CHAPTER

10

Externalities

Economics
PRINCIPLES OF

N. Gregory Mankiw

© 2009 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning, all rights reserved

Outlines

1. Positive and Negative Externalities

2. Public Policies Toward Externalities
3. Private Solutions to Externalities

1
 Introduction
Markets are usually a good way
to organize economy activity.
In absence of market failures, the competitive market
outcome is efficient, maximizes total surplus.
▪ One type of market failure:
externality, the uncompensated impact of one
person’s actions on the well-being of a bystander.
▪ Negative externality
▪ Impact on the bystander is adverse
▪ Positive externality
▪ Impact on the bystander is beneficial
EXTERNALITIES 2
 Introduction
▪ Self-interested buyers and sellers neglect the
external costs or benefits of their actions,
so the market outcome is not efficient.
▪ Another principle from Chapter 1:
Governments can sometimes
improve market outcomes.
In presence of externalities, public policy can
improve efficiency.

EXTERNALITIES 3
 Some common externalities
The exhaust from cars is a negative externality because it
creates smog that other people have to breathe. As a result of
this externality, drivers tend to pollute too much.
 Some common externalities
Restored historic buildings convey a positive externality
because people who walk or drive by them enjoy their beauty
and the sense of history.
 Some common externalities
Lawn-mowers create a negative externality when
neighbours are disturbed by the noise.
 Some common externalities
Research into new technologies provides a positive
externality because it creates knowledge that other
people can use.
Some common externalities
Negative externalities examples
Negative externalities examples
 Recap of Welfare Economics
P The market for gasoline
$5
The market eq’m
maximizes consumer
+ producer surplus.
4
Supply curve shows
3 private cost, the costs
$2.50 directly incurred by sellers.
2
Demand curve shows
private value, the value
1
to buyers (the prices they
are willing to pay).
0
0 10 20 25 30 Q
(gallons)
EXTERNALITIES 11
 Analysis of a Negative Externality
P The market for gasoline
$5 Social cost
= private + external cost
4 external
cost Supply (private cost)
3 External cost
= value of the
2 negative impact
on bystanders
1 = $1 per gallon
(value of harm
0 from smog,
0 10 20 30 Q greenhouse gases)
(gallons)
EXTERNALITIES 12
 Analysis of a Negative Externality
P The market for gasoline
The socially
$5 optimal quantity
Social
cost is 20 gallons.
4
S
3 At any Q < 20,
value of additional gas
2 exceeds
At any Qsocial
> 20, cost.
D social cost of the
1 last gallon is
greater than its value
0 to society.
0 10 20 25 30 Q
(gallons)
EXTERNALITIES 13
 Analysis of a Negative Externality
P The market for gasoline
$5
Social Market eq’m
cost (Q = 25)
4
S is greater than
social optimum
3 (Q = 20).

2 One solution:
D tax sellers
1 $1/gallon,
would shift
0 S curve up $1.
0 10 20 25 30 Q
(gallons)
EXTERNALITIES 14
EXTERNALITIES 15
 “Internalizing the Externality”
▪ Internalizing the externality: altering incentives
so that people take account of the external effects
of their actions
▪ In our example, the $1/gallon tax on sellers makes
sellers’ costs = social costs.
▪ When market participants must pay social costs,
market eq’m = social optimum.
(Imposing the tax on buyers would achieve the
same outcome; market Q would equal optimal Q.)

EXTERNALITIES 16
 Examples of Positive Externalities
▪ Being vaccinated against
contagious diseases protects
not only you, but people who
visit the salad bar or produce
section after you.
▪ R&D creates knowledge
others can use.
▪ People going to college raise
Thank you for
the population’s education
not contaminating
level, which reduces crime the fruit supply!
and improves government.
EXTERNALITIES 17
Positive externalities examples
 Positive Externalities
▪ In the presence of a positive externality,
the social value of a good includes
▪ private value – the direct value to buyers
▪ external benefit – the value of the
positive impact on bystanders
▪ The socially optimal Q maximizes welfare:
▪ At any lower Q, the social value of
additional units exceeds their cost.
▪ At any higher Q, the cost of the last unit
exceeds its social value.

