus strw is always
availablewhich are rather difficult to remove for quick preparation of field for next season crop
farmers prefer to to burn the residues in field as compared to incorporation into soil/removal.
The burning of residues is a major source of air pollution as well as about 32-37% of thestraw
weight and 27-32%N are lost in burning. microbial population decrese substantiallylongterm
burnig reduces total N and C and potentially mineralizes N in the 0-15cm soil layerthe ash
production due to burnig of the crop residue decrease effectiveness of applied herbicides as burnt
residue absorbs the herbicides.
Hence In-situ burnig of crop resiued is may be very easy it should not be follow as
nutritional value of crop residue declines to a great extent.
2.In-situ incorporation-the crop residues are incorporated in soil before sowing of the succeeding
cropthe period available for decomposition of crop residues is important to ensure mineralization
of nutrientsthe crop residues having wide C:Nratio decomposes slowly in the soillegumious crop
residues decomposes in short time compare to cereals the decomposition of incorporated crop
residues is highly influenced by the soil properties ,temperature and moisture regime.
In situ incorporation has beneficial role of straw incorporation on yield of crops in comparison to
removal of residues.
3.Composting from crop residues-Compossting is the biochemical breakdown of organic
substances to humus like substances with narrow C:N ratio,less bulky and comparatively stable
than the parent compound due to inadequate time of decomposition during in situ incorporation
during the crop season the residues should be managed through compostingComposting of two
parts of organic residues with one part of fresh animal dung has been assessed to be an efficient
method of compost making.
4.Crop Residue as surface mulch-Mulching of crop residues is an effective mean for
reducing runoff,erosionand transport of sediment to steam. The beneficial effect of crop residue
mulch on soil moisture and temperature changes,influences the seed germnation,seedling
emergence and root growth which in turn determine the growth and the yield of cropsit also adds
nutrients in the soil on decomposition.Sometimes during decopostion there is temoporily
 35

unavailability of nitrogen to the crop due to utilization of reserve nitrogen from soil by
microorganisms.
Factors affecting decomposition of residues-Depth of incorporation, soil and climate
are the main factors responsible for decomposition of the residues.the major influence include
the following
1.Size of the residue-most of organic residues available for land application need some
kind of shredding for convenient incorporation in the soil.such as rice straw,sugarcane
trash,sunflower and safflower stover etc.need chopping for proper microbial decomposition.
smaller the size ,the greater is the surface area for microbes to act more efficiently.
2.Time of incorporation-adequate time available for incorporation obtained good
benefits,by the way of crop nutrition and improvement in soil fertility and tilth. about 30 days
might be an appropriate pre-cropping period for decomposition of crop residues from crop
production point of view.
3.Amount of residues-amount of crop residue added to the soil has a direct influence on
the C:N ratio of soil which determines the decomposition kinetics of the residueshigher amount
of residue incorporation leads to more microbial biomass that assimilates more Nfor
immobilization.it also require more N,time and oxygen to decomposethe addition of 5tonnes or
less quantity of residue is an appropriate amount for its effective utilization.
4.Repeatedly added crop residues-addition of large amount of residues to the soil
increases the biological activity in the soil and influence the rate of decomposition of organic
materials remained from previous additions,which are known as “the priming effect”.
5.macro and micro organisms-the organic materials are subjected intense biodegration
by the intervention of soil biota including earthworms ,bacteria,fungiactinomycetes and
protozoan speciesthe microbial numbers and microbial activity are greatly enhanced even when
organic materials are used as soil mulchesthe role of earthworms has added prominence in the
quick processing of organic wastes into composts.
Most of the decomposition of the added organic materials takes place within two
to three weeks and the process gets almost stabilized in four to five weeks.
6.soils in tropical /subtropical – under tropical environments,the rate of decomposition
of residues is generally very high due to high temperature and microbial activity.
 36

7.Tillage and residue decomposition-Deep tillage helps in the rapid decomposition of

crop residues as it comes in intimate contact with soil having favourable hydrothermal regimethe
residues left on the surface are subjected to maximum fluctuations in moisture an
temperature.Conservation tillage has beneficial effect on decomposition of crop residues over
conventional tillge.
Green manuring is an arable farming practice of enriching soil by turning under
composed green material incorporated into soil. Green manure crops can be leguminous as well
as non leguminous. Whereas legumes utilized as green manure is one of the renewable source of
on farm biologically fixed n and also add large amount of carbon to cropping systems. Green
manuring is widely practiced in Karnataka, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh, Punjab & Uttar Pradesh.
Dhaincha, sunnhemp and cowpea are the major green manure crops capable of
accumulation of 4-5 tonnes/ha of dry biomass and 100kg N/ha in 50-60 days when well
managed. Dhaincha can be adapted to varying soil and climatic conditions and does well on
alkaline and waterlogged soils. Sunnhemp and wild Indigo (Tephrosia purpurea) are important
drought-tolerant legumes.
Green manuring is defined as a practice of ploughing the green plants tissues grown in
the field or adding green plants with tender twigs, leaves from outside and incorporating them
into the soil for improving the structure as well as the fertility of the soil.
Types of green manuring
1) Green –Leaf manuring:- In green leaf manuring the green leaves and tender green twigs
collected from shrubs and trees grown on bunds wastelands and nearby forest areas are
collected spread in the field and incorporated into the soil, This system is common in eastern,
southern and central India. It needs succulent green material and adequate soil moisture in
the soil for the proper rotting.
e.g. Glyricidia (Glyricidia maculate), Karanj (pongamia pinnata),Wild dhaincha (Sesbania
species, wild cassia (cassia tora) Ain, Sunnhemp and wild Indigo( Tephrosia purpurea) etc.
In recent year, Glyricidia and sesbania speciosa are planted on the borders of field for use as
a green manure.
 37

