MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY

Main Campus, Marawi City 9700

Cellular Aberration
FINAL EXAM

ANSWER SHEET
Name: SADICK, Sohaira G.
Test I. Identification
1. Cancer
2. Benign
3. Malignant
4. Invasion
5. Metastasis
6. Carcinoma
7. Sarcoma
8. Angiogenesis
9. Mutation
10. Oncogenes
Test II. Multiple choice
1. B
2. B
3. B
4. A
5. B
6. C
7. C
8. A
9. B
10. D
11. A
12. A
13. A
14. B
15. C
16. D
17. D
18. A
19. C
20. D
 Test III. Essay. Explain comprehensively.
1. When a cell gets too big its surface area to volume ratio is no longer able to meet
its needs. The cell has two options, they could die, or it can divide. Cell division is
the process by which cells produce other cells. It's a little different for prokaryotes
and eukaryotes but the general idea is the same. They need to make copies of
the materials and then divide into two cells. Cells need to do this to repair
damaged tissue to grow and to make more cells. DNA needs to be copied before
division can occur and in order to make sure the copies are divided evenly;
eukaryotic cells wind their DNA up into compact bundles. The DNA wraps around
proteins called Histones which coil up tightly to form very dense compact
chromosomes. The chromosomes exist only just before and during replication.
Chromosomes have a basic structure it's made of two identical halves and each
half is called a Chromatid. When the cell divides the chromatids separate from
each other and go into the new daughter cells that form. The chromatids are held
together at the centromere in the center. If you took all of your DNA as it
appeared just after mitosis you would see those all 46 chromosomes of a human
male. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes, 46 individual ones, one half came
from mom and the other half came from dad. The first 22 pairs of chromosomes
are set to be homologous because they are the same size and shape and carry
the same types of information. The last pair of chromosomes are called the sex
chromosomes because they determine whether the person is a male or a female.
An X and Y chromosome makes a male but two X chromosomes makes a
female. The full 46 chromosomes and humans are the diploid number. Any cells
with two sets of chromosomes are diploid but any cells with only one set of
chromosomes are haploid. In humans, sperm and egg cells are the only haploid
cells and they have just 23 chromosomes. The reason for that, is that during
fertilization the sperm and egg fuse and make a new human who has a diploid
set of chromosomes. Most of the cells lifetime is spent doing its job during
interphase and only a small part of its life is spent dividing in mitosis and
cytokinesis. Interphase is sometimes broken into three parts ‘G1’ is where cell
growth occurs, ‘S’ is DNA replication and ‘G2’ is growth and preparation for
Division. Mitosis is the division of the nucleus and Cytokinesis is the division of
the cytoplasm. In the end there are two identical cells called daughter cells and
the cycle can begin again.

2. The body features a number of complex organ systems. Organs are made of
specific types of tissue which are composed of cells arranged in an orderly
fashion. Each cell contains genes made up of sequences of DNA, these genes
determine various cellular properties such as the function and lifespan of the cell.
A change in the DNA sequence called the ‘mutation’ alters the way a cell
performs some of its functions. This mutation may be a trait inherited from the
mother or father or it may be a spontaneous change that occurs over the course
of an individual's lifetime. In addition, carcinogens such as radiation and a variety
of chemical factors can cause changes in DNA. Normal cells grow multiply and
die on a regular controlled basis. While a cell grows the DNA contained within the
cell is duplicated. The cell then divides in half to create two new cells by a
 process called mitosis. This division process is controlled by multiple factors.
Two specific types of genes control cell growth and division. Oncogenes acts like
on switches and give commands for the cell to grow and divide. Tumor
suppressor genes tell the cell to stop growing and dividing similar to an off
switch. If damaged ankle jeans may give a continuous on command, similarly,
damage tumor suppressors may not give an off command. These errors will
allow the cell to grow and divide uncontrollably. In addition, growth factors such
as hormones modulate the proliferation of cells. The body naturally controls
these growth factors. However, external factors such as chemicals that mimic or
change amounts of growth factors can alter these processes. Over expression of
growth factors is associated with increased cell division. Without repairs to
damaged oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes or with increased amounts of
growth factors there can be exponential growth of damaged cells.

3. Cancer is a disease characterized by DNA damage that causes abnormal cell

growth and development. The pathophysiology behind cancer, it really involves
three processes. The first is initiation, then promotion, then progression. During
initiation, damage or mutation to the DNA causes excessive cell division. This is
because we have excessive oncogene function but decreased suppressor gene
function. For an instance, in car analogy, if you're driving a car and your gas is
the oncogene, it makes you go faster, and then your brake is your suppressor
gene. With cancer, your gas is basically stuck to the floor and your brake doesn't
work. Oncogene function is getting insane and there's no break. There's limited
suppressor gene function, and that's what happens during initiation. Second, we
have promotion. During promotion, mutated cells are exposed to promoters that
enhance their growth. Estrogen is an example of a promoter that will promote the
further development of certain types of cancer. Lastly, we have progression. With
progression, tumor cells acquire additional mutations, and their growth rate
increases. This allows them to metastasize, so basically, spread throughout the
body and makes them resistant to therapy.

4. This is a very complex problem that cancer people are living with cancer a lot
longer. Therefore, there's a lot of complexities that we have to consider like multi
morbidity, polypharmacy, and the realty. But the more important thing is to
ensure that they're cared for in the right way and in the right context of care. That
means we must engage in the appropriate care processes, and this relates to
emotion work being there for our patients and engaging authentically. Good care
is so important for the person, but it matters what good care is to them and I think
that's the most important. We must look at giving patients dignity by means to
treat the whole person, not just the cancer and what matters to them is so
important, so good care is whatever the person wants that to be.