N

W E
SOIL: A three S
phase
system

Prepared by: Ruby F.

Paquit
Soil Composition
Soil
Air
25 Min
% eral
mat-
ter
45%

Soil
Wa-
ter Organic matter
25 5%
%
 Mineral Matter

 it is the predominant

component of mineral soils. It
constitutes about 45% of
total soil composition. It is
made up of a number of
particles which vary in size,
shape and chemical
composition.
Organic Matter

It is the fraction of the

soil that consists of plant or
animal tissue in various
stages of breakdown
(decomposition).
Soil Water

It contains nutrients
that move into the plant
roots when plants take
in water.
Terms and Definitions
3 Types of Soil Water
1. Gravitational water  3. Capillary water
it is the water that moves through the
soil by the force of gravity and drains.
Gravitational water moves in the larger pores
of the soil and drains quickly.
2. Hygroscopic water
is a thin layer of water, in a vapor form, held
tightly to soil particles by surface forces.
Hygroscopic water is not available for plants.
 it is the water that is held inside soil
pores against gravity. The capillary forces that
hold the water inside the pores is a result of
the ratio between adhesion and cohesion
forces. Adhesion is the tendency of water
molecules to stick to other surfaces, and
cohesion is the tendency of water molecules
to stick one to the other. Capillary forces are
stronger when the adhesion is greater than
cohesion. Adhesion is stronger in smaller
pores.
 Different soil moisture conditions
Soil moisture content – a percent volume of
water in the soil at a given moment.

In the lab, a known volume of soil is dried

and  % soil moisture content is calculated in the
following way:

% Moisture content = weight of wet soil – weight of dry soil

weight of dry soil
X 100

Saturation – all soil pores are filled with water. This is not
an ideal condition for plants, as plat roots need air.
Different soil moisture conditions
Field capacity  Available Water

this is the moisture content of the soil it is the difference between Field
after drainage has stopped. The large pores, capacity and permanent wilting
that cannot hold the water against gravity point.
are filled with air. By definition, it is the %AW= %FC - %PW
water content retained in the soil at -0.33
bar.

Permanent Wilting point 

this is the moisture content of the soil at

which plants cannot absorb the water, as it
is held tightly in soil pores. By definition, this
is the water content of the soil at tension of
-15 bar.
Soil Air

it is the gaseous phase of the Composition Soil Air % Atmospheric Air

soil. Soil air plays an important role %
in plant growth and the activity of Oxygen 20 21
soil organisms. Soil pores are filled Nitrogen 78.60 78.03
with air and water, and there is a
Carbon Dioxide 0.50 0.94
dynamic equilibrium between water
and air content within a soil. Argon 0.90 0.94
SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Soil Physical
Properties
• Soil Texture
• Soil Structure
• Soil Density
• Soil Porosity
• Soil Consistence
• Soil Color
Soil Texture
• These refers to the
proportion of the various
particle-size (or
separates, or fraction) in
a given soil volume and
is described as soil
textural class.
Methods on Soil
Texture determination

• Roll or Feel Method

(Field Test)
• Hydrometer Method
(Mechanical or Lab test)
• Pipette Method
(Mechanical or Lab test)
Stokes' Law

Stokes' law is the basis of the

falling-sphere viscometer, in which
the fluid is stationary in a vertical
glass tube. A sphere of known size
and density is allowed to descend
through the liquid. If correctly
selected, it reaches terminal velocity,
which can be measured by the time it
takes to pass two marks on the tube.
Soil Texture
Triangle
Soil Structure
• It refers to the natural
organization of soil
particles into discrete
soil units (aggregates or
peds) that result from
pedogenic processes.
granular
Different type of soil
structure
blocky

• Granular
• Blocky
Columnar
• Prismatic
Prismatic • Columnar
• Platy
Platy • Massive or structure
less
Massive

BD = ODW (g)
Total Soil Volume (cm3)
Where: BD= Bulk density
ODW= Oven dry weight of soil
Soil Densities
Bulk density (g/cm3)
it is the weight of soil
in a given volume. Soils
with a bulk density higher
than 1.6 g/cm3 tend to
restrict root growth. Bulk
density increases with
compaction and tends to
increase with depth.
Methods of Measuring
Bulk Density

• Paraffin-clod Method
• Core Method
Soil Densities

Particle density (g/cm3)

it is defined as the
mass of a unit volume
of sediment solids.