2) Green manuring In-situ: - Green manure crops are grown and incorporated in the same field
which is to be green manured either as pure crop or as an intercrop with the main crop.
Generally annual legumes are used for in situ green manuring.
e.g. Sesbania, cowpea, sunnhemp, dhaincha(Sasbania aculeats), black gram, green gram,
Horse gram, guar etc.
Criteria for the selection of green manure crops
1. Rapid and aggressive initial growth and efficient soil cover so as to suppress the weeds.
2. Producing large amounts of biomass (green and dry matter) i.e. succulent and leafy growth.
3. Capacity to recycle nutrients.
4. Easy of establishment and management in the field.
5. Resistance to attacks by pests, diseases and not act as a host.
6. Deep penetrating and well developed root system.
7. Tolerance or resistance to drought and / or frosts.
8. Tolerance to low soil fertility and be adapted to degraded soils.
9. Ability to produce seeds in sufficient quantities to increase the areas under the crop.
10. Not invading and causing difficulties for the succeeding crop in the crop rotation
11. Preferably leguminous crop.
12. Capacity to re-sprout in the event that parts of the area are cut down.
Advantages of green manuring:-
1) It adds organic matter to the soil and stimulates activity of soil micro-organisms.
2) It improves the structure of the soil, thereby improving the water holding capacity of soil,
decreasing runoff and erosion caused by rain.
3) It fixes the nitrogen from atmosphere.
4) It increases availability of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron
5) It suppresses the growth of weeds.
6) It takes nutrients from lower layers of the soil and adds to the upper layer in which it is
incorporated.
7) The increase in yield after green manuring is usually 30-50%.
8) Green manure leaves a marked residual effect also.
Dis-advantages/limitations of green manuring:-
(1) Difficulty in adjusting green manuring crop in multiple cropping system.
 38

(2) Non-availability of land and water for sowing green manuring crops.
(3) Non-availability of good quality seeds of green manure crops.
(4) Incidence of pests and diseases may increase.
(5) Loss of one crop.
(6) Depletion of moisture which affects the growth of the succeeding crop.
(7) Cost of growing green manure crops may be more than the cost of commercial
nitrogenous fertilizers.
List of common leguminous green manuring crops/plants.
Sr. Name Botanical Name Growing Average N % as Nitrogen
No. Season yield of green added
green weight (kg/ha)
matter
tonne/ha
1. Sunnhemp Crotalaria juncea Kharif 21.20 0.42 90
2. Dhaincha Sasbania aculeats Kharif 27 0.42 84
3. Green gram Phaseolus radiatus Kharif 8.5 0.53 42
4. Cowpea Vigna sinensis Kharif 15 0.49 74
5. Cluster Cyamopsis Kharif 25 0.34 60
bean tetragonoloba
6. Sonji Melilotuis alba Rabi 28 0.51 80
7. Kheasri Lathrus sativus Rabi 12 0.54 50
8. Berseem Trifolium Rabi 15 0.43 67
alexandeinum
9. Glyricidia Glyricidia Rabi 8 to 10 0.49 ..
maculate kg/plant
 39

Ex.No. 8 &9
Title: Study of Indigenous Technology Knowledge(ITK) for nutrient, insect,disease and
weed management

Objects: 1.To study most of the indigenous practices prevailing for soil, insect,disease and weed
management
2.To study the ITK as an alternative measures soil, insect,diseaseand weed management
inorganic farming
The development of indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) systems, including
management of natural environment, has been a matter of survival to the people who generated
these systems long back (George et al., 2000). Most ITKs were based on the local availability of
material and human resources to ensure minimal livelihoods for local people. In India, farmers
have developed traditional calendars to control the scheduling of agricultural activities.
It has already been established that the sustainability in crop production and protection
can only be achieved by developing technologies that are based on locally available inputs that
are easily acceptable and cost effective. The innovative ideas of farmers in solving technical
problems by local resource managements are therefore, gaining importance in recent years.
Innovations based on traditional knowledge have also been emphasized by the National
Innovation Foundation (NIF) and Department of Science & Technology, Govt. of India.Most of
the documented ITKs need validation before they could be recommended to the farming
community.
I) Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK)for Soil/Nutrient Management
India has immense traditional knowledge which is being practiced in farming particularly for
soil management. Farmers need to protect the soil from a number of possible threats - such as
erosion, organic matter decline, compaction and contamination.
Traditional soil management does not depend on manufactured fertilizer inputs. Krishi Parashara
(C.400 BC), Parashara stressed Soil Management “Farms yield gold if properly managed but
 40

lead to poverty if neglected”. He also emphasized “Crop grown without manure will not give
yield”. Krishi Gita (C 1500 AD), Parasharama recommended deep summer ploughing .

