ECE 2302

ENGINERING GEOLOGY

TOPIC-3
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATIONS

1
 Subsurface Investigations
Subsurface/Site Investigations
 Site investigations refers to the procedure
of determining surface and subsurface
conditions in an area proposed for
construction
 Surface and subsurface features may
influence what can be built and will affect
design and construction procedure
 Information on surface condition is
important for planning construction
techniques
Objectives for Subsurface Investigation
• Determine depth, thickness and nature
of lithological of various soils or rocks
• Determine horizontal and vertical
variability of the rock strata
• Determine engineering properties of
various strata
• Determine depth of water table (ground
water)
Stages of subsurface investigation
(i) Reconnaissance (office and field)
(ii) Drilling, Samplings and Soundings
Sampling An example of Boring logs after drilling, showing soil
(iii) Laboratory Testing of the samples stratification, ground water and with laboratory testing 2
 Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance
 Collection of all the available information about subsurface prior to drilling and sampling, sounding.
 Depending on the engineering organization and the nature of project, varying amount of effort are
expended in the reconnaissance stage
 Drilling and sampling program can be planned more effectively if available information is reviewed
prior to initiation of drilling
 Reconnaissance is commonly accomplished in two phases
Office Reconnaissance
Field Reconnaissance
Office Reconnaissance
Several tasks can be accomplished during office phase
It should be kept in mind that gaining information by drilling and sampling is expensive. Hence Office
Reconnaissance can be achieved through
 Review of design plan and Preliminary plans:
 Review of Engineering Reports
 Review of published Information (Topographic Maps, Google earth maps, Geological Maps, Agricultural soil maps,
Aerial photographs, well log data)

3
 Office Reconnaissance

Office Reconnaissance
Review of Engineering Reports
o Engineeering reports may provide general information on the soil, rock and ground water conditions of the
area.
o Many private companies and private agencies have a ccumulated information on certain geographical
information and specific type of project
o Report on previous construction may be helpful for anticipated foundation problems
o Government agencies are the primary source of information of public records

Review of published Information or open file Geological report

Other information pertaining to site area can be obtained from
Topographic Maps
Google earth maps
Geological Maps
Agricultural soil maps
Aerial photographs
Well log data)

Next formulated field visit, decide on the number and depth of boring and stake the boring location

4
 Field Reconnaissance
Field Reconnaissance
 After the office phase, the field phase should commence with a site visit
 Field reconnaissance has two major purpose
 Allow experiences observer to view the site and record information that is pertinent
to boring plan or foundation design
 Gather information needed by drilling crew to accomplish boring program
 Number of items to look for in the field during reconnaissance are
(a) Proposed location of structure: If the location is poor, we can shift the location
(b) Topography and vegetation: Accessibility etc
(c) Soil geology, gully and natural slopes: surface depression or slope stability problems
(d) Surface and subsurface water: Indicate drainage problem
(e) Geology of the site: Any rock outcrop
(f) Information needed by drilling crew
i. Boring plan: Staking the boring
ii. Type of equipment required: Truck mounted (dry areas)or Track mounted
(marshy terrain)
iii. Right of access: Properties owner need to be notified and permission to access
obtained
iv. Location of utility: Waterline, Sewer line, gas lines electrical line ( Any part of
the drilling rigs must be 6 m away from power line) must be shown on the plan

5
 Formulation of the Boring Plan-Spacing and depth of borings
Fomulation
 Boring plan should be developed during final stage of office reconnaissance for subsequent preview during field
reconnaissance
 Several factors help determine the number depth and layout of borings
 Nature of construction project
 Complexity of subsurface materials
 Personal judgements of the construction manager
 Policy of the organization involved
 Below are common guidelines to selecting the spacing and depth of borings
Spacing
Most Engineering companies use guidelines set by American Society of Civil Engineers
• For important structures one hole per 232 m2 or one hole per 465 m2giving spacing of 15 m and 22m per hole
• Some Engineers prefer to prefer to use a random boring plan rather than a grid patter
Depth (minimum)
Minimum Depth of hole depends on loads that are likely to be imposed on the structure. Multistory building depth will
depend on number of stories. Guidelines used are
(a) Depth of 2B below the footing bottom (B= width of footing)
(b) Depth= Bedrock depth if bedrock is shallower than 2B with some rock coring
(c) Number of story : Db=3S0.7 (Light steel and narrow concrete) and Db=6S0.7 (heavy streel and wide concrete) where
Db=depth of boring and S= number of stories
(d) Depth ∆σ/σ’o<10% (∆σ =change is stress from foundation, σ’o =effective overburden stress)

