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Towards Functionally Graded Sand Molds for Metal Casting: Engineering

Thermo-mechanical Properties Using 3D Sand Printing

Article in JOM: the journal of the Minerals, Metals & Materials Society · January 2020
DOI: 10.1007/s11837-019-03975-x

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https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-019-03975-x
 2020 The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society

SOLID FREEFORM FABRICATION 2019

Towards Functionally Graded Sand Molds for Metal Casting:

Engineering Thermo-mechanical Properties Using 3D Sand
Printing

D. MARTINEZ ,1 C. BATE,1 and G. MANOGHARAN 1,2

1.—Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park,

PA 16802, USA. 2.—e-mail: gum53@psu.edu

Growing applications of additive manufacturing (AM) have now been adopted

for metal castings via indirect hybrid AM, i.e., 3D sand printing (3DSP). A
comprehensive study on the thermo-physical properties of 3DSP molds based
on 3DSP processing conditions and their effects on materials and mechanical
properties of resulting aluminum castings is presented. The effect of furan
binder content (i.e., 1–3%) on as-printed 3DSP molds is evaluated to deter-
mine changes in dimensional accuracy, density (helium pycnometry), actual
binder content (loss on ignition) and mechanical strength (three-point bending
and tensile testing) and thermal properties (transient plane source technique
and casting runs). Pore network characterization via mercury intrusion
porosimetry does not reveal any significant differences in the morphology of
pore structures due to varying binder concentrations. However, bulk perme-
ability is reduced with increasing binder content. Thermal analysis shows a
reduction in conductivity and heat capacity due to binder degradation. Find-
ings from this study will enable the optimum selection of binder content for
functional grading of 3DSP molds/cores for adequate degassing and mechan-
ical strength, which is ready for adoption by both foundries and 3DSP service
providers.

deposition of an acid catalyst mix (e.g., furan) on a

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
As automotive, energy and aviation industries
continue to increase the demand for high-perfor-
mance aluminum production parts, the market for
aluminum castings is expected to increase at a
compounded annual growth rate (CARG) of 9.1% to
USD 86.5 billion by the year 2025.1 As this demand
for high-quality castings continues to grow, additive
manufacturing (AM) via 3D sand printing (3DSP, a
binder jetting AM technique) has been proven to
offer a novel approach to tooling-less manufactur-
ing2,3 of complex castings4,5 with increased mechan-
ical properties6,7 and lower lead times.2,8 3DSP
offers both technologic and economic advantages to
the aluminum casting industry compared with
traditional sand casting. Another advantage of
3DSP is the large array of alloys qualified for sand
casting compared with direct metal AM processes
such as laser-powder bed fusion and directed energy
deposition.9 The basic principle of 3DSP is selective
layer of silica (e.g., foundry sand) based on layer-by-
layer CAD information until the final mold/core is
printed. Once molds have been completely 3D sand
printed, they are de-powdered and assembled for
pouring like in traditional sand casting. Similar to
most other AM processes, unbound material (i.e.,
foundry sand) is retrieved, sieved and reused in
subsequent 3DSP builds.
Advancements in 3DSP have led to the develop-
ment of ‘‘rapid casting technology’’,10–12 where the
process part of designing the final casting to pouring
can be compressed using digital design, simulation
and printing. To achieve seamless integration and
adoption of 3DSP in traditional foundry operations,
it is critical to understand the mechanical and
thermal characteristics of 3DSP molds and cores.
These critical characteristics have been the focus of
several studies ranging from mechanical strength
and dimensional accuracy10,13,14 to porosity and
permeability.13,15 However, there is a lack of
 Martinez, Bate, and Manogharan