PD = ODW (g)
Volume of soil solid (cm3)
 Soil Porosity

refers to the amount of

pores, or open space, between
soil particles. Pore spaces may
be formed due to the movement
of roots, worms, and insects;
expanding gases trapped within
these spaces by groundwater;
and/or the dissolution of the soil
parent material. Soil texture can
  also affect soil porosity.
Soil Consistence

It is the strength
with which soil materials
are held together or the
resistance of soils to
deformation and
rupture. Soil consistency
is measured for wet,
moist and dry soil
samples. 
Soil Color

Soil color is determined by

mineral composition, element
concentration, organic matter,
and moisture content. It
reflects soil properties and
soil processes, and it is an
important diagnostic feature
for soil horizon delineation
and soil classification.
Munsell Soil Color
Chart

The Munsell Color

System describes a soil's
color, based on Hue, Value
& Chroma. The Munsell
Book is a collection of color
chips with varying degrees
of hue, value & chroma. 
Hue, Value &
Chroma?
Hue-  is that attribute of a color by
which we distinguish red from
green, blue from yellow, etc.

Value-  indicates the lightness of a

color. The scale of value ranges
from 0 for pure black to 10 for
pure white.

Chroma- is the departure

degree of a color from the
neutral color of the same value. 
THANK YOU!
SOIL
DEVELOPMENT
R u b y F. Pa q u i t

FABRIKAM 30
• Soil genesis is the study of the
development of soils. Soil is a
natural body, developing from
rock at the Earth’s surface
through pedogenic processes
under a specific climate,
specific litter-delivering
vegetation, and population of
soil organisms.

FABRIKAM 31
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Soil Profile

Soil horizons- Layers formed in the soil profile with

different properties.

Soil Profile - A two-dimensional vertical cut through the

soil body.

Solum- the upper horizons with the most weathered

portion of the profile.

Saprolite- is the least weathered portion that lies directly

above the solid, consolidated bedrock but beneath the
regolith.

Regolith- includes all of the weathered material within

the profile.

FABRIKAM 32
 Factors affecting Soil
Development

• Climate
• Organisms
• Relief
• Parent Material
• Time

FABRIKAM 33
Climate
It refers to the temperature and
moisture conditions of an area over time.
Climate is the typical pattern of the area
over the long term, but weather is the
actual daily condition.

Component of climate
• Solar Radiation
• Air Temperature
• Air Humidity
• Precipitation
• Wind

FABRIKAM 34
Organisms
Soil organisms play a vital role in
the degradation of organic matter and
subsequent soil humus formation.

Organisms involve in Soli Development

• Plants
• Animals
• Microorganisms (Bacteria, Fungi,
Actinomycetes, Algae, etc.)

FABRIKAM 35
Summit Shoulder Backslope Footslope
Relief or Topography

The relief, i.e. the elevation,

terrain and exposure, modifies soil
development by influencing the
effects of gravity, climate, rock,
water, organisms, and finally also
human activities.

FABRIKAM 36
Parent Material
It is the substance in which a soil
develops. The properties of the original
substance will significantly influence the
resulting soil profile and properties.

Parent Material based on its mode

of deposition:

• Residual/Sedintary
• Alluvial/Alluvium- By River or
runoff
• Colluvial/ Colluvium- By Gravity
• Glacial- By Ice
• Marine- in or through the ocean
• Lacustrine- in or through the lake
• Loose/dune- by the wind
FABRIKAM 37
Time

Over time, vegetation and climate

act on parent material and
topography. Development, not
chronological age, determines a soil's
age. The degree of aging depends on
the intensity of the other four soil-
forming factors.

FABRIKAM 38
 ADDITION-
precipitation w/ ions
and solid part.; organic
Ground matter
Surface
TRANSFORMATIONS
Organic matter humus
Primary minerals hydrous oxides; clay;
ions, H2SiO4

TRANSFER TRANSFE
Humus, clays, R
ions,
Ions, H4SiO4
H4SiO4

REMOVAL
S
IONS, H4SiO4

FABRIKAM 39
WEATHERING
• it describes the breaking down or
dissolving of parent materials on the
surface of the Earth. Water, ice, acids,
salts, plants, animals, and changes in
temperature are all agents of weathering.