Some of the techniques developed traditionally of Soil Management in India are :

1. The zabo system of terrace farming / bench terracing in Nagaland- risers are used for finger
millet cultivation. it checks weed growth and act as a binding material for Soil on risers.
2.Bamboo drip irrigation system of jowar in Meghalaya [6]; and
3. The sustainable land and water management system practicedby Apatanis in Arunachal
Pradesh. Nutrient and fertility management of the terraces is done mainly byrecycling
agricultural wastes. All types of biomass from the rice field, cattle yards, poultry houses,
domestic waste, and leaves collected from the adjoining jungles are recycled in order to replenish
humus and nutrient in the soil. Thus, lands round the villages are conserved as forests and Soil
erosion, silting of rivers,drying of the water sources, and loss of nutrients, loss of flora, fauna,
and forest resources are negligible.
4.For direct seeded rice, cow dung is powdered and mineral thoroughly with the soil after
broadcasting of rice seeds & then planking with wooden log is done. This helps in faster
mineralization of nitrogen and improves WHC.
5. Small rain water harvesting structure (< .2 ha) called Doba
has been used for conservation and harvesting the rain water before the onset of monsoon, lined
by plastering and in October itis thatched by Hogla (Types elephantine). At fortnightly
neem/karanj oil is poured to check evaporation. Doba stands for 3-years.
6.Grass waterways to check Soil erosion (1m width .5-.7m depth.).
7. Planking in standing wheat crop at CRI stage with desi plough for soil compaction in increase
the capacity rice in rainfed wheat.
8.In Agriculture fields soil erosion is minimized through traditional methods such as using
bamboo, stones and gunny bags filled with soils.
9.Mixing of ash with household waste and cattle waste helps in weed control, surface soil crust
breaking rain water conservation. It is also used for nutrient availability & recycling.
10.Application of Neem cake during ploughing to kill inserts.
11.Application of pond mud in the field. (It brings silt along with nutrients brought from the
catchments area.)
12. Application of bone powder (bone meal)- Supplements phosphorus % calcium to soil (The
animal bones are buried in the basin area of the plants to improve ‘P’ availability.)
13. Mixed intercropping / Relay cropping/ Vegetative fencing/barrier/ Mixed cropping / Pre-
emergence soil stirring- as vegetative barrier Run off management. Reduction in runoff and
better utilization of soil moisture. Reduce water runoff and velocity and to increase in infiltration
 41

opportunity time- Removal of weeds, loosen the soil for conserving moistures -Groundnut, pigeonpea and
pulses
14. Compartmental bunding- Loose boulder checks; Peripheral stone bunding;Strengthening bunds by
growing local grasses and Field bunding Soil conservation and runoff management.
15. Spur structure- Protection of crop land from erosion by diverting the run off.

II) Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK)for Insect Pest Management

The Vrukshayurvedic texts also provide information on various traditional pest
management practices using locally available resources.In general the ITKs are based on three
categories viz., (a) Cultural practices, (b) Physical and mechanical methods and (c) Use of
botanicals.
Some traditional and modern knowledge in context with the above categories having
relevance for adoption in IPM strategies
1. Deep ploughing in summer is helpful in preventing from soil burrowing nematodes, white
grubs, etc.
2. Burning of waste material in field to produce the heat. The heat which is produced by burning
of waste material sterilizes the soil and kills the harmful microbes and controls damping off in
nursery. It is practiced in late kharif and summer.
3. For insect control, spraying of diluted onion or garlic juice is used by tribes to control
grasshopper and other leaf inhabiting insects on Maize crop.
4. Spraying neem solution to control all type of insects in crop. The solution of neem leaf extract
and water is ratio of 1:6.
5. Bhelama (Anacardium spp.) stem twigs are being adopted by the tribal in transplanted rice for
protecting the incidence of rice gundhi bug.
6. Fermented solution of 5 kg cow dung, 5 litre of cow urine, 150 gm lime + 100 litre of water is
sprayed to control aphids, bacterial and viral diseases.
(a) Cultural practices: The cultural practices (field sanitation; proper seed and variety
selection; proper seedbed preparation; planting date; row spacing; seeding rate; fertilization;
water management; crop rotation; planting of trap crops and hedge rows; companion
planting; and intercropping) contribute to prevent, suppress, or eradicate pest build-up by
disrupting the relationship between the pest and the host plant and make the pest less likely to
survive, grow, or reproduce. Most of these practices are well experimented and practiced by
the farmers.
 42