fundamental knowledge on the effects of the printing parameters remains largely unexplored.
thermo-mechanical properties of 3DSP molds based Binder saturation simultaneously influences multi-
on printing conditions and the resulting material ple mold properties such as dimensional accuracy
properties of resulting metal castings. This original and density. Therefore, a process map that estab-
research is intended to present a comprehensive lishes this complex interaction of mold properties is
examination of 3DSP mold characteristics, includ- required to obtain optimum mold and casting
ing the thermo-mechanical properties of both sand results. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, there
molds and final aluminum castings under the has been no prior reported study that establishes
varying influence of a critical 3DSP parame- this critical process map for varying 3DSP process
ter—binder saturation, i.e., binder content. conditions (e.g., binder saturation).
The final objective in this research is to leverage
the capabilities of layer-by-layer controlled deposi- MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
tion of the sand and binder in a 3DSP system to
3DSP samples were fabricated in a Viridis3D
simultaneously control the local distribution of
RAM sand printer (Enviosiontec, Woburn, MA)
mechanical strength (i.e., handling strength), ther-
using silica sand of grain fineness number (GFN)
mal diffusivity (i.e., solidification rate) and gas
65 round or sub-angular with a dry premixed acid
permeability (i.e., outgassing) within different sec-
catalyst and furan binder. Six different binder
tions of the sand molds. This study also aims to
deposition settings were selected to vary the binder
demonstrate the unique opportunities to engineer
content between 1% and 3%. In this study, the levels
both the mold and casting properties that are not
are labeled as B1.5, B2, B2.5, B3, B4 and B5, which
otherwise feasible via traditional molding methods.
refer to the number of printer-head activation
For instance, binder content can be functionally
pulses per second as set by the manufacturer’s
graded across the volume of molds and cores such
instructions. Specifications of the samples are pre-
that higher mechanical strength is achieved near
sented in Table I. Samples of the same binder
the mold walls and higher permeability via net-
content were printed in a single build box.
worked pores is incorporated for outgassing of mold
The large cylinders, pouring cups and 3 PB
gas away from the mold walls. This study presents a
specimens were used to measure dimensional toler-
systematic framework to study the influence of
ance using a digital caliper. The diameter was
binder saturation on thermal properties and poros-
measured multiple times (n = 4) at the midline
ity. In addition, it aims to provide insights into the
section in two orthogonal directions, and results
correlation between the sand-binder content rela-
were averaged to report the overall diameter along
tionship to achieve adequate mold strength, print-
with cylinder height. Loss on ignition (LOI) testing
ing accuracy and casting characteristics. To the best
was conducted as per AFS Standard 5100-00-S24
of the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first
using the 20Ø 9 20 mm samples (12 g) for consis-
reported comprehensive study that reports on the
tency across all binder conditions. Humidity content
unexplored process map to achieve functionally
was determined by recording the mass of the
graded 3DSP sand molds to enable production of
samples before and after heating in an oven for
high-performance casting.
150 min at 107C. Samples were weighed at 0 min,
In traditional sand molds, mold composition has
90 min and 150 min. Lack of change in sample
been modified to obtain different characteristics in
weight between measurements showed that water
the final metal casting.16–18 The capabilities of
content was completely evaporated. Subsequently,
3DSP have been explored by redesigning the mold
burn-out of binder content was performed by heat-
to accommodate novel insulation capabilities.19–21
ing the samples at 986C. Furan resin degrades at
Hackney and Wooldridge22 focused on characteriz-
180C22 and ignites at 595C.25 Samples were
ing an ExOne S-Max system for changes in dimen-
weighed at 60 min, 120 min and 180 min. Lack of
sional accuracy, density, and tensile, compressive
change in sample weight between measurements
and impact strength using manufacturer-recom-
proved that all binders had been burned out from
mended settings. Mitra et al.13 analyzed the effect
the samples. The amount of binder in the samples
of aging, i.e., mold curing temperature and time, on
was quantified based on the difference in weight of
flexural strength (three-point bending) and perme-
the samples after 180 min at 986C and 190 min at
ability in a similar study using the ExOne S-Print
107C.
machine. Mechanical strength and permeability
To characterize pore network’s properties, mer-
were observed to remain approximately constant
cury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) was employed
over time at curing temperatures £ 100C. More
since MIP is a well-established technique used in
recently, they reported that binder saturation has a
the petroleum industry,26–28 construction engineer-
drastic effect on flexural strength, and no significant
ing29–31 and pharmacy32–34 to identify pore sizes
change is observed in permeability when curing
ranging from 3 nm to 360 nm diameter.35
occurs at room temperature.23 However, the possi-
A common experimental approach to determine
bility of altering intrinsic mold properties, such as
thermal properties in molding materials is the one-
permeability, heat capacity and conductivity, along
dimensional steady heat flux setup.36,37 Other
with varying mechanical properties by modifying
Towards Functionally Graded Sand Molds for Metal Casting: Engineering Thermo-mechanical
Properties Using 3D Sand Printing
Table I. 3D sand printed samples: design of experiments
Sample Dimensions (mm)
Pour cup 130 9 130 9 105 Experimental solidification time Heat diffusivity
Large cylinder 100Ø 9 50
MIP cylinder 7Ø 9 20 Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP)
LOI cylinder 20Ø 9 20
Permeability 50.8Ø 9 50.8
Flexural sample 15 9 15 9 150
Tensile coupon 44 9 76 9 25
techniques for determining thermal properties
include the laser flash technique and inverse-heat
method. The former requires a smooth and polished
sample such that laser reflection can be measured.
However, it is not a feasible technique for rough
surfaces of sand molds.38 The latter inverse-heat
method involves reproducing measured tempera-
tures in a casting experiment via numerical model-
ing by back-calculating unknown thermal
variables.39,40
Using the one-dimensional analytical representa-
tion of the system, a diffusion equation can be
developed with known boundary temperatures,41
i.e., recorded temperatures at known locations
within the mold using thermocouples. The diffusion
equation can be expressed based on an error
function as follows:
 