Note: No Boring should be terminated in loose ground

6
Influence Zone of stress below a foundation

Depth of influence Zin is equal to 2B below the footing bottom (B= width of footing)

∆σv = profile of Change σ’o = Effective

in pressure due to overburden pressure due
application of loading on to insitu soil profile
foundation with depth

7
 Pressure distribution below loaded foundation

 Foundation needs to be desired to

resist
(a) Bearing failure
(b) Settlement of the foundation due to
addition load from foundation
 The influence load diminishes at
depth equal to 2B hence settlement
is minimal at that depth
 Subsurface investigation
information up to depth of 2B
below the foundation footing.

8
Distribution of stress underneath structures (Bossiness method- Point Load)

Load Q is in kN

Z is any distance below the

footing

r is radial distance away from

the footing. For stress
directly below the center of
footing r=0

9
 EXAMPLE 1: Distribution of stress underneath structures (Bossiness method- Point Load)
Review of previous subsurface investigation revealed that a site for the construction of city lighting pole and sign structure consists
of 3 m thick sand layer overlying 8 m thick sandy gravel layer. The unit weights of the subsurface materials are as shown.
Highway design code stipulates that the boring for sign structure be advanced at least to a depth where the change in stress due to
load on the sign structure is approximately 5% of the effective overburden pressure. Calculate the required depth of boring for a
sign structure that will be required to carry 150kN load.
Q=150 kN Effective
Maximum change in stress
overburden stress
with be at the center of light
structure r=0 corresponding σ’v0 =∑γ∆Z
to IB=0.48 Depth,
Unit weight,γ stress due to layer σ'v0 ∆σv ∆σ v/σ 'vo Advance
Layer
Z(m) ∆Z(m) (kN/m )
3 2
thickness (kN/m ) (kN/m2) (kN/m )
2
(%) boring to
0 0 17 0 0.0 -
atleast
0.5 0.5 17 8.5 8.5 288.0 3388.2

SAND
1 0.5 17 8.5 17.0 72.0 423.5 between 4-
with clay
1.5
2
0.5
0.5
17
17
8.5
8.5
25.5
34.0
32.0
18.0
125.5
52.9
4.5 m deep
2.5 0.5 17 8.5 42.5 11.5 27.1 where the
3
3.5
0.5
0.5
17
18
8.5
9
51.0
60.0
8.0
5.9
15.7
9.8
change in
Dense SAND with clay
Unit weight, γ=17 kN/m3
4 0.5 18 9 69.0 4.5 6.5 stress due to
3m

4.5 0.5 18 9 78.0 3.6 4.6

foundation
2.5 m

Water content, w=10%

5 0.5 18 9 87.0 2.9 3.3
5.5 0.5 18 9 96.0 2.4 2.5 will be at
Sandy
6
6.5
0.5
0.5
18
18
9
9
105.0
114.0
2.0
1.7
1.9
1.5
approximate
Very dense Sandy Gravel 7 0.5 18 9 123.0 1.5 1.2 ly 5% of the
Gravel with Silt with Silt 7.5 0.5 18 9 132.0 1.3 1.0
Unit weight, γ=18 8 0.5 18 9 141.0 1.1 0.8
effective
overburden
8m

kN/m3 8.5 0.5 18 9 150.0 1.0 0.7

Water content, 9 0.5 18 9 159.0 0.9 0.6
w=12% 9.5 0.5 18 9 168.0 0.8 0.5 stress
10 0.5 18 9 177.0 0.7 0.4
10.5 0.5 18 9 186.0 0.7 0.4
10
Distribution of stress underneath structures (2V:1H Method)

q is in kN/m2

q0 is in kN then

𝑞𝑞0
Δ𝜎𝜎 =
𝐵𝐵 + 𝑧𝑧 + 𝐿𝐿 + 𝑧𝑧

11
 Subsurface Explorations: Sounding, Drilling and Sampling
Soil boring
Exploration
 Exploration can be accomplished in two
ways
(a) Test Pits: Provide visual identification of soil
strata. Excavated to limited depth
(b) Boring: Can be extended to greater depths