(b) Physical or mechanical control:. Among the physical and mechanical practices traps and
baits can be indigenously prepared using locally available resource for better monitoring and
control of insect pests.
Example :
1.Intercropping of Marigold with brinjal in 3:1 ratio ,marigold antagonistic crop will act as a
repellant for most of the insects ,pests of brinjal. Roots of marigold exude terthenyle
derivatives which are namaticidal in nature and kills nematodes.
2.Mustard as a border crop which act as a trap crop of the insect pests of cole crops
viz.cauliflower and cabbage
1.Trapping rhinoceros beetles (RB) in coconut: a mud pot with three quarters of it is to be
filled with water and to this 250 g of powdered castor cake is added. The pot is then buried in
the soil with its mouth in level with the soil. The smell of the cake attracts the beetles which
fall into the water. 2-3 such pots in one hectare of plantation control beetles from the area.
Slices of pine apple are also used to attract RB.
.2.Trapping fruit flies: Fruit fly (Dacus dorsalis and D. cucurbitae)incidence is normally
seen in mango and cucurbits. A low-cost fruit fly trap to combat this insect pest can be made
as follows;
a) Make a trap using a 2-liter disposable water bottle: Two holes at a height of 5cm from
the bottom of bottle,use a string which is pushed through a hole drilled in the centre of the
cap from inside. The attractant mixture for fruit flies is then prepared by mixing 1 cup of
vinegar, 2 cups of water and 1 tablespoon of honey and shakes this well before use. Fill the
trap with this mixture up to the level of holes and hang the container about 5 feet high. Flies
will enter the container and fall into the attractant.
b)Traping sucking insect pests: Bright yellow sticky traps are used for
monitoring/controlling aphids, thrips and whiteflies. While, bright blue traps used for
monitoring thrips and bright white sticky traps for flea beetles. Set up sticky traps for
monitoring whitefly, thrips etc. @ 10 traps per ha. Locally available empty tins can be
painted yellow / coated with white grease / vaseline / castor oil. Place traps near the plants,
preferably 25 cm away from the plant facing direct sunlight.
c)Trapping moths: Mix 500ml of aloe extract 1 kg of castor cake and add latex
as adhesive. Put this mixture in a wide opened disposable container. Place in
strategiclocations of the field @12 / ha
Other Mechanical control practices:
Attracting birds: Erection of bird perches @ 25/ha facilitate predation of larval stages of
insects.
 43

Rats:a) Boil 10 kg of wheat seeds in water with two large pieces of the bark from
the Gliricidia tree. Then use the boiled wheat seeds in the field or in stores where rat menace
exist. Gliricidia is a rat killer as it contains coumarin which gets converted to
anticoagulant dicoumerol by bacterial fermentation.Thisreduces the protein Prothrombin to
cause death in rats due to internal bleeding.
b) A mixture containing 90% sesame or g.nut or niger flour with 5% thick sugar crystals
and 5% powdered bulb or tube is placed in a bowl near rat holes and when rats feed this
mixtures they die within a week.
c)Inserting 10 – 12 inches long fresh pieces of stem of Jatropha plant into active rat holes
makes the field rat free.
(c) Use of botanicals: Reviving and modernizing age-old farmer practice through the
optimization of ethnobotanicals has shown that farmers are more comfortable using plant
materials than commercial synthetics and those botanicals can offer a similar level of control
when certain guidelines are followed to their use.
1.Aloe (Aloe barbadensis; Fam: Aloeaceae) vitex (Vitex negundo; Fam: Verbenaceae)
extract: Soak vitex leaves (5kg) in 10 liters water. After boiling for 30 minutes cool the
extract and then strain. Remove the outer part of the aloe leaves (2 kg) and grind in water to
get the extract. Mix the two extracts and dilute in 50-60 liters of water to cover 0.4 ha area.
Add 50-60 ml soap in the mixture and spray early in the morning or late in the afternoon.
This Aloe vitex extract is reported to control armyworm, hairy caterpillar, rice leaf folder,
rice stem borer, semi-looper, bacterial and fungal diseases (Bissdorf, 2008).
2.Marigold and chilli extract: Chop 500 g of whole plant and 10 hot chilli pods;
Soak them overnight in 15 liters of water. Dilute the filtrate with water at 1:2 ratios and
add soap @ 1tsp per liter of extract. This controls most agricultural pests (Bissdorf, 2008).
3.Neem leaf extract: Pound 1kg neem leaves and place it in a pot with 2liters of water.Cover the
mouth with cloth and leave it as such for 3 days. Dilute the extract at 1:9 with water and add
100 ml of soap before spraying. This controls aphids, grasshoppers, leaf hoppers, plant
hoppers scales thrips weevils and beetles .
(d) Other pest control formulations based on ITK:
Fermented curd water – In some parts of central India fermented curd water (butter milk)
is used for the management of white fly, jassids aphids etc.
1. Cow milk: Cow’s milk was reported to acts as an excellent sticker and spreader due
to presence of casein protein has excellent spreader and sticker property. It can be used @ 10%
aqueous suspension for effectively controlling powdery mildew. Milk spraysinduced
systematically acquired resistance in chilli against leaf curl, a viral disease .
 44