Tx;t  Ts x pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ erf pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð1Þ
Tair  Ts 2 hd  t
 2
where thermal diffusivity hd ms of the mold mate-
rial is calculated knowing the temperature Tx;t ðKÞ
at a given point x (m) in the mold. Ts and Tair
represent the temperatures (K) at the inner surface
of the mold, which is in contact with metal and
ambient temperature, respectively.
Another method to measure thermal properties is
the transient plane source (TPS) or ‘‘hot disk’’
technique. Thermal properties of solid material
can be back-calculated by measuring the increase
in temperature of a double-spiral Wheatstone
bridge. The temperature of a heated sensor through
the electric current42 is used in the conduction
equation of a hot disk within an infinitely large
sample to back-calculate the thermal conductivity
and diffusivity of the sample. The tested material
must be large enough and the temperature sam-
pling time should be short enough to prevent the
boundary conditions from influencing the experi-
ment.43 It is also important to have uniform flat
surface contact between the sensor and sample. TPS
has been demonstrated to have an effective tech-
nique to measure a wide range of thermal conduc-
tivities with an accuracy of ± 5%.44
Number of tests
Test per condition (n)
1
Transient heat plane source 1
1
LOI 2
Helium pycnometry 3
AFS permeability 9
3-point bending 8
AFS tensile 9
Subsequently, these results can be employed in
Chvorinov’s law to determine the mold constant and
thermal properties of 3DSP sand molds using the
following equation:
 2
Ts ¼ B
V
ð2Þ
A
This analytical expression relates the solidifica-
tion time Ts (s) of a casting with total volume V (m3),
surface area (m2) and mold constant B (s/m2).45–47
The mold constant is related to the thermal prop-
erties of the alloy being poured; hence, to isolate the
impact of mold properties, a coefficient of heat
accumulation bf can be defined as a function of the
mold density qm (kg/m3), specific heat cm (J/m3 K)
and thermal conductivity km (W/mK) as shown in
Eq. 3:
bf ¼ qm cm km ð3Þ
Density measurements were determined using a
Micrometrics AccuPyc II 1340 helium pycnometer.
The technique was selected because of the relative
ease of execution, accurate results based on
reported studies and recent application in binder
jetting parts to determine skeletal density.48–50 Gas
pycnometry involves the measurement of the gas
volume (e.g., helium, which was used in the study)
required to fill a vacuum chamber with the test
sample. With the known gas volume for a given
pressure and temperature, volume of the testing
chamber and weight of the sample, skeletal density
can be determined. The accuracy of this technique
depends on the assumption that most voids within
the sample are interconnected between each other
and with the sample surface.
Mechanical Properties of 3DSP Molds
3DSP samples were tested for mechanical
strength via tensile and flexural experiments. Ten-
sile specimens were tested as per AFS 3301-08-S51
in a Simpson Analytics universal sand strength
testing machine using the standard 25.4-mm tensile
specimen design (see Table I). These samples were

