PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF

OCCUPATIONAL
HYGIENE

Lecturer
W Dibakwane

BMS N409 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

winnie.dibakwane@smu.ac.za

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 OCCUPATIONAL HYGIENE
• 'The discipline of anticipating, recognizing,
evaluating & controlling health hazards in the
working environment with the objective of protecting
worker health and well-being
• It involves the protection of workers in their
employment from risks resulting from factors adverse
to health

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 What is Occupational health and hygiene
• Health: A state of complete physical, mental and
social well-being of a worker and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity (WHO, 1946)
• Healthy: means free from illness or injury
attributable to occupational causes.
• A way of functioning within one's environment
(work, recreation, and living). It not only means
freedom from pain or disease, but also freedom to
develop and maintain one's functional capacities.

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 Primary aim

• Prevent harm to employees

• Prevent regulatory action against the company
• Minimize the risk of legal claims against the
company for occupational diseases, injuries,
and deaths
• Minimize reputational risk and disaster
prevention

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Definition of basic concepts

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 Definition of basic concepts
• Hazard is any situation or a condition that can
potentially cause an adverse effect injury or illness in
workers OR any substance/material that can cause
harm to an individual or a group of people
• Risk The likelihood that a hazard will result in
adverse effects

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 Definition of basic concepts
• Hazards can be divided into either SAFETY OR HEALTH HAZARDS.
➢ Safety hazards are those hazards that may result in injury or
sometimes even death of a worker or workers. Examples of safety
hazards include chemical burns on the skin, wet or slippery floors,
fires or explosions, and lifting and carrying of heavy objects.
➢ Health hazards are those hazards that may cause occupational
disease or illness. Occupational diseases are slow to develop.
➢ By the time they are noticed a worker may have changed jobs several
times and this makes it difficult to link working conditions with the
development of occupational disease.
• Health hazards may result from prolonged use of dangerous
chemicals, noisy machinery, exposure to dust, or temperature
extremes.
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Categories of health hazards/stressors

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Common occupational hygiene hazards by
industry
• Construction; exposure to mineral dusts occurs
during many different construction activities,
abrasive blasting, concrete drilling etc.
• Manufacturing; exposure to noise, silica, metal
fumes etc.
• Mining; exposure to noise, coal dusts, diesel
exhaust etc.
• Primary metals and basic steel products;
exposure to noise, dust, silica etc.
• Public warehousing and storage; carbon
monoxide 11
Route of Entry/absorption: (Inhalation)
• For industries exposure, a major if not predominant,
route of entry is inhalation, any airborne substance
can be inhaled
• The respiratory system is composed of two main
areas: the upper respiratory tract airways (nose,
throat, trachea, and major bronchial tubes leading to
the lobes of lungs)
• and the lower respiratory tract, which includes
smaller airways and the alveoli, where the actual
transfer of gases across thin cell walls takes place.

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 Pulmonary/respiratory absorption gases
and vapours
• Gas: a substance or matter in a state in
which it will expand freely to fill the
whole of a container, having no fixed
shape (unlike a solid) and no fixed
volume (unlike a liquid)
• Vapour: a substance diffused or
suspended in the air, especially one
normally liquid or solid.

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 Absorption of Gases and Vapours
• Absorption mainly through the lungs; must
first pass through the upper respiratory tract
• Highly water-soluble gases and vapors will
dissolve in moisture-rich mucus layers
• Less water-soluble gases and vapors will pass
down through the alveolar lining or region of the
lungs into the bloodstream.

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 Absorption of Aerosols and
Particulates
• The site of deposition in the respiratory tract depends
largely on the size of the particle
➢ Large particles – (about 5-10µm in diameter) absorbed
into the upper respiratory tract; cleared out through
sneezing/coughing
➢ Small particles (0.1-10µm in diameter) absorbed and settle
into the middle and lower respiratory tract (alveoli)
➢ Small particles are cleared out through mucociliary action –
back to the nasal area – swallowed and absorbed in the
gastrointestinal tract

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 Dermal/ Skin absorption
• Is the second major route of exposure. Those
areas of the skin that come into contact with
contaminants are the most impacted.
• The face or hands are the areas of the skin
surface that usually come into contact with
potentially toxic materials.
• Dermal absorption may also be enhanced by
scratched, roughened, broken, or abraded
surfaces of the skin

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 Route of entry (ingestion)
• The issue/problem of ingesting chemicals is not widespread in
industries; most workers do not deliberately swallow the
materials they handle. Nevertheless, workers can ingest toxic
material as a result of eating in contaminated areas;
• Contaminated fingers and hands can lead to accidental oral
intake when the worker eats or smokes on the job.
• They can also ingest substances when contaminants deposited
in the respiratory tract are carried out of the lung to the throat
by the action of the ciliated lining of the respiratory tract and
then swallowed.
• Absorption after ingestion is often less than with inhalation
because of the action of the stomach acid and intestinal
enzymes, dilution by intestinal contents, and greater thickness
of the intestinal wall
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 ANTICIPATING AND RECOGNIZING

• Anticipation – this involves identifying

potential hazards in the workplace before they
are introduced.
• Recognition - this involves identifying the
potential hazard that a chemical, physical or
biological agent - or an adverse ergonomic
situation - poses to health.