EXTERNALITIES 19
ACTIVE LEARNING 1
Analysis of a positive externality
P The market for vaccine covid-19 shots
$50
External benefit
= $10/shot
40
▪ Draw the social
S value curve.
30
▪ Find the socially
20 optimal Q.
▪ What policy would
10 internalize this
D
externality?
0 Q
0 10 20 30 20
 ACTIVE LEARNING 1
Answers
P The market for vaccine covid-19 shots
$50 Socially optimal Q
external = 25 shots.
40 benefit
To internalize the
S externality, use
30 subsidy = $10/shot.
Social value
20 = private value
+ $10 external benefit
10
D

0 Q
0 10 20 25 30 21
 Effects of Externalities: Summary
If negative externality
▪ market quantity larger than socially desirable
If positive externality
▪ market quantity smaller than socially desirable
To remedy the problem,
“internalize the externality”
▪ tax goods with negative externalities
▪ subsidize goods with positive externalities

EXTERNALITIES 22
Outlines

1. Positive and Negative Externalities

2. Public Policies Toward Externalities
3. Private Solutions to Externalities

23
 Public Policies Toward Externalities
Two approaches:
▪ Command-and-control policies regulate
behavior directly. Examples:
▪ limits on quantity of pollution emitted
▪ requirements that firms adopt a particular
technology to reduce emissions
▪ Market-based policies provide incentives so that
private decision-makers will choose to solve the
problem on their own. Examples:
▪ corrective taxes and subsidies
▪ tradable pollution permits
EXTERNALITIES 24
25
 Figure 4
The equivalence of corrective taxes & pollution permits
(a) Corrective tax (b) Pollution permits
Price of Price of
pollution pollution
1. A corrective tax sets Supply of
the price of pollution . . . pollution permits

1. Pollution
Corrective tax permits set
P P the quantity
of pollution . . .
Demand for
2. . . . which, together pollution rights 2. . . . which, together
with the demand curve, with the demand curve,
determines the quantity determines the price Demand for
of pollution. of pollution.
pollution rights
0 Q Quantity of 0 Q Quantity of
pollution pollution
In panel (a), the EPA sets a price on pollution by levying a corrective tax, and the demand curve
determines the quantity of pollution. In panel (b), the EPA limits the quantity of pollution by
limiting the number of pollution permits, and the demand curve determines the price of pollution.
The price and quantity of pollution are the same in the two cases. 26
 Corrective Taxes & Subsidies
▪ Corrective tax: a tax designed to induce private
decision-makers to take account of the social
costs that arise from a negative externality
▪ Also called Pigouvian taxes after Arthur Pigou
(1877-1959).
▪ The ideal corrective tax = external cost
▪ For activities with positive externalities,
ideal corrective subsidy = external benefit

EXTERNALITIES 27
 Tradable Pollution Permits
▪ A tradable pollution permits system reduces
pollution at lower cost than regulation.
▪ Firms with low cost of reducing pollution
sell whatever permits they can.
▪ Firms with high cost of reducing pollution
buy permits.

EXTERNALITIES 28
ACTIVE LEARNING 2
A. Regulating lower SO2 emissions
▪ Acme and US Electric run coal-burning power plants.
Each emits 40 tons of sulfur dioxide per month,
total emissions = 80 tons/month.
▪ Goal: Reduce SO2 emissions 25%, to 60 tons/month
▪ Cost of reducing emissions:
$100/ton for Acme, $200/ton for USE
Policy option 1: Regulation
Every firm must cut its emissions 25% (10 tons).
Your task: Compute the cost to each firm and
total cost of achieving goal using this policy.
29
ACTIVE LEARNING 2
A. Answers
▪ Each firm must reduce emissions by 10 tons.
▪ Cost of reducing emissions:
$100/ton for Acme, $200/ton for USE.
▪ Compute cost of achieving goal with this policy:
Cost to Acme: (10 tons) x ($100/ton) = $1000
Cost to USE: (10 tons) x ($200/ton) = $2000
Total cost of achieving goal = $3000

30
ACTIVE LEARNING 2
B. Tradable pollution permits
▪ Initially, Acme and USE each emit 40 tons SO2/month.
▪ Goal: reduce SO2 emissions to 60 tons/month total.
Policy option 2: Tradable pollution permits
▪ Issue 60 permits, each allows one ton SO2 emissions.
Give 30 permits to each firm.
Establish market for trading permits.
▪ Each firm may use all its permits to emit 30 tons,
may emit < 30 tons and sell leftover permits,
or may purchase extra permits to emit > 30 tons.
Your task: Compute cost of achieving goal if Acme
uses 20 permits and sells 10 to USE for $150 each.
31
ACTIVE LEARNING 2
B. Answers
▪ Goal: reduce emissions from 80 to 60 tons
▪ Cost of reducing emissions:
$100/ton for Acme, $200/ton for USE.
Compute cost of achieving goal:
Acme
▪ sells 10 permits to USE for $150 each, gets $1500
▪ uses 20 permits, emits 20 tons SO2
▪ spends $2000 to reduce emissions by 20 tons
▪ net cost to Acme: $2000 - $1500 = $500
continued…
32
ACTIVE LEARNING 2
B. Answers, continued
▪ Goal: reduce emissions from 80 to 60 tons
▪ Cost of reducing emissions:
$100/ton for Acme, $200/ton for USE.
USE
▪ buys 10 permits from Acme, spends $1500
▪ uses these 10 plus original 30 permits, emits 40 tons
▪ spends nothing on abatement
▪ net cost to USE = $1500
Total cost of achieving goal = $500 + $1500 = $2000
Using tradable permits, goal is achieved at lower total
cost and lower cost to each firm than using regulation.
33
 Objections to the
Economic Analysis of Pollution
▪ Some politicians, many environmentalists argue
that no one should be able to “buy” the right to
pollute, cannot put a price on the environment.
▪ However, people face tradeoffs. The value of
clean air & water must be compared to their cost.
▪ The market-based approach reduces the cost of
environmental protection, so it should increase the
public’s demand for a clean environment.