FABRIKAM 40
TYPES OF
WEATHERING
1. Physical Weathering
Disintegration or breakdown of
parent materials into smaller sizes.
a) Exfoliation due to temperature variation
b) Disintegration by water
c) Grinding by ice
d) abrasion by wind

FABRIKAM 41
Exfoliation due to temperature variation Disintegration by Water

Abrasion by Wind Grinding by Ice

FABRIKAM 42
 TYPES OF
WEATHERING
2. Chemical Weathering
• the most active and effective weathering
process
• the main processes involved is the
chemical decomposition of primary
minerals and synthesis of new minerals
• Chemical weathering produces clays on
which vegetation can grow.
a. Hydrolysis
b. Hydration
c. Oxidation
d. Carbonation
e. Solution
FABRIKAM 43
 Hydrolysis

In the process of hydrolysis, a

new solution (a mixture of two or more
substances) is formed as chemicals
in rock interact with water. In
many rocks, for example,
sodium minerals interact with water to
form a saltwater solution.

2KAISi3O8 + 2H+ + 9H20   →  H4Al2Si2O9 + 4H4SiO4  + 2K+

(orthoclase + water) →  kaolinite + silicic acid + potassium)

FABRIKAM 44
 Hydration

Hydration is the absorption of water

or association of water molecules or of
hydroxyl groups into the mineral
structure, often without actual
decomposition or modification of the
mineral itself.

Anhydrite Gypsum

FABRIKAM 45
 Oxidation

It is the reaction of rock minerals

with oxygen, thus changing the
mineral composition of the rock.
When minerals in rock oxidize, they
become less resistant to weathering.
Iron, a commonly known mineral,
becomes red or rust colored when
oxidized.

Olivine Limonite
(Fe2SiO4) (Fe2O3.H2O) 

FABRIKAM 46
 Carbonation

It is the process of rock

CO2  + H 2O   →   H2CO3 minerals reacting with carbonic
(carbon dioxide + water)  →  (carbonic acid)
acid. Carbonic acid is formed
when water combines with
carbon dioxide. Carbonic acid
CaCO3 + H2CO3   →   Ca2+  + 2HCO3-
dissolves or breaks down
(calcite) + (carbonic acid)  →  (calcium) + (bicarbonate) 
minerals in the rock.

FABRIKAM 47
Dissolution or Chemical Solution

It is a chemical weathering process in

which the combination of water and acid
slowly removes mineral compounds from
solid bedrock and carries them away in
liquid solution.

FABRIKAM 48
 TYPES OF
WEATHERING
3. Biological Weathering

It is the weakening and

subsequent disintegration of rock
by plants, animals and microbes.

FABRIKAM 49
 Microbial activity

it breaks down rock minerals

by altering the rock’s chemical
composition, thus making it more
susceptible to weathering.
(Lichen)

FABRIKAM 50
THANK
YOU!
GOD BLESS EVERYONE!

FABRIKAM 51
 Rocks and Minerals
Jeffry Abubo, MS Soil Science
Ruby F. Paquit, Soil Science
 Minerals

They are homogeneous

components of rocks. They are
natural, predominantly
inorganic and chemically
uniform compounds, whose
elemental components are
arranged in a defined, regular
periodical manner; they are
crystalline
 Classification of minerals

Primary Minerals
- formed at temperatures and/or
pressure higher than that normally
encountered at the earth’s surface
(one atmosphere and <100C).

- have not been altered chemically

since they formed as molten lava
solidified

- Components of igneous and

metamorphic rocks.
Ex. Quartz (SiO4)
Bowen’s reaction series 
is based on observations and
experiments of natural rocks, the
crystallization sequence of typical
basaltic magma change as they
cool. It is a sorting tool according to
the temperature at which they
crystallize common magmatic
silicate minerals. Bowen’s Reaction
Series describes temperatures at
which different common silicate
minerals change from liquid to
solid phase (or solid to liquid). Norman Bowen (1887-1956)
Secondary Minerals

- form under conditions of

temperature and pressure
found at the earth’s
surface by the weathering
of preexisting minerals.

- Crystallized products of
the chemical breakdown
and/or alteration of
primary minerals.
Electron microscope image of Kaolinite
( a secondary type mineral)
 Rock
• It is a natural substance composed
of solid crystals of different
minerals that have been fused
together into a solid lump.

• The minerals may or may not have

been formed at the same time.
What matters is that natural
processes glued them all together.