printed in the horizontal position with the mechan-
ical loading axis along the recoating direction. Nine
samples per binder condition were tested to mini-
mize deviation from true mean strength.52
Flexural tests are generally used to determine
mold and core properties in both the AFS53 and
German54 standards. 3DSP samples were tested for
ultimate flexural strength using three-point bend-
ing tests as per the ASTM E29055 standard on
samples of 15 mm 9 15 mm 9 100 mm dimensions
(see Table I) for eight samples per bending condi-
tion. Four samples were tested with the applied
force normal to print direction and four samples
with the applied force along the print direction. An
MTS WTest 100 machine with a 100-kN-load cell
was used to determine the ultimate flexural
strength based on the length between supports L
(mm), width w (mm) and thickness t (mm) of the
specimen to determine the stress curve rflex (MPa)
based on recorded force F (kN) from Eq. 4:
3FL
rflex ¼ ð4Þ
2wt2
The span length, loading rate and data acquisition
rate were set to 60 mm, 2.5 mm/min and 10 Hz,
respectively.
Permeability and Mercury Porosimetry
of 3DSP Molds
Permeability tests were performed in accordance
to AFS 5224-13-S standards.53 Nine cylindrical
specimens per binder condition with dimensions of
Ø50.8 mm 9 50.8 mm were tested with the direc-
tion of flow normal to the print direction. The AFS
permeability number was obtained using a Simpson
Analytics Digital Absolute Permmeter using Eq. 5,
where Q is the volume of air of the perimeter
pneumatic cylinder (m3); h and A are the height (m)
and cross-section (m2) of the 3DSP sample, respec-
tively; P is the differential pressure (Pa); and t is the
time for the complete flow of air across the cylinder
(s).
Qh
P¼ ð5Þ
APt
MIP tests were performed on one Ø7 mm 9 20
mm sample for each binder condition. This tech-
nique involves measurement of volumes of liquid
mercury that intrude into the sample at precisely
controlled pressures.35 The tests were performed in
a Micromeritics AutoPore V system, and MicroAc-
tive Software (Norcross, GA) was used for data
processing. By applying the Washburn model,56 the
pore structure can be analyzed as a conglomeration
of cylinders of length L (m), which is progressively
filled with increasing driving pressure P (Pa) using
the following rule:
Martinez, Bate, and Manogharan
 
@l P r2 þ 4er
¼ ð6Þ
@t 8gL
where r is the radius of the cylinder (m), e is the
friction coefficient between mercury and sand, and g

m2
is the kinematic viscosity s of mercury. Subse-
quently, three unique quantitative measures of the
porous media can be calculated: (1) pore size
distribution, (2) pore surface area per gram of
material and (3) average and median pore diameter.
Thermal Properties of 3DSP Molds
Cooling curves of 99.9% pure aluminum were
determined by pouring 3DSP cooling cups for every
binder condition (n = 5) based on solidification time
and thermal diffusivity measurements. The latter
was back-calculated from the one-dimensional
steady-state solution to thermal diffusion equation.
The highest binder ratio batch (i.e., B5) failed to
consistently print the pouring cups; hence, the
pouring experiment could not be performed at this
binder condition. Pure aluminum was selected to
achieve a definite freezing point in the cooling curve
using an open-top pour cup (25-mm-thick walls to
hold 80 mm3 of pure aluminum of about 1.4 kg. as
shown in Fig. 1).
Four TL1815 k-type thermocouples rated for
maximum temperature of 800C with an accuracy
of ± 0.1C were used to measure the temperature at
four unique locations within the mold. All probes
were placed at identical distance of 40 mm from the
top of the cup as shown in Fig. 1a: (A) middle of the
casting volume, (B) 5 mm from the mold wall in
contact with the metal, (C) 5 mm from the mold wall
in contact with ambient air and (D) 5 mm from the
ambient air within the mold wall (see Fig. 1b).
Temperature was recorded using a data acquisition
unit from National Instruments cDAQ-9171 and NI-
9212 through a LabView script at a sampling rate of
10 Hz. The melt temperature prior to pouring was
measured using an OMEGA OS204 infrared ther-
mometer and was found to be 765 ± 4C in the
ladle. Data collection was prior to melt pour and
continued through the liquid cooling phase, liquid–
solid transition and solid cooling to room
temperature.
Results obtained via analytical one-dimensional
solution to the conduction equation are compared
with the transient plane source (TPS) technique,
which was performed in a Kapton 8563 F1 hot-disk
sensor (/19.6 mm) with an output power of 90 mW
placed between two 3DSP samples. The samples
were measured every 80 s while heating the sample
to 50C, 100C and 250C to observe variations in
thermal properties (see Fig. 8). Five measurements
were performed per binder condition at each tem-
perature level. The samples were heated at a rate of
Towards Functionally Graded Sand Molds for Metal Casting: Engineering Thermo-mechanical
Properties Using 3D Sand Printing
Fig. 1. (a) 3DSP pour cup dimensions in mm and (b) experimental setup.
0.42C per minute with a rest time of 60 min at each
temperature level to reach steady state. This test
was carried out for four binder levels, B1.5, B2, B2.5
and B5. Due to setup error, results for the B2.5 level
were only obtained during the heating phase.
Mechanical Testing of Aluminum Castings
Flexural bending tests were performed as per
ASTM E290 standard55 on six aluminum samples
per binder condition. The samples of dimensions
20 mm 9 70 mm 9 4.5 mm were machined from
the center of the castings to eliminate edge effects
(see Fig. 9). The span length, loading rate and data
acquisition rate were set to 60 mm, 2.5 mm/min and
10 Hz, respectively.
Microstructure of Aluminum Castings
Grain microstructure was evaluated from
12 mm 9 12 mm 9 6 mm specimens machined
from the bottom corner of the castings to include
edge effects of solidification sand molds, which could
be correlated to thermal properties of the 3DSP
molds (see Fig. 9). The surface nearest to the bottom
surface was ground and polished down to 1 lm
using a diamond polishing suspension. To observe
the grain structure, samples were etched for 6–
8 min using Keller’s reagent of the following chem-
ical composition: 95 mL H2O (water), 2.5 mL HNO3
(nitric acid), 1.5 mL HCl (hydrochloric acid) and
1 mL HF (hydrofluoric acid).57 Images were cap-
tured with an Olympus SZH10 Research Stereo
microscope with an Omax A3530U 3.2MP digital
camera using Toupview software from ToupTek
Photonics (Hangzhou, Zheijiang). Postprocessing
and analysis were performed using open-source
ImageJ.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Loss on Ignition (LOI) of 3DSP Molds
Loss on ignition (LOI) testing reveals significant
deviation from expected values provided by the
equipment manufacturer, specifically at lower bin-
der content levels (see Fig. 2a). Intermediate pulse
levels result in binder contents that are closer to
measured values, with an error near 10%. Binder
conditions of B2.5, B3 and B4 show comparatively
small changes in binder content, which were also
observed in dimensional tolerances (see Fig. 3) and
mechanical testing (see Fig. 4). Actual binder con-
tent ranges between 1.49% and 2.74%. Water
content remains < 0.2% in all binder conditions
(see Fig. 2b). The experimental values represent the
average of two LOI tests, except for B5 level, for
which only one result was obtained because of
measurement error in one of the trials. The values
of binder content as expected by the manufacturer
are supposed to follow a nearly linear relation (R2
value of 0.9696) with the number of pulses applied
to the binder head.
Using helium pycnometry (n = 3), a nearly linear
reduction in density with an increase in binder
concentration is observed, following the expression:
q ¼ 3:4222x þ 2:6659 ð7Þ
where x is the concentration of the binder in the
sample (wt.%) with an R2 value of 0.9931.This
 Martinez, Bate, and Manogharan