Test Pit

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 Test Pits
 Excavation by hand or an excavator
 Soil lithology, type, depth of layer
and color is observed and logged
 Sample collected are disturbed
samples
 Different soils types are represented
by different shading.

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 Drilling Hole Advancing Techniques

 When soil investigation extends to some depth, mechanical means of drilling are used.
 Two techniques are widely used
 Auger method: hollow stem auger, Solid flight auger or continuous flight auger
 Wash boring
 Augering/ wash boring are means of advancing the boring
 When advancing the hole casing may be required to protect the hole from collapsing/caving in

Auger head contains

Wash boring replicable carbide teeth.
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 Augering & Wash boring

Wash boring have to be cased to be Hollow stem auger have distant

advanced. Normally they are used to advantage over solid stem auger in
clean the holes after solid stem that they do not need to be removed
auguring frequently for sample to be taken

15
 Insitu Soil Sampling
disturbed
Standard Penetration Testing
Soil sampling can be disturbed (SPT)/ Split spoon sampling
or undisturbed sample

undisturbed
Shelby Tube sampling

SPT sampling

16
 SPT SAMPLING

SPT hammer

SPT Sampler

Casing

SPT Testing
 Split spoon sampler is used to collect sample
 The split spoon has an inside diameter of
34.93 mm and outside diameter of 50.8 mm
 The sampler is driven into the soil by hammer
blow. The weight of the hammer is 622.7 N
the hammer drops a distance of 0.762 m
 The number of blows required for a split
spoon to penetrate Three (3)-152 mm are
recorded
 The number of blow required for the last
two- 152 mm intervals are added and given
Standard Penetration Number, N at that depth
17
 Sample storage
SPT Testing Example 2: Sample disturbance
 The Split spoon is opened, and the recovery of
the sample is measured (length of the sample
inside the spoon)
 Visual classification of soil is done
 Boring logs are produced
 The sample are recovered from the split
spoon and stored in a glass jar or zip lock bag
to preserve the moisture
 Indicate boring number, depth, sample number

Sample
stored in
Ziplock
bag to Example 3: SPT, N value
preserve QUESTION
moisture Standard Penetration Test was conducted using a
standard split spoon sample. The recorded blow
counts for the three 150 mm penetrations were 8-
12-7. Determine the SPT, N value
Solution
N-value is the sum of the blow counts for the last two- 152
mm intervals

N=12+7=19 18
 Factor affecting N-value
Factors affecting N- value
We need to correct N-value for both hammer type
 The type of soil and density
state. Dense soils have high (efficiency) and soil overburden pressure
N-value than loose soil.
Soil above water table have
higher values than soil
below water table Correction for overburden
 The type of hammer:  The effect of the effective
Different hammers have overburden pressure so
different efficiency ( Auto should be accounted for
Hammer =80% efficiency,  The coefficienct CN varies
safety Hammer 60% with effective overburden
efficiency) hence N-vanue stress
from Donout hammer will  The Coefficient is multiplied
Correcting for Hammer efficiency by N60 to obtain (N1)60
be more that the N-value
 The standard practice is to express N-value
from Auto hammer
to an average energy ratio of 60%
 The depth where the sample is
collected: The effect of
ηH=80% for Auto hammer and 60% for safety
effective soil overburden
hammer and 45% for Donut hammer
pressure at very deeper
Other coefficients can be neglected
depth. N value at deeper
N60=N ηH /60
depth will be more than
For Safety hammer N60=N
N-values at shallower
For Auto hammer N60=80N
depth.
/60=1.333 N
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 EXAMPLE 4: Correction for overburden
• several correlations existing
for determining CN
• value of CN≤2.0
SAND with Silt
Unit weight, γ=16
3m