Example: Granite (Igneous rock)

Rock Cycle
Classification of Rock

A.Igneous Rock
B.Sedimentary Rocks
C.Metamorphic Rocks
 Igneous Rock

It is defined as types of rocks that

are formed when molten rock [Lava
or Magma (rock liquefied by intense
heat and pressure)] cools to a solid
state.
 Types of Igneous Rock

1. Intrusive or Plutonic Igneous Rock

These are rocks that crystallize below the
earth’s surface resulting in large crystals as
the cooling takes place slowly. Diorite, Granite Diorite
granite, and pegmatite are examples of
intrusive igneous rocks.

Pegmatite
 Types of Igneous Rock

2. Extrusive Igneous Rock

These rocks that erupt onto the surface
resulting in small crystals as the cooling takes
place quickly. The cooling rate for a few rocks Basalt Tuff
is so quick that they form an amorphous
glass. Basalt, tuff, pumice are examples of
extrusive igneous rock.

Pumice
 Sedimentary Rock

 These are formed by the deposition and subsequent

cementation of the material at the Earth’s surface
within the bodies of water. These rocks are formed in
four ways:

1. Deposition of weathered remains of other rocks

2. Accumulation and the consolidation of sediments
3. Deposition of the results of biogenic activity
4. Precipitation from solution.
 Sedimentation

It is the combined name for

all the processes that cause
organic and mineral particles to
settle. The particle that helps in
forming the sedimentary rock is
called sediment.
Types of Sedimentary Rock

1. Organic Sedimentary Rocks

This rock type mainly

comprises coal and limestones,
which are formed due to the Coal
accumulation and deposition of
dead plants and animals in rock
layers.

Limestone
Types of Sedimentary Rock

2. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

This type of rock is formed

when rock layers are formed due
to the mechanical weathering of
different rock types.

Breccia
Types of Sedimentary Rock

3. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

This type of rock is created

when minerals that are present
in rock forms undergo a chemical
reaction that causes them to cool
as precipitates over time before
changing back to rock form.
Gypsum
 Metamorphic Rock

These are formed when rock changes

over a period of time due to a lot of
physical changes like pressure, heat and
different chemical activity.
When sedimentary rocks or igneous rocks
go through the physical process such as
pressure exposure, heat changes, and
tectonic plate movement at the plate
edges.
 Formation of
Metamorphic Rock

1. Contact Metamorphism

When rocks come in

contact with hot intruding
magma and lava, the rock
recrystallize under high
temperatures.
Types Formation of
Metamorphic Rock

1. Regional Metamorphism

Recrystallization of rocks
takes place because of
deformation created by
tectonic shearing together
with high temperature or
pressure or both.
Types of Metamorphic Rock

1. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

On these rocks, one can witness the

arrangement of certain mineral grains Gneiss
appearing like parallel stripes. Foliation
occurs when pressure forces compress
minerals within a rock to align in an elongate
or flat way. These rocks form a sheet-like
structure which reflects pressure applied
direction.

Examples of foliated metamorphic rocks

are gneiss and biotite schist.
Biotite schist
Types of Metamorphic Rock

1. Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

These types of rocks are formed of minerals

that are not flat or elongated. Here, the grains
will not be aligned when pressure is applied.
Layered or banded appearances are not seen on
non-foliated metamorphic rocks.

Examples of foliated metamorphic rocks are

skarn, novaculite, marble, hornfels, and
quartzite.

Marble
Soil Development
PRINCIPLES OF
SOIL SCIENCE
Prepared by: Ruby F. Paquit
MS in Soil Science
Solar Nebular Hypothesis
This states that the solar
system developed out of an
interstellar cloud of dust and
gas, called a nebula . The
nebula started to collapse
and condense; this collapsing
process continued for some
time.
 Earth
OUR HOME!
The Earth’s crust, in turn,
generally has a thickness
of 5–40 km and is part of

No
the lithosphere, which has
an average thickness of
approx. 100 km and
consists of the tectonic
plates with the continents.

The total distance between the

ground surface to the Earth’s
center is of 6370 km. These
orders of magnitude illustrate
how soils form a thin and
Image
fragile skin on the Earth’s
surface, requiring special care.
Earth’s crust composition
 Spheres of the Earth

Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a mixture of
gases that surrounds the Earth. It helps
make life possible by providing us with
air to breathe, shielding us from
harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation
coming from the Sun, trapping heat to
warm the planet, and preventing
extreme temperature differences
between day and night. 
Atmospheric elements
 Spheres of the Earth

Biosphere
• The biosphere is made up of the
parts of Earth where life exists—
all ecosystems.