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 EVALUATION

• Evaluation of the extent of exposure to chemical

hazards, physical or biological agents (or adverse
ergonomic situations) in the workplace.
• This often involves measurement of the personal
exposure of a worker to the hazard/agent in the
workplace, particularly at the relevant interface
between the environment and the body, e.g.
breathing zone, hearing zone, and assessment of
the data in terms of recommended occupational
exposure limits (OELs), where such criteria exist.
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 TYPES OF EVALUATIONS

• Comprehensive exposure assessment to

identify and quantify health hazards.
• Assess compliance with regulatory standards
and/or technical guidelines.
• Review exposures based on complaints
• Exposure assessment for medical and
epidemiological studies.
• Determine effectiveness of engineering and/or
administrative controls.

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COMPREHENSIVE EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

• Primary objective - acceptability of health

hazard exposures for all workers in
occupational settings or for specific operations
such as batch production, spill response,
maintenance, etc.
• Identification and quantification/estimation of
exposures to workplace stressors; use of walk-
through survey procedures, and evaluation
techniques to estimate employee exposure
levels.
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 COMPLIANCE SURVEY

• Exposure to stressors are quantified and

evaluated by comparison to published health
standards, OSHA, Permissible Exposure
Limits (PELs) or technical recommended
guidelines such as American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)

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• Compliance is acting in accordance with health
and safety regulations.
• Noncompliance is failure to act as above.
• Demonstration of noncompliance requires that
an exposure exceed the standard with an
acceptable degree of certainty.
• Therefore, maximum risk employees
addressed for comparison. Indicate OH
program weakness.

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 COMPLAINT RESPONSE

• Evaluation should include interviews, walk-

through surveys to obtain necessary workplace
information.
• Identify/recognize the potential cause of
health hazard
• Determine if the workers may be exposed to
hazardous concentration of the materials.
• In conclusion, inform complainant of results to
demonstrate that potential health hazards
are/were seriously considered
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 MEDICAL AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL
STUDIES
• Personnel need to understand worker
exposures to evaluate the effect - individually
or groups.
• Past exposure assessed by modeling scheme or
on a qualitative.
• Exposure information available for
epidemiological studies to relate health effects.

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 METHOD OF CONTROL
• CONTROL of the chemical, physical or
biological agent - or adverse ergonomic
situation, by procedural, engineering or other
means where the evaluation indicates that this
is necessary.

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What is Occupational Hygiene?

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 HEALTH PROTECTION DISCIPLINES

• Occupational Medicine – this covers both

clinical practice (doctors) as well as nursing
and is concerned with the effect of work on
health
• Epidemiology - concerned with the statistical
study of disease patterns in groups of
individuals.
• Toxicology - concerned with the prediction
and the evaluation of the effects of chemical
substances on living organisms, especially
humans 29
 OTHER DISCIPLINES

• Environmentalists,
• Safety personnel,
• Medical practitioners,
• Project managers,
• Engineers from all disciplines,
• Food hygienists,
• local government officials

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 Sampling strategy
• It is very important to develop a good sampling strategy
during evaluation prior to monitoring. This will ensure that
the selected individuals/areas are going to be representative
of the hazard/exposure evaluated
• Things to consider;
➢ Which employees/areas to be sampled
➢ Sample type- personal or workplace/ area sampling-
position of the sampling device be in relation to the
employee or area
➢ Sample methods: there are many different methods of
taking air or noise samples for example and the number of
samples
➢ Sample duration/ interval (time (min or hour) , days, etc). 31
 Occupational hygiene exposure monitoring
• Monitoring: this is the planning, caring out, and recording
of results of the measurements program
• Personal: measurement of a particular employee’s
exposure to airborne contaminants.
• Environmental/Static: measurement of contaminant
concentrations/hazards in the work area.
• Biological: a planned program of periodic collection and
analysis of body fluids, tissues, or expired air in order to
determine/ quantify excessive absorption of a contaminant by
an employee.