2.Cow urine and dung: Cow urine diluted with water in ratio of 1: 20 is not only
effective in the management of pathogens and insects, but also acts as a growth promoter of
crops.
Botanicals fermented in cow urine/cow dung:
1.Cow urine 5% with neem seed kernel extract 5% and cow dung 5% showed anti-feedent and
anti-ovipositional effects against Helicoverpa armigera (Sadawarte and Sarode, 1997;
Boomathi et al., 2006).
2.Combination of cow urine with NSKE and Vitex reduced the shoot fly infestation in sorghum
(Vijayalaxmi, et al., 1996; Mudigourdra, et al., 2009).
3.Cow urine fermented karanj leaves (10%) / neem leaves (10%) were ideal in respect of
marketable fruit yield (135.5-141.7 q / ha) and benefit: cost ratio (38.20:1 – 42.68:1) despite of
their ineffectiveness against the shoot and fruit borer in brinjal (Shailaja, et al., 2012).

III)Indigenous technical knowledge (ITK)for disease management

1.Seedling root rot /damping off in tomato crop-Treat tomato seeds with kagazi
plant(Bougainvillea spectabilis).The crushed leaves of Bougainvillea mixed with 1litre of
water.Then tomato seeds soaked for six hours before planting.
2. Use of mixed dry powder of Turmeric to soil controls rice root rot disease(wheat and
vegetables).
3. Tribal farmers use fermented solution of 5 kg of cow dung, 5 litre of cow urine, 150 gm lime + 100
litre of water to control khaira disease, bacterial and viral diseases in paddy.
4. To control the papaha disease (tip burn) of paddy, farmers drain out the standing water from
the field.
5. Cowdung is mixed with water thoroughly and kept for 3- 4 hours till the course materials
settle down. The solution on top is filtered and sprayed on paddy leaf for control of bacterial
blight. Bactericidal action of cowdung helps reduce the population of the bacteria (Xanthomonas
sp.)
6. To control blight disease, mahua (Madhuka indica) cake (100 g) is mixed with 1 litre of water.
The extract is mixed with washing powder and spraying is done. Smoke of mahua is also used
for bacterial blight. About 3% neem oil extract and 3% mahua cake @ 1:1 ratio is also prepared
and sprayed for control of pests.
IV)Indigenous technical knowledge (ITK)for Weed management
1. Nirai or godai method is used by the tribal farmers. In this method, they use khurpi for
removal of weeds from field.
2. Deep summer ploughing also known as Khurra-Bakhroni (ploughing) in summer or after rabi
also exposes the weed seeds to sun and destroy them.
 45

3. Farmers of the research area use ploughing in standing crop. This is the most common method
in low land paddy. Ploughing in the standing paddy crop of one fourth to one and a half month
after transplanting is done in the water filled field. A narrow desi plough kud nagar is used for
this purpose by which paddy crop is ploughed and it falls on field. Weeds are uprooted and get
decomposed in soil.
4. In some crops especially in kharif season, farmers use hand weeding as a method by uprooting
the seeds from soil.
5. Farmers of the area manually separate the weed seeds from the crop seeds/grains.
Ref. 1.Indigenous technical knowledge (itk) in pest management for sustainable agriculture:
Exp. No. 10
Title:Study the methods of preparation and Production cost of Panchagavya,

Beejamrut and Jeevamrut in Organic farming

Object: 1) To know the method of preparation of Panchagavya,Beejamrut and Jeevamrut.
2) To study the use and production cost of Panchagavya,Beejamrut and Jeevamrutin
organic farming.

Some traditional preparations can be used as a liquid organic manures, also as a plant
protectants as per the need of crops during their peak demand. Many variants of liquid manures
are being used by farmers of different states. They are Panchagavya,Beejamrut, Jeevamrut. The
preparations are organic base and acting as a growth promoters and enhance the quality yield of
the crops.
Few important and widely used formulations are given below:
1)Panchgavya –Panchagavya consists of five products from cow :Dung,Urine(Gomutra),Milk
Curd and Ghee.It promote vegetative nd reproductive growth of plants.
Traditional method:-Mix fresh cow dung 5 kg, cow urine(Gomutra) or Coconut water 3 liters,
cow milk 2 liters, , cow butter oil (Ghee)1 kg and ferment it for 7 days. Stirr the content twice
per day.
Use: Dilute 3 lit of Panchgavya in 100 lit water and spray over soil.
20 liters of Panchgavya is required per acre for soil application along with irrigation
water.
 46