• The biosphere extends from the

deepest root systems of trees, to
the dark environments of ocean
trenches, to lush rain forests,
high mountaintops, and
transition zones where ocean
and terrestrial ecosystems meet.
 Spheres of the Earth

Lithosphere

The lithosphere is the solid,

outer part of Earth. The
lithosphere includes the
brittle upper portion of the
mantle and the crust, the
outermost layers of Earth's
structure. It is bounded by
the atmosphere above and
the asthenosphere
(another part of the upper
mantle) below.
 Spheres of the Earth

Hydrosphere

A hydrosphere is the total

amount of water on a
planet. The hydrosphere
includes water that is on
the surface of the planet,
underground, and in the
air. A planet's hydrosphere
can be liquid, vapor, or ice.
 Spheres of the Earth

Pedosphere

Is considered in (literally, that
upon which we walk) which
can be described as the
interface where
the lithosphere (rocks), the
atmosphere, the hydrosphere,
and the biosphere intersect,
(International Geophysics,
2000)
 Soil

Soils are the

biologically active part
of the outermost layer
of the Earth’s crust,
ranging in thickness
from a few
centimeters to several
decameters.
 Soil as Natural Bodies in
Soils evolve on land
(terrestrial soils), in Ecosystem They consist of
transition zones minerals of various
between water and types and sizes, and
land (semi- of organic
terrestrial soils), and substances, the
under water (sub- humus.
hydric soils)

The void system

Minerals and humus consists of pores of
are spatially arranged various shapes and
Soils are always sizes, which are filled
in a specific way,
biologically active. Their with soil solution, i.e.
forming together the
voids contain a with water and
soil structure with a
multitude of soil dissolved substances,
characteristic void
organisms that may and soil air.
system.
include more than 10
million microorganisms
per gram of fertile soil
Functions of the Soils in the
Ecosphere
The ecosphere includes the
area at the ground surface,
which is populated by living
organisms and
characterized by various
interacting cycles of energy,
air and water, as well as
inorganic and organic
substances.
 Soil as an Open System
Worth Protecting

Serves as pool
of nutrient for Functions as filter, buffer, and
plant growth storage often leads to an
accumulation of potentially
toxic substances such as
heavy metals and persistent
organic contaminants in
terrestrial, semiterrestrial and
subhydric soils
It is subject to
degradation such as
erosion, compaction,
salinization,
desertification etc. that
Above all, soil leads to a reduction in
is a non- soil bio diversity
renewable
resources
Soil science
is the science of the
properties and functions, as
well as the development
and distribution of soils. It
deals with the possibilities
for soil use and the risks
associated with misuse by
humans, as well as the
prevention and remediation
of soil contamination and
damage
 FIELDS OF SPECIALIZATION IN SOIL SCIENCE

Soil genesis/development

- referred to as pedology
when combined with soil
classification.
- covers factors and processes
of soil formation.
-bridges chemistry, physics,
geology, biology, climatology,
geography, anthropology, and
agriculture.
 FIELDS OF SPECIALIZATION IN SOIL SCIENCE

Soil chemistry
Interactions of solid,
liquid, and gaseous
phases or
components of soil
 FIELDS OF SPECIALIZATION IN SOIL SCIENCE

Soil mineralogy

It is the structural
chemistry of the solid
components of soil.
 FIELDS OF SPECIALIZATION IN SOIL SCIENCE

Soil microbiology

it focuses on soil
biochemical reaction
carried out primarily by
microorganisms.
 FIELDS OF SPECIALIZATION IN SOIL SCIENCE

Soil physics

It is the study of the

characteristics, processes,
or reactions of a soil
caused by physical forces.
 FIELDS OF SPECIALIZATION IN SOIL SCIENCE

Soil fertility

its is the study of quality

of a soil to provide good
management and optimum
level of nutrients for plant
growth.
 APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF SOIL

Edaphological Approach

• Study of soil in relation to higher

plants
• Soil properties vs plant growth
• Variability of soil productivity
• Methods of conserving and
improving productivity
 APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF SOIL

Pedological Approach

• Origin and classifications

of soils

• soil as a natural body

3.2. Soil structure

Soil Structure describes the arrangement of

primary soil particles (sand, silt and clay) into
secondary particles, units or *peds.