kN/m3
Water content, Solution
w=15%
SAND with gravel and
Determine N-value
5m

with Silt
Unit weight, γ=17 kN/ (1) N =8+12=20
8m

m3
SPT= 2-8-12 Water content,
w=18% Determine N60
N60= Nx80/60=20x80/60=26.6=27
Correction for overbudden
Determine (N1)60
Boring logs showed soil lithology consist of 3 m
CN=(Pa/σ’o)0.5
of Sand with silt overlying 8 m thick layer of
sand with gravel and silty. The properties of the σ’v0 =∑γH= (16x3)+(18x5)=138kN/m2
soils are as shown on the figure. SPT was taken a
depth of 5 m below the SAND with gravel and CN=(Pa/σ’o)0.5=(100/138) 0.5=0.85
Silt layer using an Auto Hammer Rig .The blow
counts were 2-8-12 for each 152 mm penetration (N1)60= CN xN60=0.85x27=22.95
was calculated for the spoon sampler. Determine
(N1)60 (N1)60=23
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 EXAMPLE 5: Correction for overburden
SAND with Silt Solution
Unit weight, γ=16

2m
3m
Ground water kN/m3
Water content, Determine N-value
w=15% (1) N =8+12=20
SAND with gravel and
5m

with Silt
Unit weight, γ=17 kN/ Determine N60
8m

m3 N60= Nx80/60=18x80/60=24
SPT= 2-7-11 Water content,
w=22%
Determine (N1)60
CN=(Pa/σ’o)0.5
Correction for overbudden
Boring logs showed soil lithology σ’o =∑γH- ∑ γwHw= (16x3)+(18x5)-
consist of 3 m of Sand with silt (9.81x6)=(138-58.9)kN/m2=79.1 kN/m2
overlying 8 m thick layer of sand with
gravel and silty. The properties of the CN=(Pa/σ’o)0.5=(100/79.1) 0.5=1.12
soils are as shown on the figure.
Ground was encountered at 2 m below (N1)60= CN xN60=1.12x24=26.98
the ground surface. SPT was taken a
depth of 5 m below the SAND with (N1)60=27
gravel and Silt layer using an Auto
Hammer Rig .The ]blow counts were 2-
8-12 for each 152 mm penetration was
calculated for the spoon sampler.
Determine (N1)60
21
 Correlation between N-value Soil properties

SAND with Silt

Unit weight, γ=16
2m
3m

Ground water kN/m3

Water content,
w=15%
SAND with gravel and
5m

with Silt
Unit weight, γ=17 kN/
8m

m3
SPT= 2-7-11 Water content,
w=22%

Coarse grained soil the is defined by

relative density while fine grained soil
are defined by consistence

Determine density state of the sand deposit.

N =8+12=20
N60= Nx80/60=18x80/60=24
Medium dense, relatyive density between 40-70%

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 Soil Boring Logs and logging
 During drilling, soil samples are collected in
SPT spoon
 Blow counts are recorded
 Description of the soil type, density state ,
consistency is recorded
 Soil stratum/ layering is recorded
 For finned grained soil we take pocket
penetrometer test or Torvane Test to define
the unconfined compressive strength in the
field
 Ground water depth measured at the end of
drilling and 24 hrs after drilling ( 24 hrs
ground water depth is the design ground
water depth)
Laboratory Tests that can be performed on
disturbed samples are:
 Gradation: Soil classification
 Atterberg limits : Clay soils
 Direct shear test: Strength for remolded
samples
 Corrosion Testing
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 UNDISTURBED SAMPLING-Shelby Tube Sampling

 When compressible soils/ fine grained soils are

Prior to sealing and shipping the samples, Torvane
encountered where SPT is impossible Shelby
tube sampling may be taken Tests or Pocket Penetrometer Tests can be used to
 Shelby Tube sampling is for compressible soils determine the undrained shear strength of the fine-
(clays and silts) grained soils
 The tube is attached and the end of the rig
and pushed down to the desired depth using
hydraulic jack
 Some torque is provided to shear the soil
 The tube is left in position for 20 minutes and
then pulled out
 Both ends of the tube is sealed with wax to
preserve moisture
 The tube is marked for depth and transported
in an upright manner 24
 Laboratory Test on Undisturbed Samples