Enriched Panchgavya (or Dashagavya) –Ingredients - cow dung 7 kg, cow deshi ghee
1 kg, cow urine 4 liter, cow milk 2 liter, curd 2 liter, sugarcane juice 3 liter or jaggery 250g,
tender coconut water 2 liter, Ripened banana paste of 12 fruits and toddy or grape juice 2 liter.
Mix thoroughly 7kg cow dung and 1kg ghee in a container and kept for 2days. It should
be mixed well daily thrice.
After 2days, add 4liter cow urine +10 litre water and is fermented for 10 days by stirring
daily twice.
Then add 2 liter cow milk,2liter of curds,3liter of sugarcane juice or 250g jaggery,2liter
of coconut water ,and 12 No’s ripened banana and mixture is allowed to ferment for 15days by
stirring and is fermented for 10 days by stirring th
As it has all essential nutrients and growth promoting substances it is used as a nutrient
source and plant growth promoter for various crops and sprayed at the time of flowering and 15
days after flowering.In addition ,it improves the pest and disease resistence in crops.
Coconut water is the source of kinetin which increases the chlorophyll content of the
plant,sugarcane juice facilitates easy fermentation and cow milk contain plant growth promoters
like IAA,GA.Proline in milk induce resistence in plants.Curd and buttermilk increases microbial
activity ,Cow urine contain uric acid,sodium chloride,calcium sulphate,magnesium
sulphate.thus foliar spray of Panchagavya in crops has beneficial effects.

Physico chemical and biological properties of Panchagavya

Chemical composition Microbial Load

pH : 5.45 Fungi : 38800/ml
EC dSm2 : 10.22 Bacteria : 1880000/ml
Total N (ppm) : 229 Lactobacillus : 2260000/ml
Total P (ppm) : 209 Total anaerobes : 10000/ml
Total K (ppm) : 232 Acid formers : 360/ml
Sodium : 90 Methanogen : 250/ml
Calcium : 25
IAA (ppm) : 8.5
GA (ppm) : 3.5
Recommended dosage
Spray system
3% solution was found to be most effective.Three litres of Panchagavya to every 100 litres
of water is ideal for all crops. The power sprayers of 10 litres capacity may need 300 ml/tank.
 47

Through irrigation
For soil application 50 lit Panchgavya is sufficient for one ha.either through drip irrigation
or flow irrigation.

Seed/seedling treatment
3% solution of Panchagavya can be used to soak the seeds or dip the seedlings before
planting. Soaking for 20 minutes is sufficient. Rhizomes of Turmeric, Ginger and sets of
Sugarcane can be soaked for 30 minutes before planting.

Seed storage
3% of Panchagavya solution can be used to dip the seeds before drying and storing them.
Spaying stages and interval
Pre flowering phase : Once in 15 days, two sprays depending upon duration of crops
Flowering and pod setting stage : Once in 10 days, two sprays
Fruit/Pod maturation stage : Once during pod maturation

2) Beejamrut:- For seed treatment

Cow dung 1kg, Cow urine (Gomutra)1litre,Cow milk 100ml,Lime(Calcium chloride) 50
g,Garden soil /peat soil 50g, and Trichoderma Viride 100g .
All ingredients should be soaked overnight. Next day mix it well and make the slurry. Cover
the seeds/ dip sets/seedlings for 1min. and shade dry the seeds before sowing..
3) Jeevamrut:- Jeevamrut liquid organic manure is used as a nutrient source for foliar
application / through irrigation
Ingredients:-Cow/bullocks dung 10kg, Cow urine 10litre, Jaggery 2kg, Pulse flour
(chickpea) 2kg, Garden soil/peat soil 1kg,
All ingredients should be mixed thoroughly in 200litres of water in a drum/any container.
Fermentthis mixture for 5-7 days .During fermentation it should be stirred well thrice in a day at
regular interval.
Application:-.Jeevamrut is applied @500 l/ha to a soil before sowing and can also be applied
as liquid manure to the soil along with irrigation water.
Exercise:
 48

Production cost of Panchagavya.Beejamrut and Jeevamrut

S.No. Particulars Units(kg/lit/ Qty. Value/unit(Rs.) Cost(Rs.)
g)
 49

Ex. No. 11
Title:Study the methods of preparation and Production cost of Dashparni,and

Neem seed extract in Organic farming

Object: 1) To know the method of preparation of Dashparni, and Neem seed extract.
2) To study the use and production cost of Dashparni,and Neem seed extract in organic
farming
1)Dashparni Extract:-
Ingerdients-1.water 200 liter,2.Cow dung (Desi)-10kg,3.Cow urine(Gomutra)-5liter,4) Green
chilli paste 2kg,5) Garlic paste 250g
For preparation of dashparni extract following tree species leaves areused.
S.No Loacl Name (EnglishName) Botanical Name Chemical compound Quantity
. (in kg)
1 Kadu Nimb Neem Azadirachta Azadirachtin 5
indica
2 Sitaphal Custard apple Annona squmosa acetogenin, annonin 2
3 Papaye Papaya Carica papaya Papain,chymopapain 2
4 Rui Milkweed Calotropis calotoxin, calactin, 2
gigantea and calotropin

5 Kadu badam Karanj (Millettia pinnata karanjin, pongamol 2

 50

6 Besharam Moring glory Ipomoea carnea swainsonine 2

7 Nirgudi Vitex negundo Vitex negundo Vitricin 2
8 Erand Castor Ricinus communis ricin 2
9 Pandhara jimson weed) Datura atropine 2
Dhotra or devil's snare stramonium
10 Kanher(Red) Nerium Nerium indicum oleandrin. 2
Ghaneri sage Lantana camara pentacyclic triterpenoids