Results from the tendency of the finer soil

particles, especially clay and humus to stick
together forming peds or clods

Peds natural groups of primary soil particles

(sand, Isilt and clay) that persist within a soil
3.2.1. Cementing Agents:
Organic matter binds, lightens and
expands soil aggregates.
• Lime (CaCO3) encourages aggregation
by bringing together tiny soil particles
especially fine clay into small clumps or
granules.
• Microbial gums are viscous microbial
products that encourage and stabilize
crumb development.
• Fine Clay bridges primary soil particles
*into granules.
3.2.1. Cementing Agents:
Organic matter binds, lightens and expands soil
aggregates.
• Lime (CaCO3) encourages aggregation by
bringing together tiny soil particles especially
fine clay into small clumps or granules.
• Microbial gums are viscous microbial products
that encourage and stabilize crumb
development.
• Fine Clay bridges primary soil particles *into
granules.
a- crumbly
b- granular
c - blocky
O d/e-prismatic
f-platy
g-massive
(structureless)
Granular, Prismatio,
Platy, Blocky
1. Spheroidal (granular and crumbly)
characteristic of many surface soils particularly high in OM
prominent in grassland soils that have been worked earthworms
2. Plate-like
arrange in relatively thin horizontal plates
found in surface layers of some undisturbed soils
can also be formed by compaction by heavy machineries or clayey soils
often inherited from soil parent materials especially those laid down by
water
3. Prismlike (columnar, prismatic)
characterized by vertical oriented aggregates or pillars that vary in height
among different soils and may reached a diameter of 15 cm
also occur in poorly drained soils of humid regions and often associated
with swelling type of clay.
4.
Blocklike
aggregates have been reduced to blocks
a) angular blocky
b) subangular blocy
Structureless soils:
1. Single grain each soil particle is
independent of all others (e.g. sandy soil)
2. Massive - the entire soil mass clings
together equally in the soil mass
when broken, the mass shatters into various
sizes and shapes
typical in compacted soils and in most dried
paddy soils
3.2.3. Soil Structure and Soil Management:
- Granulation of primary particles creates large
pores that allow good aeration, better water
movement, better drainage, favors root
penetration.
Aggregated primary particles may have lower
amount of available water.
Strongly aggregated soil particles may inhibit
roots. from exploring water and nutrients
inside the granules.
Aggregated soils will have better infiltration
capacity and permeability and therefore can
help reduce ponding of water, runoff and
therefore erosion.
Definition and Formulas
A. Particle Density ratio of the weight of
soil solid (mineral + organic matter) to
volume (soil solid)."
its
Mathematically expressed as: PD =
weight of soil solid volume of the soil
solid
B. Bulk Density - ratio of the weight of
soil solid to its total volume (solid + pore
spaces).
It is expressed as:
BULK AND PARTICLE
DENSITY
In the field, one cubic
centimeter of a certain
soil appears as below:
If all the solids were
compressed to the
bottom, the cube would
look like this:
Variation on the values of PD and BD
Particle density (PD)
Weight of the soil solid varies according to mineral components
of soil.
- On the average PD = 2.65 g/cm³.
- PD is always higher than BD.
Bulk density (BD)
- Total volume measurement varies according to degree of soil
compaction and structural arrangement or packing of soil
particles.
- Loose or porous soil - low BD
Compacted soil high BD (>2.0 g/cm³)
·Sand particles generally lie in close contact - raise BD
Aggregated soils are fluffy and porous - low BD
3.1.2. Factors Affecting Bulk Density
a. Organic matter content
bulk density decreases with increasing organic matter content
b. Soil porosity
bulk density decreases with increasing soil porosity
c. Soil texture
fine textured soils generally have lower bulk density than coarse-
textured soils
soils with low bulk density values generally have: rapid infiltration and
percolation of water, adequate water retention, highly permeable,
well-drained, and well aerated.
d. Tillage practices
surface soils subjected to tillage operations tend to have granular
(porous) structure, hence, low bulk density
- compaction of the soil through the continuous use of heavy
equipment
3.1.2. Factors Affecting Bulk Density
a. Organic matter content
- bulk density decreases with increasing organic matter content
b. Soil porosity
- bulk density decreases with increasing soil porosity
c. Soil texture
fine textured soils generally have lower bulk density than
coarse-textured soils
- I soils with low bulk density values generally have: rapid infiltration and