Laboratory Tests that can be performed on undisturbed samples are:

 Consolidation test: For estimating consolidation settlement parameters for
fine grained soils
 Unconfined Compressive strength: Determine the undrained shear strength
 Unconsolidated Undrained Test : Short term undrained parameters for fine
grained soils
 Consolidated Undrained Test: Long term undrained parameters for fine
grained soils
 Consolidated Drained Test: Long term drained parameters for clay soils
 Permeability Test: Coefficient of permeability for fine grained soil

25
OBTAINING SOIL PARAMATERS FROM SPT
(a) Soil density, γ

26
OBTAINING SOIL PARAMATERS FROM SPT
(b) Friction Angle, φ

27
SOIL DENSITY FROM SPT TESTING

28
HOUGH METHOD FOR SETTLEMENT

Used to calculate settlement of foundation nbased on

Corrected SPT N-Value N1(60)

1 σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + Δσ𝑣𝑣
𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒 = 𝐻𝐻 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10
𝐶𝐶𝐶 σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣

Laboratory Tests that can be performed on undisturbed

samples are:
Se= Settlement of the subdivided layer
H= Thickness of the layer
σ’vo = Effective initial overburden pressure estimating
∆σ’vo = change in preesure due to foundation loading
C’= Bearing capacity index

29
Design example (a) Interpret the log
Develop soil parameters for the boring logs given.
For Automatic Hammer
(Note 3.3 feet= 1 m)
Layer 1: N=4+3=7, N=0+2=2, N=2+2=4
Layer 2: N>50
Layer 3: N=19+26=45

Simplify the boring log into soil profile as shown

with ground water table

2.1 m
Loose fine SAND

4.9 m
(SPT N Value 2 to 7 average N=3)

Very dense coarse SAND

2.3 m

(SPT N >50 )

Dense fine SAND

0.9 m

(SPT N=45 )

Rock/Hard ground 30
 Develop soil parameters (b) Soil density
Soil density were estimated from the table by Bowels
1977 below. For conservative design the bulk density will
be taken to be equal above and saturated density

2.1 m
• Layer 1: N=3, γ<15.7kN/m3 use 13kN/m3 Loose fine SAND
• Layer 2: N>50, γ>20.4kN/m3 use 20kN/m3 (SPT N Value 2 to 7 average N=3)

4.9 m
γ=13 kN/m3
• Layer 3: N=46, 17.3<γ<20.4kN/m3 use 18kN/m3

Very dense coarse SAND

2.3 m
Estimated soil density is (SPT N >50 )
included in the profile γ=20 kN/m3

Dense fine SAND

(SPT N=45 )

0.9 m
γ=18 kN/m3

Rock/Hard ground

31
 Develop soil parameters (c) φ
Calculate N160 from the average N value from layer, estimate
effective overburden at the center of each later.

2.1 m
Loose fine SAND
Layer 1: (SPT N Value 2 to 7 average N=3)

4.9 m
N=3 , N60=3×80/60=4, therefore N60=4 γ=13 kN/m3
φ=30°
σ’vo=(13×2.45)-(9.81×0.35)=28.42kN/m2
CN=(Pa/σ’vo)0.5=(100/28.42)0.5=1.88
N160=N60× CN =4×1.88=7.52, therefore N160 =7
Very dense coarse SAND
φ =(15.4× N160)0.5= (15.4×7)0.5 +20=30.3° therefore φ =30° (SPT N >50 )

2.3 m
(Conservative approach is to use the lower N-value) γ=20 kN/m3
φ=47°
Layer 2:
Dense fine SAND
N>50 , N60=50×80/60=66, therefore use N60=66 (SPT N=45 )