EXTERNALITIES 34
Outlines

1. Positive and Negative Externalities

2. Public Policies Toward Externalities
3. Private Solutions to Externalities

35
 Private Solutions to Externalities
Types of private solutions:
▪ Moral codes and social sanctions,
e.g., the “Golden Rule”
▪ Charities, e.g., the Sierra Club
▪ Contracts between market participants and the
affected bystanders

EXTERNALITIES 36
Why Private Solutions Do Not Always Work
1. Transaction costs:
The costs parties incur in the process of
agreeing to and following through on a bargain.
These costs may make it impossible to reach a
mutually beneficial agreement.
2. Stubbornness:
Even if a beneficial agreement is possible,
each party may hold out for a better deal.
3. Coordination problems:
If # of parties is very large, coordinating them
may be costly, difficult, or impossible.
EXTERNALITIES 38
CHAPTER
11
Public Goods and
Common Resources
Economics
PRINCIPLES OF

N. Gregory Mankiw

© 2009 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning, all rights reserved

Outlines

1. The Different Kinds of Goods

2. Public Goods and Common Resources
3. Government Policies to Enhance Market
Outcomes

40
 Important Characteristics of Goods
▪ A good is excludable if a person can be prevented
from using it.
▪ Excludable: fish tacos, wireless internet access
▪ Not excludable: FM radio signals, national defense
▪ A good is rival in consumption if one person’s
use of it diminishes others’ use.
▪ Rival: fish tacos
▪ Not rival:
An MP3 file of Kanye West’s latest single

PUBLIC GOODS AND COMMON RESOURCES 41

 The Different Kinds of Goods
Private goods: excludable, rival in consumption
Example: food
Public goods: not excludable, not rival
Example: national defense
Common resources: rival but not excludable
Example: fish in the ocean
Natural monopolies: excludable but not rival
Example: cable TV

PUBLIC GOODS AND COMMON RESOURCES 42

 1
Four types of goods
Rival in consumption?
Yes No
Private goods Natural monopolies

Yes - Ice-cream cones - Fire protection

- Clothing - Cable TV
Excludable? - Congested toll roads - Uncongested toll roads
Common resources Public goods

No - Fish in the ocean - Tornado system

- The environment - National defense
- Congested nontoll roads - Uncongested nontoll roads

Goods can be grouped into four categories according to two characteristics:

(1) A good is excludable if people can be prevented from using it.
(2) A good is rival in consumption if one person’s use of the good diminishes other
people’s use of it.
This diagram gives examples of goods in each category.
43
ACTIVE LEARNING 1
Categorizing roads
▪ A road is which of the four kinds of goods?
▪ Hint: The answer depends on whether the road
is congested or not, and whether it’s a toll road
or not. Consider the different cases.

44
ACTIVE LEARNING 1
Answers
▪ Rival in consumption? Only if congested.
▪ Excludable? Only if a toll road.
Four possibilities:
Uncongested non-toll road: public good
Uncongested toll road: natural monopoly
Congested non-toll road: common resource
Congested toll road: private good

45
Outlines

1. The Different Kinds of Goods

2. Public Goods and Common Resources
3. Government Policies to Enhance Market
Outcomes

46
 The Different Kinds of Goods
▪ This chapter focuses on public goods and
common resources.
▪ For both, externalities arise because something
of value has no price attached to it.
▪ So, private decisions about consumption and
production can lead to an inefficient outcome.
▪ Public policy can potentially raise economic
well-being.