percolation of water, adequate water retention, highly permeable, well-draine
and well aerated.
d. Tillage practices
- surface soils subjected to tillage operations tend to have granular (porous)
structure, hence, low bulk density
- compaction of the soil through the continuous use of heavy equipment
c. %Porosity
- Soil pore space is the fraction of the soil
volume occupied by the air and water
- Porosity is the term used to signify the extent
of pore space expressed as percentage of the
bulk volume (total volume) of the soil.
Classification of soil pore spaces associated with
drainage, aeration and water retention
Coarse pores : >10 μm accommodate gases in soil,
allow passage of excess water in drainage and gas
exchange with atmosphere (soil aeration), and provide
space for root growth.
(1 μm = .001 mm)
Medium pores -0.2 μm to 10 μm retain water with
energy low enough for plants to take up; act as
storage for the "available water" which is comparable
to water- retaining pores.
Fine pores - <0.2 μm: retains water very strongly,
energy of retention is too high for *plant to absorb
retained water.
3.4. Soil Water
4.1. Importance of water
a. Supplies water requirement for plants; herbaceous plants contain 80-
90% water
b. On the average plant need 500 kg water per kg dry matter (corn
needs 340 kg water/kg dry matter)
c. Environment in which microbial activity occurs
d. Soil solution which contains dissolved ions and molecules including
nutrients for plants and microbial life
e. Medium in which chemical reactions occur
f. Transports clay-sized particles and solutes thus important in soil
formation, acidification, salinization and leaching of pollutants into
ground waters
g. Displaces air which may lead to poor aeration and the associated
biochemical changes
a. Adhesion and Adhesion Water
adhesion - attraction of water molecules
for solid surfaces
adhesion water - held by strong electrical
forces - low energy
- little movement- held tight by soil
- exists as a film
unavailable to plants
- removed from soil by drying in an *oven
a. Adhesion and Adhesion Water
adhesion attraction of water
molecules for solid
surfaces
adhesion water - held by strong
electrical forces -
low energy
- little movement- held tight by soil
- exists as a film
unavailable to plants
- removed from soil by drying in an
*oven
c. Osmotic Pressure
- attraction of ions and other solutes
for water;
- movement of water will be towards
area with the highest salt
concentration
- reduces free energy of water
d. Capillary water
- Water held in the "capillary" or
small pores of a soil, usually
3.4.3. Soil Moisture Constants
refers to the critical moisture levels in soils that are of
practical use in the field
a. Maximum water holding capacity
- occurs when all the soil pores are filled with water from
rainfall or irrigation
- soil is saturated with respect to water
- suction is zero or near zero
b. Field capacity
- maximum amount of water the soil can hold after
drainage in a given period of time
- only the medium and small pores contain water
- moisture condition one to three days following rain or
irrigation
the soil moisture equivalent attained at 1/3 bar
Plant is wilted because
of too much water.
Water is wasted.
3.4.3. Soil Moisture Constants
refers to the critical moisture levels in soils that
are of practical use in the field
a. Maximum water holding capacity
- occurs when all the soil pores are filled with
water from rainfall or irrigation
soil is saturated with respect to water
- suction is zero or near zero
b. Field capacity
maximum amount of water the soil can hold after
drainage in a given perild of time I
only the medium and small pores contain water
moisture condition one to three days following rain
or irrigation
- the soil moisture equivalent attained at 1/3 bar
c. Permanent Wilting Percentage (PWP)
also known as wilting coefficient (WC)
represents moisture content in the soil
below which, growing plants wilt because
the soil can no longer supply water at a
sufficient rate to maintain turgor
d. Hygroscopic coefficient
- soil moisture content representing the
condition water is held so tightly that much
of it is considered non-liquid and may
moved only through vapor phase
- water suction is 31 bars
3.4.4. Conventional soil moisture classification
1. Physical
a. Gravitation water water in excess of field capacity (0.1
to 0.2 bar suction)
It occupy large pores and readily moves under the force
of gravity.
- of limited use to planters because water is present in
the soil for a short time
b. Capillary water - water held at suction between 0.1-31
bars and contained in the pores of capillary size
includes most of the water taken up by the growing
plants
c. Hygroscopic water - water held at suction values
greater than 31 bars