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• Medical: a planned program or periodic
examination (clinical examination, medical
tests) by medical personnel of the worker’s
response to contaminant.

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• Personal air sampling
• Sampling device placed near breathing zone or ear

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• Environmental/static • Biological
➢ Noise monitoring- area
noise survey
➢ Fixed location

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• Medical

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 Occupational Diseases
• Condition arising from exposure to factors
associated with workplace
• They often overlooked by health care providers;
➢Pathological presentation is similar to non-
occupational diseases
➢ may occur after the termination of exposure
➢clinical manifestations are related to the dose and
timing of exposure
➢Occupational factors can act in combination with
non-occupational factors to produce diseases
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 Skin Disorders
• Occupational skin diseases are one of the most common types
of workplace diseases. They can take different forms, such as:
• Rash (contact dermatitis) caused by skin irritation
• Rash caused by skin allergies
• Skin cancers
• Skin infections
• Skin injuries
• Other skin diseases

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 Musculoskeletal system
• Due to inappropriate handling of tools
• Chemicals can be stored in the bones for long
periods after exposure.

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 Nervous System
• Central nervous system damage can produce
narcosis, toxic organic psychosis, epilepsy,
Parkinsonism and behavioural changes

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 Cardiovascular System and Blood
• The cardiovascular system is exposed to any agent
carried in the blood
• Occupational Hazards can:
• Damage heart muscle
• Induce arrhythmias
• Atherosclerosis
• Effects on the peripheral circulation
• Asphyxia

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 Respiratory irritant
• Irritation caused by gases and fumes
produces inflammation of the respiratory tract
• Pneumoconiosis is the reaction of the lungs to
inhaled mineral dust and the resultant alteration
in their structure
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD) refers to chronic bronchitis and
emphysema
• Malignant tumors of industrial origin can
affect the lungs and surrounding tissues
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• Lung scarring agent, particularly matter that
slowly produce damage to the lung
• Chronic exposure to irritants can also produce
this effect.
e.g. asbestos, coal dust, silica etc.

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 Gastrointestinal tract
• Ingestion as a toxic route of entry in an
industry is unlikely/rare, but it can occur if
people are allowed to eat or smoke at their
workstation
• vomiting and diarrhea are natural defense
mechanisms against ingested toxins, and
gastric acid will neutralize alkaline intruders to
an extent and also kill bacteria

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 The Liver
• Major metabolic organ: susceptible to any
toxins within the body
• Liver cells can regenerate after toxic damage,
however, continued absorption can overtake the
regeneration process

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• Industrially, fat-soluble alcohols and
halogenated hydrocarbons cause liver cell
damage
• cirrhosis, is an important precursor of
hepatomas

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 Urinary system
• Toxins can damage the kidney which in turn
affects acid-base balance and water re-
absorption
• Ionizing radiation can cause renal cell damage
and fibrosis
• The bladder is more susceptible to industrially
induced cancers.

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 Eyes
• Susceptible to injury: corneal damage,
cataract, and retinal detachment, any of which
can cause blindness
• Irritants can cause different types of eye
disorders such as; cataracts, photophobia etc.

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 METHOD OF CONTROL
• CONTROL of the chemical, physical or
biological agent - or adverse ergonomic
situation, by procedural, engineering or other
means where the evaluation indicates that this
is necessary.

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HIERARCHY OF CONTROL

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 Elimination
• The best /most effective way to control a
hazard is to eliminate it and remove the
danger.
➢Having workers perform tasks at ground level
rather than working at heights
• Other methods that remove the hazard
altogether.

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 Substitution
• This is the second-best way to control a hazard
• Substitute something and in its place use
something that would be non-hazardous or less
hazardous to workers
➢Change the process
If there are no reliable substitutes for dangerous
chemicals/machinery, then you can consider
changing a work process in a way that will get
rid of a hazard

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 Engineering Controls
• The engineering control measures that remove or
reduce the exposure of persons at the workplace by
means of engineering control.
• E.g., noise dampening technology to reduce noise
levels; enclosing a chemical process in a Plexiglas
"glove box"; using mechanical lifting devices; local
exhaust ventilation that captures

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 Administrative
• Standard operating
procedures
• Duration of work-
Shorten exposure time
and use frequent rest
breaks
• Rest area- e,g providing
cool (air-conditioned)
rest areas for symptoms
of heat exposure;
Provision of Noise
Refuges in designated
areas. 54
• Training; First aid and
medical care - Define
emergency procedures.
-Assign one person trained
in first aid to each work
shift. Train workers in
recognition.

