Chapter 2

Vectors in Special Relativity

2.1 Four - vectors

A four - vector is a quantity with four components which changes like spacetime
coordinates under a coordinate transformation. We will write the displacement
four - vector as:

∆x →O (c∆t , ∆x , ∆y , ∆z) = {∆α } , α = 0 ,1 ,2 ,3 . (2.1)

∆x is a frame independent vector joining near by points in spacetime. →O means:

has components in frame O. ∆xα are the coordinates themselves [ which are
coordinate dependent ].
In frame Ō, the coordinates are {∆xᾱ } so:

∆x →Ō {∆xᾱ } ᾱ = 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 . (2.2)

The Lorentz transformations can be written as

3
∆xᾱ = Λᾱ β ∆xβ ,
!
(2.3)
β=0

where Λᾱ β is the [4 × 4] Lorentz transformation matrix

γ − γv 0 0
 
c
 − γv γ 0 0 
Λᾱ β =  c (2.4)
 
0 0 1 0

 
0 0 0 1
−1/2
where γ = (1 − v 2 /c2 ) and ∆xβ , ∆xᾱ can be regarded as column vectors.

18
CHAPTER 2. VECTORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 19

The positioning of the indices is explained later but indicates that we can use
the Einstein summation convention: sum over repeated indices, if one index is up
and one index down. Thus we can write:

∆xᾱ = Λᾱ β ∆xβ . (2.5)

β is a dummy index which can be replaced by any other index; ᾱ is a free index,
so the above equation is equivalent to four equations. For a general four - vector
( )
A →O A0 , A1 , A2 , A3 , (2.6)

we can write
Aᾱ = Λᾱ β Aβ . (2.7)

If A and B are two four - vectors, clearly C = A + B and D = µA are also

four - vectors with obvious components
( )
C →O A0 + B 0 , A1 + B 1 , A2 + B 2 , A3 + B 3 , (2.8)

and
( )
D →O µA0 , µA1 , µA2 , µA3 . (2.9)

In any frame O we can define a set of four - basis vectors:

e0 →O (1 , 0 , 0 , 0) , (2.10)

e1 →O (0 , 1 , 0 , 0) , (2.11)

e2 →O (0 , 0 , 1 , 0) , (2.12)

and
e3 →O (0 , 0 , 0 , 1) . (2.13)

In general we can write

(eα )β = δ β α

= 1, α=β

= 0, α $= β , (2.14)
CHAPTER 2. VECTORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 20

where α labels the basis vector and β labels the coordinate.

Any four - vector can be expressed as a sum of four - vectors parallel to the basis
vectors i.e.

A = Aα eα

= Aᾱ eᾱ . (2.15)

The last equality reflects the fact that four - vectors are frame independent.
Writing:
Aᾱ eᾱ = Λᾱ β Aβ eᾱ = Aβ Λᾱ β eᾱ = Aα Λβ̄ α eβ̄ , (2.16)

where we have exchanged the dummy indices α and β and ᾱ and β̄, we see that
this equals Aα eα for all A if and only if

eα = Λβ̄ α eβ̄ . (2.17)

This gives the transformation law for basis vectors:

γv
e0 = γe0̄ − e
c 1̄
,

e1 = − γv e + γe1̄ ,
c 0̄

e2 = e2̄ ,

e3 = e3̄ . (2.18)

Note that the basis transformation law is different from the transformation law for
the components since Aβ̄ α takes one from frame Ō to O.
So in summary for vector basis and vector components we have:

eα = Λβ̄ α eβ̄ ,

Aβ̄ = Λβ̄ α Aα . (2.19)

Since O has a velocity −v relative to Ō, we have:

eβ̄ = Λα β̄ (−v)eα

⇒ eν = Λβ̄ ν (v)eβ̄ = Λβ̄ ν (v)Λα β̄ (−v)eα

⇒ Λβ̄ ν (v)Λαβ̄ (−v) = δ α ν . (2.20)

CHAPTER 2. VECTORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 21

So Λα β̄ (−v) is the inverse of Λβ̄ α (v). Likewise

Aν = Λν β̄ (−v)Aβ̄ = Λν β̄ (−v)Λβ̄ α (v)Aα = δ ν α Aα . (2.21)

It follows that the Lorentz transformations with −v gives the components of a

four - vector in O from those in Ō.
The magnitude of a four - vector is defined as A2 = A · A:

2 2 2 2
A2 = −A0 + A1 + A2 + A3 , (2.22)

in analogy with the line element

ds2 = −c2 dt2 + dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 . (2.23)

The sign on the A0 will be explained later. This is a frame invariant scalar.
A is spacelike if A2 > 0, timelike if A2 < 0 and null if A2 = 0. The scalar
product of two four - vectors A and B is:

A · B = −A0 B 0 + A1 B 1 + A2 B 2 + A3 B 3 . (2.24)

Since
(A + B) · (A + B) = A2 + B2 + 2A · B , (2.25)

A · B is frame independent.
A and B are orthogonal if A · B = 0; they are not necessarily perpendicular
in the spacetime diagram [ for example a null vector is orthogonal to itself ], but
must make equal angles with the 45o line.
Basis vectors form an orthonormal tetrad since they are orthogonal: eα · eβ = 0
if α $= β, normalized to unit magnitude: eα · eα = ±1:

−1 0 0 0
 
 0 1 0 0 
eα · eβ = 
 
0 0 1 0

 
0 0 0 1
= ηαβ . (2.26)

We will see later what the geometrical significance of ηαβ is.