Gulvel heart-leaved Tinospora tinosporaside

moonseed, cordifolia,
guduchi
Mogali Jatropha Jatropha curcas curcin

erand
korphad Aloe vera Aloe barbadensis
miller.
Adulsa Malabar Justicia adhatoda vasicine
nut, adulsa,
adhatoda,
Also as per locally available tree species leaves can be used. Dashparni extract is used to control
wilt ,root rot, rust ,oily spot and Kewada disease.
Procedure:-
Mix all ingredients in a plastic drum and add 200 liters water. Ferment this mixture for (30
days)/one month. During fermentation stir the volume with wooden stick thrice in a day at
regular interval. Preferably stirring from left to right for 20 min. Drum should be close with
gunny bag cover.One month after fermentation filter the volume of 200litre to get the extract.
Dashparni extract can be store upto 3months.Store extract in a drum closing with gunny bag.
Application:This extract is used @125ml in 10 liters of water or .@2.5lit in 200litres of water
for spraying as a plant protection.
Spaying should be done either in the morning hours or in the evening hours.
In two sprayings of Dashparni extract should be 4 to 5 days.
2)Neem seed extract
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Neem (Azadirachta indica) is the most promising source of bio-pesticides of botanical

origin.Neem owes its toxic attributes to large number of bitter compounds like
meliacins,azadirachtin,nimbin,salannin,meliantriol etc.,among with azadirachtin isdominant one.
Neem seed kernels are richest source of meliacins and contain 0.2-0.3% azadirachtin.Azadiractin
chemical present in the Neem seed will affect on different stages of the pest life cycle.Neem does
not directly kill insects on the crop. It acts as an anti-feedant, repellent, and egg-laying deterrent,
protecting the crop from damage. The insects starve and die within a few days. Neem also
suppresses the hatching of pest insects from their eggs. The neem has found effective against
more than 200 pests including locusts, grasshoppers, hairy caterpillars, stem borers, pod borers,
beetls, jassids, aphids, mealybugs, whiteflies, plant hoppers, fruitflies, mosquitoes and various
pests of stored products Extract prepared from 3 -5kg neem seeds is sufficient for 1ha area.
Neem seed extract :
For preparation of 100 liters of 5% NSKE solution, following material are required
1. Neem seed kernels (well dried) – 5 kg
2. Water (reasonably good quality) – 100 litres
3. Detergent - 200 g
4. Muslin cloth for filtering
1.collect the ripen neem fruits and dry them in shade
2.Collected Neem fruits should be store for 3 months and should be use before6months.
3.Neem seed extract can be prepared with or without seed coat.for seed extract with seed coat
it requires 1.5times more seeds.. 3-5 kg of neem kernel is required for an acre. If the seeds
are fresh, 3 kgs of kernel and if the seeds are old 5 kgs are required.
4.Take 5kg well dried neem seeds.seperate the neem seeds from fruits by soaking them in
water.
5.Dry the seeds under shade and separate the kernel.
6.Crush the seeds to form powder while making powder it should not leave oil.
7.tie this powder in cloth bag and immerse the bag in 10 litre water for overnight.
8.Next day squeeze the soaked bag thoroughly to get the neem seed extract.
9.Filter the solution in container through muslin /thin cloth for 2-3 times. On filtering, 6-7 litres
of extract can be obtained.
10.500-1000 ml of this extract should be diluted with 10 litres of water.or Dilute the solution to
200-250 liters and spray in an area of one hectare.
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11. Add soap@2-3g/l of solution or 200g soap powder in one litre water should be added to
help the extract stick well to the leaf surface. This concentration of the extract can be
increased or decreased depending on the intensity of pest attack.
12.Prefer spaying of neem seed extract in the evening to get effective results.
13.Always use freshly prepared neem seed kernel extract (NSKE).

Production cost of Dashparni and Neem Extract

S.No. Particulars Units(kg/lit/ Qty. Value/unit(Rs.) Cost(Rs.)
g)
 53

Ex. No. 12&13

Study of post harvesting management in organic farming

Storage: -Beside storage at ambient temperature the following special conditions of storage are
permitted
- On trolled atmosphere
- Cooling
- Freezing
- Drying
- Humidity regulation
- Ethylene gas is permitted for ripending
Processing Methods:
 The following kinds of processes are approved
- Mechanical and physical
- Biological
- Smoking
- Extraction
 54