0.9 m
σ’vo =(13×4.9)+(20×1.15)-(9.81×3.95)=47.95kN/m2 γ=18 kN/m3
φ=45°
CN=(Pa/σ’vo)0.5=(100/47.95)0.5=1.44
Rock/Hard ground
N160=N60× CN =66×1.44=95, therefore use N160 =50 (limit)
φ =(15.4× N160)0.5= (15.4×50)0.5 +20=47.7° therefore φ =47°

Layer 3:
N=46 , N60=46×80/60=61, therefore use N60=61
σ’vo =(13×4.9)+(20×2.3)+(18×0.45)-(9.81×5.55)=63.35kN/m2
CN=(Pa/σ’vo)0.5=(100/63.35)0.5=1.25
N160=N60× CN =61×1.25=76, therefore use N160 =50 (limit)
φ =(15.4× N160)0.5= (15.4×50)0.5 +20=47.7° therefore reduce
φ =44° since the soil is less denser than layer 2
32
 Design of foundation(d) Bearing Capacity
Plans calls for construction of 5 story
building with foundation load of P=250 kN
on a square foundation of B=1 m.
Determine (i) if the loose will provide
enough strength bearing capacity failure (ii) Ultimate bearing capacity of the soil
If the permissible immediate settlement of 𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 + 0.5γ𝑁𝑁γ
the foundation is 25 mm, is foundation safe
against excessive settlement (Use Hough For φ=30°, Nc =37.16 , Nq =22.46, Nγ =19.13
Method? 𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = (0 × 37.16) + (1.0 × 13 × 22.46) + (0.5 × 13 × 1 × 19.13)
P=250 kN
𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = (0 × 37.16) + (1.0 × 13 × 22.46) + (0.5 × 13 × 1 × 19.13)

𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 416.3𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
Df =1.0 m

Allowable bearing capacity

2.1 m

B=1.0 m 𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 416.3

𝑞𝑞𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = = = 138.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
4.9 m

Loose fine SAND 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 3

(SPT N Value 2 to 7 average N=3)
γ=13 kN/m3 Foundation Pressure
φ=30°
𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 250
Very dense coarse SAND 𝑞𝑞𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = = 250 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
(SPT N >50 ) 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 1 × 1
2.3 m

γ=20 kN/m3
φ=47°
Dense fine SAND qall < q max hence foundation fails against bearing capacity
(SPT N=45 )
check
0.9 m

γ=18 kN/m3
φ=45° 33
Rock/Hard ground
 Design of foundation(e) Settlement
P=250 kN
Hough Method of settlement
calculation
1 σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + Δσ𝑣𝑣
Df =1.0 m

𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒 = 𝐻𝐻 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10
𝐶𝐶𝐶 σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣

2.1 m
B=1.0 m
4.9 m

Loose fine SAND • Settlement be excessive

(SPT N Value 2 to 7 average N=3)
γ=13 kN/m3 • Settlement mostly on the
φ=30° loose fine sand
Very dense coarse SAND
(SPT N >50 )
• Minimal settlement in the
2.3 m

γ=20 kN/m3 dense sand fine sand due to

φ=47°
Dense fine SAND
less effect of loading on
(SPT N=45 ) those layers
0.9 m

γ=18 kN/m3
φ=45°
Rock/Hard ground

Thickness γ Depth, Z ∆σ v
Layer N 160 C' Depth (m ) σ ' vo (kPa) B+Z (m ) L+Z (m ) S e (m) S e (mm )
H (m ) (kN/m 3) (m ) (kPa)
7 35 0 0 13 0.0 - - - -
7 35 1 1 13 13.0 0 1 1 250.0 0.0373 37.3
Fine Sand
7 35 2.1 1.1 13 27.3 1.1 2.1 2.1 56.7 0.0153 15.3
7 35 4.9 2.8 3.19 36.2 3.9 4.9 4.9 10.4 0.0088 8.8
Coarse 95 35.00 6.05 1.15 10.19 48.0 5.05 6.05 6.05 6.8 0.0019 1.9
Sand 95 300 7.2 1.15 10.19 59.7 6.2 7.2 7.2 4.8 0.0001 0.1
76 175 7.65 0.45 8.19 63.4 6.65 7.65 7.65 4.3 0.0001 0.1
Fine Sand
76 175 8.1 0.45 8.19 67.0 7.1 8.1 8.1 3.8 0.0001 0.1