PUBLIC GOODS AND COMMON RESOURCES 47

 Public Goods
▪ Public goods are difficult for private markets to
provide because of the free-rider problem.
▪ Free rider: a person who receives the benefit of
a good but avoids paying for it
▪ If good is not excludable, people have incentive
to be free riders, because firms cannot prevent
non-payers from consuming the good.
▪ Result: The good is not produced, even if
buyers collectively value the good higher than
the cost of providing it.

PUBLIC GOODS AND COMMON RESOURCES 48

 Public Goods
▪ If the benefit of a public good exceeds the cost of
providing it, govt should provide the good and pay
for it with a tax on people who benefit.
▪ Problem: Measuring the benefit is usually difficult.
▪ Cost-benefit analysis: a study that compares
the costs and benefits of providing a public good
▪ Cost-benefit analyses are imprecise, so the
efficient provision of public goods is more difficult
than that of private goods.

PUBLIC GOODS AND COMMON RESOURCES 49

 Some Important Public Goods
▪ National defense
▪ Knowledge created through basic research
▪ Fighting poverty

PUBLIC GOODS AND COMMON RESOURCES 50

 Common Resources
▪ Like public goods, common resources are not
excludable.
▪ Cannot prevent free riders from using
▪ Little incentive for firms to provide
▪ Role for govt: seeing that they are provided
▪ Additional problem with common resources:
rival in consumption
▪ Each person’s use reduces others’ ability
to use
▪ Role for govt: ensuring they are not overused

PUBLIC GOODS AND COMMON RESOURCES 51

 The Tragedy of the Commons
▪ A parable that illustrates why common resources
get used more than is socially desirable.
▪ Setting: a medieval town where sheep graze on
common land.
▪ As the population grows, the # of sheep grows.

52
 The Tragedy of the Commons
▪ The amount of land is fixed,
the grass begins to disappear from overgrazing.
▪ The private incentives (using the land for free)
outweigh the social incentives (using it carefully).
▪ Result: People can no longer raise sheep.

PUBLIC GOODS AND COMMON RESOURCES 53

 The Tragedy of the Commons
▪ The tragedy is due to an externality:
Allowing one’s flock to graze on the common land
reduces its quality for other families.
▪ People neglect this external cost, resulting in
overuse of the land.

PUBLIC GOODS AND COMMON RESOURCES 54

ACTIVE LEARNING 2
Policy options for common resources
▪ What could the townspeople
(or their government)
have done to prevent the tragedy?
▪ Try to think of two or three options.

55
ACTIVE LEARNING 2
Answers
▪ Impose a corrective tax on the use of the land
to “internalize the externality.”
▪ Regulate use of the land (the “command-and-
control” approach).
▪ Auction off permits allowing use of the land.
▪ Divide the land, sell lots to individual families;
each family will have incentive not to overgraze
its own land.

56
Outlines

1. The Different Kinds of Goods

2. Public Goods and Common Resources
3. Government Policies to Enhance Market
Outcomes

57
 Policy Options to Prevent
Overconsumption of Common Resources
▪ Regulate use of the resource
▪ Impose a corrective tax to internalize the externality
▪ example: hunting & fishing licenses,
entrance fees for congested national parks
▪ Auction off permits allowing use of the resource
▪ example: spectrum auctions by the
U.S. Federal Communications Commission
▪ If the resource is land, convert to a private good
by dividing and selling parcels to individuals

PUBLIC GOODS AND COMMON RESOURCES 58

Some Important Common Resources
▪ Clean air and water
▪ Congested roads
▪ Fish, whales, and other wildlife

PUBLIC GOODS AND COMMON RESOURCES 59

CASE STUDY:
“You’ve Got Spam!”
▪ Some firms use spam emails
to advertise their products.
▪ Spam is not excludable:
Firms cannot be prevented “Spam” email is named
from spamming. after everyone’s
favorite delicacy.
▪ Spam is rival: As more
companies use spam, it becomes less effective.
▪ Thus, spam is a common resource.
▪ Like most common resources, spam is overused –
which is why we get so much of it!
PUBLIC GOODS AND COMMON RESOURCES 60
 What we did?
✓ Learn what an externality is
✓ Distinguish between a positive and a negative externality
✓ See why externalities can make market outcomes inefficient (optimal
quantity and the market quantity differ in the presence of an externality) →
draw graph
✓ Examine how people can sometimes solve the problem of externalities on
their own, consider why private solutions to externalities sometimes do not
work
✓ Demonstrate the potential equality of a corrective tax and pollution permits
✓ Examine the various government policies aimed at solving the problem of
externalities
✓ Classify goods into the categories of public goods, private goods, common
resources, or goods produced by a natural monopoly
✓ Examine why private markets under-provide public goods and over-consume
common resources 61
EXTERNALITIES 62