YouTube : Chemistry by Saad Anwar

1
 Plant Analysis
Introduction
Not only do plants serve as a source of nutrition for animals and humans,
they play a myriad of other roles fundamental to the environment and society.
Plants provide an essential link between the atmosphere and terrestrial
ecosystems with both beneficial and potentially harmful consequences.
Through photosynthesis, plants fix inorganic carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and convert it into organic matter which can be used as a source
of energy by plants, animals and humans, while at the same time replenishing
the air with that most vital substance of all, oxygen
6CO2+ 6H2O+ hv C6H12O6+ 6O2
 This primary production is the source of food on which all animals, including humans,
are dependent. Organic matter can be used to produce energy required for various
essential activities (reproduction, growth, etc.) by living organisms through respiration:

C6HI2O6+ 6O2 6CO2+ 6H2O+ energy

 Respiration releases carbon dioxide and water vapour back to the atmosphere, thus
balancing the chemical action of photosynthesis. This equilibrium forms the basis of the
main nutrient cycle in the biosphere, the carbon cycle. Terrestrial plants, together with
their aquatic counterparts, namely phytoplankton, play a vital role in maintaining
conditions on the earth that are conducive to life. Phytoplankon supply approximately
75% of the oxygen in the biosphere, while land-based plants provide the remainder.
Civilization, as we know it, arose when humans first learned to utilize plant growth for
their needs by mass cultivation of crops, and to this day agriculture remains the most
indispensable (essential) of all activities, ensuring the continued survival of our race.
Furthermore, we have the plants to thank not only for meeting our biological energy
requirements, but also those of our modern society. The massive amounts of energy
used up daily throughout the world are almost exclusively provided by what were
once living plants. Fossil fuels, originating from long-dead plants and other organisms,
supply approximately 90% of the world’s energy.
 Environmental Problems
Many of today’s environmental problems are closely linked with plants. The very combustion
of fossil fuels, over the past 150 years, has released into the atmosphere huge quantities of
carbon dioxide, which had taken nature millions of years to convert, through the
photosynthetic action of plants and other biogeochemical processes, from atmospheric CO2
into coal, oil and gas. By simply comparing the timescales of anthropogenic and natural
processes, one cannot escape the conclusion that it is only a matter of time before nature’s
delicate balance is broken. Agricultural practices themselves are responsible for numerous
environmental problems:
Greenhouse gas emissions of methane (CH4) from rice fields and cattle farming.
Deforestation, whether by means of fire, or otherwise, which contributes to the increase in the
atmospheric content of CO2and other greenhouse gases.
Eutrophication caused by N and P fertilisers.
Acidification by N fertilisers and SO2 and NO, from biomass burning.
Desertification by poor farming practices.
Accumulation of toxic substances.
 Plants and Pollution
Pollutants can impact on plants from the atmosphere, as in the case of SO2
injury to leaves, or through the roots of plants, as in the case of soluble Al.
Plant pollution is of concern for two reasons:
1. Pollutants may have direct or indirect phytotoxic impacts on the
plants themselves, leading to a decline in crop yields and threatening our
food supplies. For example, SO2 pollution may cause chronic and acute
injury to plants, alone, or in synergism with NO2 or ozone, while
acidification of soils by rainfall originating from the very same SO2 may
mobilise toxic A1 from the soil and cause injury to plants.
2. Plants may act as a vehicle for transferring pollutants into the food chain. For example, Cd is readily
accumulated by plants, and levels which may not be harmful to the plants themselves could pose a
significant threat to animals and humans that consume plants.

 The latter is of great concern to public health authorities since pollutants which enter the food chain
can eventually affect human health.
 Heavy metals and pesticides are major pollutants in this respect. There has been major concern about
various pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides)
 Although persistent chlorinated hydrocarbons(e.g. DDT, aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin), which are stable
to chemical breakdown, have been banned in most developed countries, many developing nations
still continue to use them.
 More degradable pesticides, such as organophosphates and carbamates, have been developed but
these tend to be more toxic to invertebrates. Pesticide residues in plants may be transported through
food chains or they may be washed off from the soil and contaminate surface and ground waters.
 Heavy metals can end up in soils from various sources, of greatest concern being the application of
soil sludge to agricultural soils. Under appropriate conditions these could be absorbed by the plant
roots, either causing direct injury to plants or being accumulated and passing into the food chain.
Both organochlorine compounds and toxic metals may be accumulated as they pass through the food
chain
Direct effects of air pollutants on plants can vary
from subtle to severe depending on:

• Nature of pollutant
• Concentration of pollutant
• Plant species
• Exposure time
 There is also variation in sensitivity within plant species, depending on the environmental
conditions (temperature, nutrient availability, soil moisture, etc.).Phytotoxic air pollutants include
SO2, NO2, O3 , peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and formaldehyde. Both acute and chronic effects
have been observed. Furthermore, two or more pollutants may act in combination to produce a
greater effect than the sum of individual effects in what is known as synergism. Plants exposed to
air pollution exhibit both physical and biochemical responses, including changes to photosynthesis
and metabolism
 Plant Analysis
 Plant analysis is the determination of chemical substances in a specific
plant part. Substances determined in plant analysis include:
Macronutrients (e.g. N, P, K)
Micronutrients (e.g. Zn, Mo)
Biologically important organic compounds (e.g. amino acids,
hormones) Pesticides (e.g. Dieldrin, Aldrin, Malathion)
Heavy metal pollutants (e.g. Pb, Cd)
 SAMPLING AND SAMPLE PREPARATION
 Obtaining a plant tissue sample which is representative of the general population is both
important and difficult. General field variation of biological materials greatly exceeds any
introduced during analysis in the laboratory. Therefore, it is essential to evaluate the field
variation if the results are to be meaningful and serve the objectives of the analysis. The
elemental content of a plant may vary in different parts of a plant, it may vary from plant to
plant (even in plants belonging to the same species),it may vary with the season, and even
with the time of day. Major considerations when planning a sampling strategy are:

1 Which plant part to sample?

2 When to sample?
3 Which chemical substance to determine?
 Plant Part

The selection of the plant part for analysis is largely determined by the
aims of the study and the type of plant. For small herbs and grasses it is
often sufficient to sample the entire aerial growth, but larger species
may require sampling of leaves or other tissues. For monocotyledons it
is recommended to sample the leaf blade above the sheath junction. The
current year’s growth of leaves is often an adequate indicator of nutrient
or pollution status for woody species. Plant tissues that are either young
or past maturity are not sampled.
 Time of Sampling
Time of sampling is crucial because nutrient levels in all active plant tissues fluctuate
with time. Different sampling times for different elements are rarely practical;
however, plants suspected of suffering from nutrient deficiency should be sampled
immediately. Nutrient variations and sampling recommendations for tree leaves are
given below:
Diurnal Variation. The best time to sample trees is around midday.
Seasonal Variation. Seasonal changes in concentration are generally due to the
movement of nutrients into a component during growth, and movement in the
opposite direction when senescence (ageing) approaches, although individual
nutrients differ in their mobilities