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 ASCE STANDARD ASCE/SEI 52-10

American Society of Civil Engineers

Design of Fiberglass-
Reinforced Plastic (FRP)
Stacks
This document uses both the International System of Units (SI)
and customary units.

of the American Society of Civil Engineers

Published by the American Society of Civil Engineers

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Design of fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) stacks.

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7844-1056-1 (alk. paper)
1. Industrial chimneys—Design and construction—Standards. 2. Industrial chimneys—
Materials—Standards. 3. Fiber-reinforced plastics—Standards. I. American Society of
Civil Engineers.

TH4591.D47 2010
697'.8—dc22
2009048371

Published by American Society of Civil Engineers

1801 Alexander Bell Drive
Reston, Virginia 20191
www.pubs.asce.org

This standard was developed by a consensus standards development process which has been
accredited by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Accreditation by ANSI, a
voluntary accreditation body representing public and private sector standards development
organizations in the U.S. and abroad, signifies that the standards development process used
by ASCE has met the ANSI requirements for openness, balance, consensus, and due process.

While ASCE’s process is designed to promote standards that reflect a fair and reasoned con-
sensus among all interested participants, while preserving the public health, safety, and wel-
fare that is paramount to its mission, it has not made an independent assessment of and does
not warrant the accuracy, completeness, suitability, or utility of any information, apparatus,
product, or process discussed herein. ASCE does not intend, nor should anyone interpret,
ASCE’s standards to replace the sound judgment of a competent professional, having
knowledge and experience in the appropriate field(s) of practice, nor to substitute for the
standard of care required of such professionals in interpreting and applying the contents of
this standard.

ASCE has no authority to enforce compliance with its standards and does not undertake to
certify products for compliance or to render any professional services to any person or
entity.

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or other damages of any nature whatsoever, including without limitation any direct, indirect,
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on, this standard. Any individual who relies on this standard assumes full responsibility for
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Copyright © 2010 by the American Society of Civil Engineers.

All Rights Reserved.
ISBN 978-0-7844-1056-1
Manufactured in the United States of America.

18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 12345

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 STANDARDS
In 2003, the Board of Direction approved the revision to
the ASCE Rules for Standards Committees to govern the
writing and maintenance of standards developed by the
Society. All such standards are developed by a consensus
standards process managed by the Society’s Codes and
Standards Committee (CSC). The consensus process
includes balloting by a balanced standards committee
made up of Society members and nonmembers, balloting
by the membership of the Society as a whole, and ballot-
ing by the public. All standards are updated or reaffirmed
by the same process at intervals not exceeding five years.
The following standards have been issued:
ANSI/ASCE 1-82 N-725 Guideline for Design and
Analysis of Nuclear Safety Related Earth Structures
ASCE/EWRI 2-06 Measurement of Oxygen Transfer in
Clean Water
ANSI/ASCE 3-91 Standard for the Structural Design of
Composite Slabs and ANSI/ASCE 9-91 Standard
Practice for the Construction and Inspection of
Composite Slabs
ASCE 4-98 Seismic Analysis of Safety-Related Nuclear
Structures
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures
(ACI 530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02) and
Specifications for Masonry Structures (ACI 530.1-
02/ASCE 6-02/TMS 602-02)
ASCE/SEI 7-05 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings
and Other Structures
SEI/ASCE 8-02 Standard Specification for the Design of
Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Structural Members
ANSI/ASCE 9-91 listed with ASCE 3-91
ASCE 10-97 Design of Latticed Steel Transmission
Structures
SEI/ASCE 11-99 Guideline for Structural Condition
Assessment of Existing Buildings
ASCE/EWRI 12-05 Guideline for the Design of Urban
Subsurface Drainage
ASCE/EWRI 13-05 Standard Guidelines for Installation
of Urban Subsurface Drainage
ASCE/EWRI 14-05 Standard Guidelines for Operation
and Maintenance of Urban Subsurface Drainage
ASCE 15-98 Standard Practice for Direct Design of
Buried Precast Concrete Pipe Using Standard
Installations (SIDD)
ASCE 16-95 Standard for Load Resistance Factor Design
(LRFD) of Engineered Wood Construction
ASCE 17-96 Air-Supported Structures
ASCE 18-96 Standard Guidelines for In-Process Oxygen
Transfer Testing
ASCE 19-96 Structural Applications of Steel Cables for
Buildings
ASCE 20-96 Standard Guidelines for the Design and
Installation of Pile Foundations
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ANSI/ASCE/T&DI 21-05 Automated People Mover
Standards—Part 1
ANSI/ASCE/T&DI 21.2-08 Automated People Mover
Standards—Part 2
ANSI/ASCE/T&DI 21.3-08 Automated People Mover
Standards—Part 3
ANSI/ASCE/T&DI 21.4-08 Automated People Mover
Standards—Part 4
SEI/ASCE 23-97 Specification for Structural Steel
Beams with Web Openings
ASCE/SEI 24-05 Flood Resistant Design and Construction
ASCE/SEI 25-06 Earthquake-Actuated Automatic Gas
Shutoff Devices
ASCE 26-97 Standard Practice for Design of Buried
Precast Concrete Box Sections
ASCE 27-00 Standard Practice for Direct Design of Precast
Concrete Pipe for Jacking in Trenchless Construction
ASCE 28-00 Standard Practice for Direct Design of
Precast Concrete Box Sections for Jacking in
Trenchless Construction
ASCE/SEI/SFPE 29-05 Standard Calculation Methods
for Structural Fire Protection
SEI/ASCE 30-00 Guideline for Condition Assessment of
the Building Envelope
SEI/ASCE 31-03 Seismic Evaluation of Existing Buildings
SEI/ASCE 32-01 Design and Construction of Frost-
Protected Shallow Foundations
EWRI/ASCE 33-01 Comprehensive Transboundary
International Water Quality Management Agreement
EWRI/ASCE 34-01 Standard Guidelines for Artificial
Recharge of Ground Water
EWRI/ASCE 35-01 Guidelines for Quality Assurance of
Installed Fine-Pore Aeration Equipment
CI/ASCE 36-01 Standard Construction Guidelines for
Microtunneling
SEI/ASCE 37-02 Design Loads on Structures During
Construction
CI/ASCE 38-02 Standard Guideline for the Collection
and Depiction of Existing Subsurface Utility Data
EWRI/ASCE 39-03 Standard Practice for the Design and
Operation of Hail Suppression Projects
ASCE/EWRI 40-03 Regulated Riparian Model Water Code
ASCE/SEI 41-06 Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing
Buildings
ASCE/EWRI 42-04 Standard Practice for the Design and
Operation of Precipitation Enhancement Projects
ASCE/SEI 43-05 Seismic Design Criteria for Structures,
Systems, and Components in Nuclear Facilities
ASCE/EWRI 44-05 Standard Practice for the Design and
Operation of Supercooled Fog Dispersal Projects
ASCE/EWRI 45-05 Standard Guidelines for the Design
of Urban Stormwater Systems
ASCE/EWRI 46-05 Standard Guidelines for the
Installation of Urban Stormwater Systems
iii
ASCE/EWRI 47-05 Standard Guidelines for the Opera- ASCE/EWRI 51-08 Standard Guideline for Calculating
tion and Maintenance of Urban Stormwater Systems the Effective Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity
ASCE/SEI 48-05 Design of Steel Transmission Pole ASCE/SEI 52-10 Design of Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastic
Structures (FRP) Stacks
ASCE/EWRI 50-08 Standard Guideline for Fitting
Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity Using Probability
Density Functions