Total 63.6
 Rock Coring
• Rotary rock coring is used to obtain
Determining Top of rock during
cylindrical rock samples
subsurface investigation
• Coring by rotary method is accomplished
(a) Depth of spoon refusal: more that 50
using diamond drilling bit and a core
blows with a spoon penetration of less
barrel
than 1 mm. Then follow with
• The core barrel and drill bit are attached
auguring.
to the drill rods attached to the drilling
(b) Depth Auger refusal: No advancement
machine
of the auguring bit
• During drilling the core drilling bit is cooled
using water circulated by the drilling
machine
• At the end of the coring the core barrel is
pulled from the oil and rock sample
extruded.
• The amount of rock recovery is measured (
Ratio of the length of the rock sample to
the penetration depth of core barrel during
coring)
• Rock samples are stored in a core box and
depths partitioned
35
 Rock Quality Designate (RQD)
∑ 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ≥10 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 (%)
RQD=
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

No recovery/Low recovery of rock could be

either rock pieces being highly weathered
or presence of void in the rock mass 36
 Rock Quality Designate (EXAMPLE 2)

Mechanical break:
Fracture by driller. They
are ignored and the
rock piece is treated as
one piece.

37
Rock Quality Designate(EXAMPLE 3)

38
 Other exploration methods ( Insitu Sounding)
Using special rig, the following i. Vane Shear Test ( fine grained) while
tests can be performed CPT ( for all types of soil)
(a) Vane Shear Test ii. No sample is collected
(b) Cone Penetration Tests iii. Insitu soil strength properties determined
Vane shear Test
• Test used to determine undrained shear strength (Cu)of clay
• The shear vane shear consist of four blades on each end of
the rod
• The heigh H is twice the diameter of the, D.
• Vane can be rectangular of tapered
• The vane is pushed into the soil and a torque applied at a
rate of 0.1°/sec
• This rotation will induce failure in a of the cylindrical
surrounding the vane
• The maximum Torque applied to cause failure is measure.

• T= f (Cu, H and D)

Vane shear Test 𝑇𝑇

• K= Constant with magnitude depending on the C u=
𝐾𝐾
dimension and shape of the vane
• Cu is in kN/m2. D and H in39cm
 EXAMPLE( Vane Shear Test)

A vane shear test was conducted in saturated clay. The height and diameter
of the vane were 101.6 mm and 50.8 mm respectively. During the test, the
maximum torque applied was 0.035 kN-m. Determined the undrained shear
strength
𝑇𝑇
𝐶𝐶𝑢𝑢 =
𝐾𝐾

K= 4.805𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑚𝑚3
𝑇𝑇 0.035𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−𝑚𝑚
C u= = = 72.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
𝐾𝐾 4.805𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥−4𝑚𝑚3

40
 Cone Penetration Test ( CPT)
CPT
• Known as Dutch cone is used to determine material properties and measure their engineering properties
• CPT can measure. It's fitted with pressure sensor.
(a) Cone Pentration Resistance (qc): Measured using earth pressure sensors at the tip ,
(b) Friction resistance ( fr): Measured using earth pressure sensors at the sleeve
(c) Porewater pressure (u): Measured using pore water pressure sensors near the tip

Undrained shear strength of fine grained soil

𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 =undrained shear strength
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣0
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 = cone tip resistance 𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 =
σ𝑣𝑣0 = total overburden pressure 𝑁𝑁𝐾𝐾
𝑁𝑁𝐾𝐾 =cone factor (𝑁𝑁𝐾𝐾 =15 electric cone and
𝑁𝑁𝐾𝐾 =20 mechanical cone)

41
42
43
CPT Profiles

44
 Types of soil from normalized CPT data
Normalized cone tip resistance= Ratio of the difference between cone tip resistance and the total overburden
stress to the effective overburden stress sleeve friction to the cone tip resistance

𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣0
𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡 =
σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 = 𝑞𝑞𝑐𝑐 + 𝑢𝑢2(1 − 𝑎𝑎)

σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣 = σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 − 𝑢𝑢𝑜𝑜

u2= pore water pressure measured during CPT sounding

u0 =Static water pressure (γwz)
a=ratio of shaft rod connected to the top of the cone compared to the area of cone
tip
Friction factor = Ratio of sleeve friction to the cone tip resistance

𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟
𝐹𝐹𝑟𝑟 = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣𝑣

Normalized pore water pressure ratio

𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑢0
𝐵𝐵 =
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣𝑣
45
 Types of soil from normalized CPT data
Graphs of Qt and Fr and also from graph of Qt and B, the soil type can be obtained.

𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣0 𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑢0

𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡 = 𝐹𝐹𝑟𝑟 = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝐵𝐵 =
σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣𝑣

46
 Example of soil type from CPT
From one location at a proposed construction site, the CPT results obtained at a depth of 8 m is included below.
Groundwater for the site is encountered at a depth of 3 m. The soil wet unit weight is 16kN/m3.For the geometry
of cone-friction sleeve, a=0.75.
Cone tip resistance, qc=600kPa
Friction sleeve resistance, fs= 30kPa
Cone pore pressure u2=90kPa

Based on Friction Factor Based on Normalized porewater ratio

σ′ 𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 9.81𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 × 5𝑚𝑚 = 49 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 σ′ 𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 9.81𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 × 5𝑚𝑚 = 49 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑢0
𝐵𝐵 =
σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 16𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 × 8𝑚𝑚 = 128 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 16𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 × 8𝑚𝑚 = 128 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣𝑣

σ′ 𝑣𝑣𝑣 = σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 − 𝑢𝑢𝑢 = σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 − γ𝑤𝑤 × 5 σ′ 𝑣𝑣𝑣 = σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 − 𝑢𝑢𝑢 = σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 − γ𝑤𝑤 × 5
= 128 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 9.81𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 × 5𝑚𝑚 = 79 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 128 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 9.81𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 × 5𝑚𝑚 = 79 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 = 𝑞𝑞𝑐𝑐 + 𝑢𝑢2 1 − 𝑎𝑎 = 600𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 90 1 − 0.75 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 = 𝑞𝑞𝑐𝑐 + 𝑢𝑢2 1 − 𝑎𝑎 = 600𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 90 1 − 0.75 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
= 622.5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 622.5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣0 622.5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 128𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣0 622.5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 128𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = = = 6.25 𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = = = 6.25
σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣 79𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣 79𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑢0 90𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 49𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 × 100% 30𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 × 100% 𝐵𝐵 = = = 0.083
𝐹𝐹𝑟𝑟 = = = 6.1% 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 622.5𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 − 128𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 622.5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 128𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

From CPT based SBTFr chart is Type 3, From CPT based SBTBq chart is Type 3,
 Q/A Review SESSION
SAND with Silt
Unit weight, γ=16  Which sampling method can be used in point X to
2m
3m

kN/m3
Ground water
Water content, obtained subsurface investigation
w=15% (i) What's N-value
SAND with gravel and
(ii) What's N60
5m

with Silt
Unit weight, γ=17 kN/
(iii) What's (N1)60
8m

X m3
Water content,
w=22%
Soft Lean Clay
 If the soil is soft in point Y, The spoon sampler
Y Unit weight, γ=12 kN/ penetrated 0.45 m due to weight of hammer
7m

m3
Water content, (i) What sounding methods can be used to obtain
w=45% subsurface information at point Y
(ii) What can parameters can be measured in each of the
Shale bedrock above sounding methods at Point Y
Z (iii) Can samples be collected from the above sounding
methods? If not, what sampling methods can be used to
collected undisturbed samples.
(iv) What two test can be used to determine undrained shear
strength of the disturbed sample in (iii) above
Answer the following (v) What laboratory strength tests can be performed on the
questions questions based undisturbed samples collected in (iii)
on the subsurface profile
given above  What sampling method can be used in point Z
(i) What RQD of the rock
(ii) How is mechanical breaks accounted for?
48