CHAPTER 2. VECTORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 22

ct
α
U

x
Figure 2.1: The worldline of a particle with four - velocity U α .

2.2 Four - velocity, momentum and acceleration

We must express Newton’s laws of motion in terms of four - vectors so that they
are frame invariant and consistent with Special Relativity. The four - velocity of a
particle is the tangent to its worldline of length c [ see Figure 2.1 ]:
dx
U= , U · U = −c2 , (2.27)
dτ
where τ is the proper time [ the time measured in the particle’s own rest frame ].
This is the most natural analogue of the three - velocity. It is clearly a four - vector
since both dx and dτ are invariant.
In the particle’s own rest frame Ō, the four - velocity is

U = c e0̄ = (c , 0 , 0 , 0) . (2.28)

It follows that in a general frame O:

U α = Λα β̄ (c e0̄ )β̄ = cΛα 0̄ = γ (c , v , 0 , 0) , (2.29)

or
U α = γ (c , v) , (2.30)

where v is the particle’s three - velocity.

For low velocities v & c, U 0 ≈ c and the spatial part is nearly the same as v.
If an observers own four - velocity is written as W = (c , 0 , 0 , 0) in O we have
U·W
γ=− . (2.31)
c2
CHAPTER 2. VECTORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 23

We can then write the particle’s three - velocity as [ EXERCISE 2.2 ]:

(W · W)
v= U−W . (2.32)
U·W
This is a spacelike vector expressed in coordinate - independent form [ although W
singles out a particular observer ].
For photons the four - velocity is not defined since dx · dx = 0, i.e. there is no
frame in which a photon is at rest.
The four - momentum is defined by

P = m0 U , P · P = −m20 c2 . (2.33)

where m0 is the rest mass of the particle i.e. the mass in its own rest frame. The
spatial part of P [ the three - momentum ] is m0 γv so the apparent mass exceeds
the rest mass.
m0
m = γm0 = * . (2.34)
1 − v 2 /c2
The time part of the four - momentum is the energy of the particle E divided by c:
E 1
P0 = = − P · W = m0 γc = mc , (2.35)
c c
so we have
E = m0 γc2 = mc2 . (2.36)
For v & c
E = m0 c2 (1 − v 2 /c2 )−1/2 ≈ m0 c2 + 12 m0 v 2 . (2.37)
Since the second term is the kinetic energy, we interpret the first term as the
rest - mass energy of the particle.
In general P · P = −m20 c2 implies that

E 2 = m20 c4 + c2 p · p , (2.38)

where p is the particle’s three - momentum.

Since m → ∞ as v → c, requiring infinite energy, we infer that the particles
with non - zero rest mass, can never reach the speed of light.
For photons traveling in the x - direction

E = cp1 ⇔ P.P = 0 ⇔ m0 = 0 , (2.39)

hence photons have zero rest mass.

CHAPTER 2. VECTORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 24

2.2.1 Relativistic Doppler shift

Consider a photon moving at an angle α with respect to the x - axis. Its three -
velocity is (c cos α , c sin α , 0), so its four - momentum is
+ ,
hν hν hν
P= , cos α , sin α , 0 , (2.40)
c c c

where h is Planck’s constant and ν the frequency.

In a frame Ō with three - velocity (v, 0, 0) relative to O the frequency is ν̄. Using
the Lorentz transformations we get

P 0̄ = Λ0̄ β P β = Λ0̄ 0 P 0 + Λ0̄ 1 P 1 , (2.41)

therefore - .
hν̄ hν v
=γ − 2 hν cos α , (2.42)
c c c
so we get the following result:
ν̄ 1 − v/c cos α
= * . (2.43)
ν 1 − v 2 /c2

If α = 0, so that the photon moves in the same direction as Ō, we have

/
ν̄ 0 1 − v/c
0
=1 . (2.44)
ν 1 + v/c

For low velocities v & c this reduces to

ν̄ v
=1− , (2.45)
ν c
∆ν
This is the usual Doppler shift ν
= vc , modified at large v.
If α = π/2, so the photon moves perpendicular to O, we have
ν̄
=γ. (2.46)
ν
This is the transverse Doppler shift and is a consequence of time dilation.
CHAPTER 2. VECTORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 25