Fig. 2. (a) Binder and (b) water content within the samples tested via AFS loss on ignition test and (c) density measurements obtained via helium
pycnometry and calculated using a linear relation between silica sand and furan binder.

Fig. 3. Average deviation from the nominal dimensions (in mm) along and across the printing direction for (a) flexural samples, (b) pouring cups
and (c) cylinders. The print orientation is presented for every geometry condition.
Towards Functionally Graded Sand Molds for Metal Casting: Engineering Thermo-mechanical
Properties Using 3D Sand Printing
Fig. 4. (a) Ultimate tensile strength and sample weight and (b) ultimate flexural strength in two orientations with respect to the print direction.
linear relationship suggests that the arrangement
of silica particles in each sample is not altered by
sand-binder interactions. The densities of loose sand
and liquid furan binder were determined as 2.651 g/
cm3 and 1.142 g/cm3, respectively. A linear equation
to predict density values as a function of binder
condition (wt.%) can be derived:
qprintedsmaple ¼ xqsand þ yqBinder
Bias towards overestimating the actual density
with an increase in binder content is observed when
using this linear equation (see Fig. 2c). This could
be attributed to the accumulation of acid catalysts
with relatively lower weight,13 which is not consid-
ered in this study. Since binder concentration
> 3 wt.% results in inconsistent print quality and
higher costs58 to print molds, this analytical approx-
imation of mold density is considered accurate for
normal printing conditions with acceptable accuracy
(% error < 1.5%).
Dimensional Accuracy of 3DSP Molds
The flexural bending samples, pouring cups and
large cylinders are measured and analyzed for
dimensional accuracy after 3DSP. These samples
were measured several days after printing; hence, it
is assumed that shrinkage due to binder cross-
linking will have reached steady-state conditions. It
ð8Þ must be noted that the rate of shrinkage during the
initial few hours after printing (when it is challeng-
ing to handle the molds) has been demonstrated to
change based on different binder and catalyst
concentrations.59 However, this study is not rele-
vant to practice because of the need for higher green
strength to both handle and transport 3DSP molds.
An increase in binder content reduces printing
accuracy, consistent with reported studies,60,61 and
is attributed to binder bleeding, which is the
phenomenon of capillary flow of binder beyond the
deposited zone. The flow of binder out of the
immediate droplet area will agglomerate additional