- Precipitation
- Filtration
 Extraction shall only place with water, plant ethanol, plant and animal oils, vinegar,
carbon dioxide, nitrogen or carboxylic acids. These shall be of food grade quality,
appropriate for the purpose.
 Irradiation is not allowed.
 Filtration substances shall not be made of asbestos nor may they be permeated with
substances which may negatively affect the product.
Lebelling :-
 Single ingredient may be labeled as “ produce of organic agriculture” or a similar
description when all standards requirements have been met.
 Mixed products where not all ingredients, additives, are of organic origin may be labeled
in the following may (raw material weight):
- Where a minimum of 95 per cent of the ingredients are of certified organic origin.
Products may be labeled “certified organic” or similar and should carry the logo
of the certification programme.
- Where less than 95 per cent but not less than 70 per cent of the ingredient are of
the certified organic origin, products may not be called “organic” the word “
organic” may be used on the principal display in ststements like “ made with
organic ingredients” provided there is a clear statement of the proportion of the
organic ingredients. An indication that the product is covered by the certification
programme may be used, close to the indication of proportion of organic
ingredients.
- Whre less than 70 per cent of the ingredients are of certified organic origin. The
indication that an ingredient is organic may appear in the ingredients list. Such
product may not be called “ organic”
 Added water and shall not be included in the percentage calculations of organic
ingredients.
 The label for in-conversion products shall be clearly distiguishable from the label for
organic products.
Storage and transport :
 55

 Where only part of the unit is certified and other products are non-organic, the organic
products should be stored and handled separately to maintain their identity.
 Bulk stores for organic product should be separate from conventional product stores and
clearly labeled to that effect.
Marketing :
Organic products available in the domestic market are rice, wheat, tea, coffee, pulses and
vegetables.
Whereas wholesalers and traders, super markets and own shops are the major channels in the
domestic market which is mainly in metropolitan eities and accounts for only 8.0 per cent total
organic production.
Maijor markets for Indian organic products are the EU, USA, Canada, Australia and the middle
East Asian countries.
Quality production with traditional methods, low use of chemical inputs in mountain and tribal
areas, easy availability of cheap labour, NGO interventions and various types of support
provided by the governments as the main advantages of Indian organic products.

Table : Major products produced in india by organic farming.

Types of Products
products
Commodity Tea, coffee, rice, wheat
Spices Cardamom, black pepper, white pepper, ginger, turmeric, vanilla, tamarind,
clove cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, chili.
Pulses Pigeonpea, blackgram
Fruits Mango, banana, pinapple, passion fruit, orange, cashew nut, walnut
Vegetable Okra, brinjal, garlic, onion, tomato, potato
Oilseeds Musterd, sesame, castor, sunflower
Other Cotton sugarcane, herbal extracts

Post harvesting management:

Harvested at proper stage with suitable method is most important in post harvest management,
while harvesting the factors like delicacy of crop, maturity, time & methods of harvesting mode
 56

of packing & transportation effects the quality. The quality of harvesting produce can’t be
improved in post harvest management but can be retained till their consumption by adopting
proper post harvest operations. The special care for perishables like fruits & vegetables is taken
by grading, washing, washing, cleaning, and trimming.

Marketing of organically raised produced:

The world wide market for organic food are expanding with annual growth rate of 15 to
30% organic farming standard is developed for export purpose considering IFOAM, EU and
CODEX standard small farmers will not get the benefit only traders & middle man will acquire
advantage of organic produce.

Ex. No. 14 & 15

Study of quality aspects: Garding, Packing, Handling

Object: 1) To know the grading & packing process of organic produce

2) To study the post harvest management aspects of organic produce

Global consumers are increasingly looking for ward to organic food that is considered safe
and hazard free. The demand for organic food is steadily increasing both in developed and
developing countries with annual average growth rate of 20-25%. Therefore, after harvest of
organic produce further grading packing processing and marketing are equally important for
security high price.

Grading:

Fruits, vegetables and Agronomic crops show considerable variation in external quality of same
variety. The variation may be due to genetic, environmental and agronomic factors. Grading is
necessary to get suitable returns related with quality. Grades are base on soundness, Cleanliness,
size colour, shape, maturity, mechanical injury diseases, & pest infections. For international
market generally three grades are considered.

Extra class

Class 1st
 57

Class 2nd

The extra class is of superior quality with 5% tolerance limit. Class 1st produces almost the same
quality as extra but with 10% tolerance. Limit. Class 2nd grade may exhibit some external or an
internal defect provides they are fit for consumption while fresh. This class is best for local or
short distance market. This grade is best suited for the consumer for whom price is more
important than quality.

Packaging:

Packing is done for efficient handling, and marketing. A good packing is aim of
protection of products quality from physical damage and pathological infection through storage,
transport, & marketing.

Packing material that affect the organic nature of the content should be avoided use of
PVC materials are prohibited. Laminates and aluminum packing should be avoided. Relying and
reusable materials shall be used wherever possible. Biodegradable materials should be used e.g.
Gunny bags, wooden boxes, bamboo basket foliage of respective crops/ plants etc.

Handling:

Organic products shall be protected from co-mingling with non-products.

Organic and non-organic products shall not be stored and transported together except when
labeled or physically separated.

Storage and transports :

Storage areas and transport containers for organic product should be cleaned using methods and
material permitted in organic production. Measures should be taken to prevent possible
contamination from any pesticide or other treatment.