2.2.2 Four - acceleration

The four - acceleration of a particle is defined as
dU dt d
= [γ (c, v)]
dτ dτ dt
d
= γ (c, v) . (2.47)
dt
since
,−1/2
v2
+
dγ d
= 1− 2
dt dt c
γ 3 dv
= v
c2 dt
γ3 dv
= 2
v· , (2.48)
c dt
we have
γ4
A = γ 2 (0, v̇) + v · v̇ (c, v) . (2.49)
c2
For speeds much less than the speed of light v & c, we obtain
v · v̇
2 3
A= , v̇ , (2.50)
c
therefore spatial part approximates the usual three - acceleration at low velocities.
dU
Note that U · U = −c2 ⇒ U · dτ
= 0, so the four - acceleration is orthogonal
to the four - velocity.
Finally Newton’s second law requires that we define the four - force as

F = m0 A . (2.51)

2.3 Relativistic dynamics

For interacting particles we postulate that
!
Pi (2.52)
i

is conserved [ where i labels the particle ] since this is the natural analogue of
Newton’s law.
CHAPTER 2. VECTORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 26

u1 u2
Before

U
After

Figure 2.2: The colliding particles in Example 1.

Conservation of the time component corresponds to energy conservation [ with

rest mass being included in this ]. Conservation of spatial components corresponds
to conservation of three - momentum.
Note that Pi is evaluated at a particular time by different observers and
4
i

they will see different events as simultaneous. However Pi will be conserved in

4
i

all frames.
The center of momentum frame for a particular system of particles is the one
in which
Etotal
! 2 3
Pi = , 0, 0, 0 . (2.53)
i c

2.3.1 Example 2.1

As a simple example, consider two particles with rest masses m1 and m2 , moving
with speeds u1 and u2 (u1 > u2 ), which collide and coalesce [ see Figure 2.2 ]. What
is the mass M and speed U of the resulting particles. The initial four - momenta
are
Pi = mi γi (c , ui , 0 , 0) , (2.54)

where i = 1 . . . 2 and ,−1/2

u2
+
γi = 1 − 2i . (2.55)
c
The final four - momentum is

P = Mγ (c , U , 0 , 0) . (2.56)

Conservation of four - momentum gives

P = P1 + P2 , (2.57)
CHAPTER 2. VECTORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 27

and squaring this relation gives

P2 = P21 + P22 + 2P1 · P2 . (2.58)

Now
P2i = −m2i c2 , P2 = −M 2 c2 , (2.59)

and
( )
P1 · P2 = m1 m2 γ1 γ2 u1 u2 − c2 . (2.60)

This gives 5
u1 u2
2 3
M= m21 + m2 + 2m1 m2 γ1 γ2 1 −. (2.61)
c2
For u1 & c and u2 & c, M ≈ m1 + m2 which is the usual Newtonian result.
From the x and t components of the four - momentum equation we have

MγU = m1 γ1 u1 + m2 γ2 u2 ,

Mγc = m1 γ1 c + m2 γ2 c . (2.62)

Dividing we get
m1 γ1 u1 + m2 γ2 u2
U= . (2.63)
m1 γ1 + m2 γ2
For u1 & c and u2 & c we obtain
m1 u1 + m2 u2
U= . (2.64)
m1 + m2

2.3.2 Example 2.2

Consider a collision between a photon with frequency ν moving in the x direction,
with an electron of rest mass me initially at rest [ see Figure 2.3 ]. Before the
collision, the four - momenta of the photon and electron are
+ ,
hν hν
Q1 = , , 0, 0 ,
c c
P1 = me (c, 0, 0, 0) . (2.65)

After the collision we have

+ ,
hν̄ hν̄ hν̄
Q2 = , cos θ , sin θ , 0 ,
c c c
P2 = me γ (c, v sin Ψ, −v cos Ψ, 0) , (2.66)
CHAPTER 2. VECTORS IN SPECIAL RELATIVITY 28

Q
2

Q P1
1

Before Ψ After
P2

Figure 2.3: Sciamatic diagram illustrating Compton scattering.

where ν̄ is the photon’s frequency after the collision, v is the speed of the electron
and θ, Ψ are shown in Figure 2.3.
Conservation of four - momentum gives

P1 + Q1 = P2 + Q2 . (2.67)

Rearranging and squaring we get

P22 = (P1 + Q1 − Q2 )2 . (2.68)

Using P21 = P22 = −m2e c2 and Q21 = Q22 = 0 we obtain

P1 · Q1 − P1 · Q2 − Q1 · Q2 = 0 , (2.69)

which gives
h2 ν ν̄
−me hν + me hν̄ = (cos θ − 1) . (2.70)
c2
Finally after simplifying this expression we arrive at the famous Compton scatter-
ing formula
me c2
+ ,
θ 1 1
2 3
2
sin = − . (2.71)
2 2h ν̄ ν