sand grains, which results in printed parts with
higher than nominal dimensions. Another study
reports an opposite effect on binder jetting of finer
materials.62
The deviation from nominal dimension is smaller
across the print direction in all three samples with
the exception of the distance between the interior
walls of the pouring cup where maximum deviation
from the nominal is at the highest binder concen-
tration level (> 3 mm). However, this is explained
by the fact that the measurement is composed of two
different printed sections (i.e., binder bleeding in
the two walls of the cup). However, deviation of wall
thickness is similar to trends in other samples. At
the lowest binder level, the deviation is around
0.5 mm across the print direction. At the interme-
diate levels (i.e., B2, B2.5, B3 and B4) deviation is
between 0.5 and 1 mm, which follows a similar
trend as the reported LOI results.
Similarly, an increase in dimensional deviation is
observed with an increase in binder concentration
along the print direction. However, the deviation is
lower across all samples compared with measure-
ments along the print direction, which can be
attributed to the compressive effect that the recoat-
ing rake has been demonstrated to exert on the
printing bed.60 This compression could be accentu-
ating the binder bleeding in the direction perpen-
dicular to the printing plane, and further research
is required to verify this hypothesis. In the case of
deviation in the depth of the pouring cup (see
Fig. 3b), an opposite trend is observed, which could
be attributed to the retrieval and cleaning of loose
sands from the build box using compressed air. This
final cleaning step is believed to have affected the
printed depth of the cups.
Mold Mechanical Properties
Ultimate tensile strength 3DSP samples have a
non-linear relation to the binder content. Optimum
strength is obtained at the B2.5 level across the build
orientation (see Fig. 4). At the highest binder
content level, tensile strength increases again. The
mean strength regardless of binder content for this
system is lower than the reported values for the
tensile strength of chemically bonded sand using
furan binder in a ZCorp machine.63 This could be
attributed to the coarser grain size distribution used
in this study, which has been identified as an
important factor influencing tensile strength.64,65
As expected, the fracture was brittle in all cases.
Ultimate flexural strength shows a similar trend
to that of ultimate tensile strength, with increasing
strength as the binder concentration reaches the B3
level, a drop in B4 and a final increase with the
maximum binder concentration level. Flexural
strengths along and across build orientations show
very similar results; however, at intermediate
binder levels, a lower maximum strength can be
observed when the force is applied parallel to the
Martinez, Bate, and Manogharan
printing plan. Ultimate flexural strengths are lower
than the values reported in the literature for other
3DSP systems using the furan binder and employ-
ing the ExOne13,60 and Voxeljet14 systems. Tensile
strength is also shown to be lower than flexural
strength, coinciding with other reported values for
3DSP systems.14 It must be noted that exact
comparison with other 3DSP systems is difficult
since in some cases the layer thickness and sand
grain size are not reported. Table II presents a
summary of the reported values for ultimate flexu-
ral strengths in cold box, heat-cured and 3DSP
cases. The 3DSP system reported in this study has
lower strength than that in previously reported
studies.66
Permeability and Mercury Porosimetry
MIP results are expressed as pore volume distri-
bution per diameter. Translating these results to
pore count per diameter is difficult because of the
assumption about pore geometry.69 B2 and B4
samples show pore sizes of larger median (67 lm
and 64 lm, respectively) and mean (62 lm and
59 lm, respectively) based on the Washburn model
(see Fig. 5). These samples also display broader
distributions in both cumulative area and incre-
mental intrusion. Calculations of mean pore size
based on the assumption of straight cylindrical
pores of circular cross-section range between 57 lm
and 62 lm. No distinctive correlation can be drawn
between pore size and binder content. Samples used
for the MIP test were destroyed at final pressure
because of permanent deformation.
Permeability measurements validate the hypoth-
esis that increasing difficulty in degassing will occur
during casting with an increase in binder concen-
tration (see Fig. 6a). This could be attributed to the
reduction in pore space and/or higher tortuosity of
the pore network. MIP results suggest no significant
difference in the pore network but do not provide
detailed information on the geometric properties of
the pores to understand the reduction in perme-
ability. Future tests will include micro-computed
tomography to analyze the exact geometric charac-
teristics of the pore networks.
Figure 6b shows a very nearly linear relation
between mold density and permeability results,
which is not seen as clearly when analyzing it as a
function of binder concentration. The relation
between permeability and density is direct, which
might seem counterintuitive but is due to the fact
that the furan binder is less dense than the silica
sand; therefore, as binder content increases, the
total density decreases.
Mold Thermal Properties
Mold and casting temperatures for each 3DSP
sample were measured during and after pouring.
Figure 7a shows representative temperature curves
at the four locations in the mold during pouring-
Towards Functionally Graded Sand Molds for Metal Casting: Engineering Thermo-mechanical
Properties Using 3D Sand Printing

Table II. Comparison of ultimate flexural strength for different binder types
UFS
System Sand type Binder (MPa) Ref.