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 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

• Controlling hazards by placing protective

equipment directly on workers' bodies. This
could include; respiratory protective equipment,
gloves, cooling vests, overalls, hearing protection, etc

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• Personal protective equipment are the least
effective method for protecting workers from
hazards.
• PPE should be used only while other more
effective controls are being
developed/installed, or if there are no other
more effective ways to control the hazard.

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• This is because;
➢ The hazard is not entirely eliminated or changed, if the
equipment is inadequate or fails. The worker is not
protected
➢ No personal protective equipment is fool-proof (for
example, respirators leak).
➢ Personal protective equipment is often uncomfortable
and can place an additional physical burden on a worker.
➢ PPE can create hazards. For example, the use of
respirators for long periods can put a strain on the lungs
and heart.
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 OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE
LIMITS (OELs)
• Occupational exposure limit for a hazardous chemical
substances or maximum concentrations of an
airborne substances, averaged over reference period,
to which employees maybe exposed by inhalation
under ant circumstances .
• All limit values define at least two basic influence
factors, concentration and time
• Millilitres per cubic meter (mL/m3 ), parts per million
(ppm) or milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3),
• the average exposure time is in minutes or hours. The
average exposure time for most OEL lists is eight (8)
hours per day
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 Threshold limit value (TLV)
• Maximum/highest concentration (air-borne) of hazardous material
to which a worker can be repeatedly exposed, day after day,
without incurring adverse/harmful effect
• There are THREE categories of threshold limit value
➢ Time-weighted average (TWA- TLV)
• Established as the highest level of concentration exposure an
employee may be exposed to without incurring the risk of adverse
health effects
• Represents the time-weighted average concentration over an eight-
hour workday & forty-hour workweek. It is believed that in
setting this exposure standard workers may be repeatedly exposed
to this level every day without risk of ill health or disease

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➢ Short term exposure limit(STEL)
The maximum concentration of substances
a) For a continuous 15-minute exposure period
b) For a maximum of 4 times in a day as long as the TWA
is not exceeded.
• The concentration to which it is believed that workers can be
exposed continuously for a short period of time without suffering
from 1) irritation, 2) chronic or irreversible tissue damage, or 3)
narcosis. STEL is defined as a 15-minute TWA exposure, which
should not be exceeded at any time during a workday.

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➢Ceiling (TLV-C)
This is the concentration that should not be
exceeded during any part of the working
exposure.
• Substances regulated with a C-TLV are often
fast-acting and often acutely toxic and even
short-term exceedances may represent an
unacceptable health risk.
• Eg the ceiling limit for ammonia (NH3) is 50
ppm(parts per million). 62
 Behavioral and psychosomatic factors that affect
workers
Environmental psychosocial risk factors
• work overload and underload
• boredom and lack of control over work
situation
• shift work
• migration (migrant workers)
• organizational structure at the work
establishment and the role of the individual
in the organization; role ambiguity and role
conflict
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• Physical insecurity (eg, fires, explosions,
theft etc.) and responsibility for other
people's safety
• job design and degree of interest
• Low wages
• opportunity for career development and
promotion

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 Work Related Stress

• Work-related stress : Effects arising where

work demands of various types and
combinations exceed the person's capacity and
capability to cope.
• It is a significant cause of illness and disease
and is known to be linked with high levels of
sickness absence, and other indicators of
organizational underperformance -including
human error.
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 Symptoms of stress

• Changes in Behaviour: finding it hard to sleep,

changed eating habits, increased smoking or drinking,
avoidance of friends and family or sexual problems.
• Physical symptoms: tiredness, indigestion and
nausea, headaches, aching muscles or palpitations.
• Mental changes: becoming less indecisive, finding it
hard to concentrate, suffering from loss of memory,
feelings of inadequacy or low self esteem.
• Emotional changes: getting irritable or angry;
feeling anxious or numb, feeling drained and listless.

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 Management of stress
• Good management of psychosocial factors in
an organization can help promote the health
benefits of work as well as avoiding work-
related stress.
• It involves introducing work practices and a
culture through the whole organization, which
covers the following aspects of the work

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 Managing stress demands
These include workload, work patterns and the work
environment.
• Demands should be adequate and achievable in
relation to the agreed hours of work.
• Jobs need to be designed to be within the capabilities
of employees.
• People's skills and abilities need to be matched to the
job demands.
• Employee concerns about their work environment
should be addressed.

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 The Cost of Ignoring OH Program!!

• Increased absenteeism
• Higher medical and insurance costs
• Increased probability of accidents and errors
• Higher turnover of workers
• Less production output
• Lawsuits
• Low-quality work

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 Careers in OH

• In-house services
• Consultancy
• State agencies
• Research and teaching institutions

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Thank you
END!

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