- non liquid and moves primarily in vapor form
3.4.4. Conventional soil moisture classification
1. Physical
a. Gravitation water water in excess of field capacity (0.1 to
0.2 bar suction)
It occupy large pores and readily moves under the force of
gravity.
of limited use to planters because water is present in the
soil for a short time
b. Capillary water - water held at suction between 0.1-31
bars and contained in the pores of capillary size
includes most of the water taken up by the growing plants
c. Hygroscopic water - water held at suction values greater
than 31
bars
- non liquid and moves primarily in vapor form
2. Biological
a. Available water water retained in soil between
field capacity (0.1 to 0.2 bar) and the permanent
wilting point (15 bars); usable to plants.
AW FC-WC
where:
AW available water
FC field capacity (1/3/ bar suction)
WC wilting coefficient (15 bars suction)
b. Unavailable water - water held at tensions
greater
than 15 bars
- water not usable by plants
2. Resistance Method
- measure the electrical resistance (capacity
to transmit electrical current) of porous
materials such as gypsum, nylon and
fiberglass at different water content. Range
of usefulness: 0.3 to 15 bars.
3. Neutron Scattering
- Neutrons emitted by source (e.g. radium)
at high speed.
- Neutrons collide with a small atom like
hydrogen in soil water, change direction of
movement and lose part of their energy. The
"slowed" neutrons are measured by a
detector tube and a scalar. Reading is related
to soil moisture content.
4. Suction Method
a. Field Tensiometer
- water in the tensiometer equilibrates through
a porous cup with adjacent soil water suction.
- Range of usefulness is between 0 and 0.8
*bar.
b. Tension plate apparatus
- a form of tensiometer used in laboratory.
- The soil core eventually reaches equilibrium
with porous plate.
- The sample is weighed and the relationship of
soils placed firmly on a porous plate to which
suction is applied between suction and soil
moisture content is determined.
-The range of suitability: 0 to 1 *bar.
3.5. SOIL CONSISTENCY
Manifestations of the physical forces
of cohesion and adhesion acting
within the soil at various moisture
contents.
Expression of soil resistance to
deformation or rupture when pressure
is applied and its ability to be molded
or change in shape.
With low resistance, soil is easily
manipulated. Plowing and seedling
emergence will be easy."
3.5. SOIL CONSISTENCY
Manifestations of the physical forces of
cohesion and adhesion acting within the soil
at various moisture contents.
Expression of soil resistance to deformation
or rupture when pressure is applied and its
ability to be molded or change in shape.
With low resistance, soil is easily
manipulated. Plowing and seedling
emergence will be easy.
With high resistance, plowing and seedling
emergence will be
Soil consistency description
1. Dry consistency
- sandy soils have loose consistence and crumbles
easily
clayey soils are hard when dry
2. Moist consistency (friable)
- clayey soils particularly montmorillonite have
narrow moisture range for tillage; below the range,
they are too hard, above the range they become
too puddled
3. Wet consistence
- described as plasticity or stickiness; plasticity
refers to the ability of the soil to be molded
3.6. Soil Color
- determined using the Munsell color chart
- compare soil color with the color chips in
the chart
Munsell Color chart notations:
a. Hue - dominant spectral color (rainbow
color); usually redness or yellowness
b. Value lightness or darkness of color:
amount of light reflected to the eye
- a value of O being black
c. Chroma - intensity or brightness; amount
of dilution with white light
chroma of O being neutral gray
soils display a wide range of reds, browns,
yellows, and even green colors
Importance of soil colors:
a. Distinguish the different horizons of a soil profile
b. A diagnostic criterion for soil classification (e.g. mollic
epipedon)
c. Provide qualitative information about the current moisture
status of a soil; dry soils have lighter color than moist soils
Soil color indications:
- organic soils are generally dark (temperate regions)
red color indicates unhydrated Fe ions, good drainage and
aeration
yellow color is largely due to iron oxides
gray and white are caused by quartz, kaolin, Ca and Mg
carbonates, gypsum and other salts and compounds of Fe;
gray color indicates permanently saturated horizons
- mottled soils are poorly drained
- reflects soil condition
significant to plant growth:
Dark soil high organic matter.
-
Red soil old and infertile
Mottled soil - spots or
blotches of different colors
(possible drainage problem)
cause by alternate reduction
and oxidation with seasonal
fluctuation of water table.