Cold box (phenolic urethane) Round silica GFN 55.56 1.25 wt.% phenolic urethane 1.8 67
Cold box (phenolic) H32 silica 1.2–1.9 wt.% phenolic resin 0.38a 68
Warm box (furanic) H32 silica Between 1.2 wt.% and 1.9 wt.% furan resin 0.72a 68
Warm box (urea-furanic) H32 silica Urea-furanic resin 0.44a 68
Voxeljet VX 1000 – Furan resin 1 wt.% 1.3 14
ExOne SPrint Round silica, GFN 97 Furan resin 1–3 wt.% 3.2a 13
Viridis 3D RAM Round silica, GFN 65 Furan resin 1–3 wt.% 0.89 This study
a
These values were shown to change with curing time; maximum flexural strength at room temperature curing is reported in this table.

Fig. 5. (a) Pore size, (b) pore area and (c) incremental volume obtained via mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP).

filling-solidification. The cooling curve for location A
corresponds to the thermocouple at the center of the
casting, which shows the characteristic horizontal
line between 80 s and 730 s representing the tran-
sition from liquid to solid in a pure metal.70 All
binder conditions showed a similar solidification
time. The temperature in locations C and D was
used to calculate the thermal diffusivity across the
thickness of the mold at 5 mm and 20 mm from the
mold’s internal wall, using Eq. 1. The average
thermal diffusivity calculated at these two points
during solidification is shown in Fig. 7b. The change
in heat diffusivity as well as corresponding heat
transfer coefficient is associated with binder decom-
position and water vapor transport across the
mold.36,37 Since temperatures remain < 500C at
the locations measured within the wall, binder
decomposition can be assumed to occur only within
the 5 mm of the wall nearest to the solidifying
aluminum.
TPS results show a clearer effect of increased
thermal diffusivity and conductivity at lower tem-
peratures because of the increase in binder content
(see Fig. 8), which increases the heat capacity of the
mold. All binder levels show a drastic reduction in
thermal conductivity during the cooling cycle. The

Fig. 6. (a) AFS permeability and weight of standard AFS samples (n = 9) as a function of binder concentration and (b) mold density.
Fig. 7. (a) A representative cooling curve for the four thermocouple positions; (b) thermal diffusivity versus temperature is calculated using the
average temperature measured at locations C and D.
most pronounced effect is observed at the highest
binder level B5 with a reduction of 36%, which is
attributed to both binder degradation at 180C and
the evaporation effect of humidity within the
samples.25
Similar heating cycles are reported in the litera-
ture to simulate mold aging during extended stor-
age of molds.13 These results suggest that heat
capacity and conductivity will be significantly
reduced because of mold aging, and additional
experimentation is required to confirm this effect.
Thermal diffusivity is found to be in the same order
of magnitude based on both casting and TPS runs.
Mechanical Testing of Aluminum Castings
Mechanical testing of castings was performed via
three-point bending tests on six samples at each
binder level. Maximum flexural stress is reported
since none of the samples suffered fracture at peak
stress (see Fig. 9). An ANOVA test was performed,
showing statistically significant differences between
the binder levels. Subsequently, a Fisher least
significant difference test (LSD) was performed,
Martinez, Bate, and Manogharan
which is a pairwise t test used to determine
differences between pairs of samples compared
against each other.71 The lowest binder levels, B1.5
and B2, show the highest mean strength.
Grain Structure of Aluminum Castings
Grain structures observed in cast aluminum
samples (see Fig. 10) are counted via visual inspec-
tion, and percentage areas of casting defects (in-
clusions and pores) are determined using ImageJ.
The larger differences in grain number and size
across each face reveal that the analyzed surface
area is insufficient to represent the castings as a
whole; therefore, no conclusions on microstructural
differences are drawn. Grain morphology is
expected to be columnar near the mold surface72;
however, only cross-sectional images are visible.
The types of defects observed are dispersed micro-
porosity, gas pores and possible bifilm defects. This
last defect is identifiable as irregular pores with
visible cracks with entrapped air (see Fig. 10c).73
The defects are common to samples across binder
content levels.
Towards Functionally Graded Sand Molds for Metal Casting: Engineering Thermo-mechanical
Properties Using 3D Sand Printing

Fig. 8. (a) Experimental setup for the transient plane source (TPS) technique, (b) thermal conductivity, (c) specific heat and (d) thermal diffusivity
for varying binder contents.

Fig. 9. (a) Mean maximum flexural stress; (b) Fisher pairwise comparison of groups with significantly different means with 95% confidence; (c)
location of extracted samples within the casting and three-point bending.

DISCUSSION analytical calculation of heat accumulation coeffi-

Analysis of density measurements obtained via
helium pycnomentry and thermal properties
obtained using the TPS technique enables
cient bf (see Fig. 11) based on Eq. 3 for 3DSP
printed molds of varying binder content. Thermal
data obtained at 50C are used in this calculation
 Martinez, Bate, and Manogharan

Fig. 10. (a) Representative micrograph of etched casting, (b) grain morphology and (c) typical casting defects including microporosity and
solidification shrinkage.

Fig. 11. Heat accumulation coefficient (bf) for B1.5, B2, B2.5 and B5 3DSP samples for different binder contents.

since density measurements are obtained at room
temperature conditions. The value of bf at higher
temperatures could be lower because of binder
degradation and loss of humidity, which could lead
to reduced density.
The heat accumulation coefficient determined
from this study lies within the range of typical
rammed sand molds compared with the comprehen-
sive report by Jelinek and Elbel.45 It should be
noted that our present study is the first to report the
wider chilling effect that can be achieved by mod-
ifying binder deposition during printing. Future
work will address the temperature effects on mold
density and subsequently on the heat accumulation
coefficient.
This study aimed to quantify the thermal,
mechanical and permeability properties of 3D
printed sand molds due to varying binder contents
in 3DSP. This represents an initial stage in a novel
approach toward creating functionally graded sand
molds by applying Design for AM (DfAM)
approaches. Such a framework to leverage 3DSP
through this novel approach is proposed in Fig. 12.
Findings on thermo-mechanical properties of 3DSP
Towards Functionally Graded Sand Molds for Metal Casting: Engineering Thermo-mechanical
Properties Using 3D Sand Printing
Fig. 12. Novel framework for the functionally graded 3DSP mold to control thermal, mechanical and degassing properties of sand molds.
properties from this study and future efforts serve
as inputs for the design-simulation–optimization
3DSP casting framework.
This unique approach will enable production of
3DSP molds with optimized mechanical strength,
point-by-point control of permeability across the
mold and venting designs. In addition, it can be
extended to accurately simulate filling and solidifi-
cation, which will lead to superior design of sand
molds (e.g., ingate location and number, runner
profiles, riser volumes, etc.) and/or create direc-
tional solidification within the casting.
CONCLUSION
In summary, this study reports on comprehensive
experimental testing of 3DSP samples at six differ-
ent binder concentrations ranging from 1.49% to
2.76%, which rendered the following results:
 Variation in the mechanical strength of 3DSP
molds ranges between 25% and 50% based on
actual binder content compared with the ex-
pected values presented by the manufacturer.
The actual binder content was lower than the
expected value because of the higher concentra-
tion at the lower three pulse values and lower
concentration at the higher three pulse values.
 Increasing binder content had a negative effect
on part tolerance.
 Tensile strength increased with binder content
up to a binder content of 1.95 wt.%. At the
highest binder concentration, 2.76% (i.e., B5), the
maximum tensile strength was observed. Flexu-
ral strength followed a similar trend.
 Permeability decreased with higher binder con-
tent. The pore mean size is experimentally
determined to range between 56 lm and 62 lm,
calculated using mercury intrusion porosimetry.
 Density decreased with higher binder content,
± 1% from the median value of 2.6 g/cm3 based
on helium pycnometry. This suggests that
reordering of sand grains does not occur as
binder content changes: therefore, density can be
predicted accurately by knowing the binder
content in the mold.
 Thermal conductivity, diffusivity and heat
capacity increase with increasing binder content
at room temperature. Binder degradation affects
thermal properties, particularly, at higher bin-
der levels.
 A solidification analysis of 99.9% pure aluminum
showed that binder content had no significant
effect on casting solidification time. Grain mor-
phology was shown to be similar in all cases. A
slight increase in the flexural strength of the
aluminum casting was observed at lower binder
levels.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank Dr. Robert Voigt for his expert
advice and Chris Anderson and Travis Richner for
 Martinez, Bate, and Manogharan

helping with casting trials. This work was partially
funded by a PA Manufacturing Fellows Grant from
the PA Department of Community and Economic
Development.
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