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 FOREWORD
In early 1994, the American Society of Civil
Engineers was approached by a group interested in for-
mulating a standard for the design, fabrication, and erec-
tion of fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) stacks and
their appurtenances. They felt there was a need for an
FRP stack standard, similar to the ASME steel stack
standard STS-1, to establish a better level of standardiza-
tion in the industry and for safeguarding the community.
Therefore, in 1994 a group comprising FRP stack
users, researchers, designers, fabricators, and erectors
convened under the auspices of the American Society
of Civil Engineers to formulate such a standard.
With the aforementioned mission in mind, the
group subdivided and began gathering information to
formulate guidelines for material selection, mechanical
and structural design, vibration, access, safety, electri-
cal, fabrication, erection, inspection, and maintenance
requirements.
The following publication is a result of their work
and investigation.

STANDARDS COMMITTEE ROSTER

OFFICERS D. J. Bednash
L. J. Spellerberg
J. J. Carty, Chair G. R. Gardner
L. J. Spellerberg, Vice Chair T. J. Fowler
R. K. Simonetti, Secretary M. S. Zarghamee
L. Yadav
SUBCOMMITTEE 1—MATERIALS,
NOTATION, AND DEFINITIONS SUBCOMMITTEE 5—ACCESS, SAFETY,
S. L. Reid, Chair AND ELECTRICAL
C. B. Reid N. K. Zarrabi, Chair
J. J. Carty W. Norman
T. J. Fowler R. K. Simonetti
J. D. Correll
SUBCOMMITTEE 2—MECHANICAL DESIGN
S. L. Reid, Chair SUBCOMMITTEE 6—FABRICATION
C. B. Reid AND ERECTION
V. R. Rogers T. J. Fowler, Chair
J. J. Carty W. Norman
R. M. Warren V. R. Rogers
G. R. Gardner
SUBCOMMITTEE 3—STRUCTURAL DESIGN J. J. Carty
L. J. Spellerberg, Chair N. K. Zarrabi
J. A. Thodiyil R. D. Brady
N. K. Zarrabi H. A. Ershig
R. K. Simonetti H. B. Daugherty
T. J. Fowler
S. L. Reid SUBCOMMITTEE 7—INSPECTION
C. B. Reid AND MAINTENANCE
M. S. Zarghmee J. J. Carty, Chair
O. Bayazid M. K. Zarrabi
W. J. Gladstone W. Norman
D. J. Bednash R. K. Simonetti
L. Yadav R. D. Brady
D. C. Mattes H. A. Ershig
H. B. Daugherty
SUBCOMMITTEE 4—VIBRATIONS
N. K. Zarrabi, Chair
J. J. Carty

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 INTRODUCTION
The following standard applies to fiberglass-reinforced
plastic (FRP) stacks, that is, those stacks where the
primary supporting shell is made of FRP. This stan-
dard can be applicable to both single- and multiple-
walled FRP stacks, guyed FRP stacks, or certain
aspects of tower stacks. The stack may be supported
on a foundation or from another structure.
This Standard covers the design of FRP stacks.
The Standard outlines the considerations which must
be made for both the mechanical and structural design;
emphasizes what consideration must be taken for wind
and seismic-induced vibrations; gives guidelines for
the ultraviolet protection, selection of materials,
linings, and coatings; states the requirements for
lighting and lightning protection based upon existing
building and federal codes; gives the requirements for
climbing and access based upon current Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards;
emphasizes the important areas regarding fabrication
and construction; and outlines areas requiring mainte-
nance and inspection following initial operation.
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The information presented has been prepared in
accordance with established engineering principles uti-
lizing state-of-the-art information and is intended for
general information. While every effort has been made
to ensure its accuracy, the information should not be
relied upon for any specific application without the
consultation of a competent, licensed professional
engineer, to determine its suitability. It is therefore rec-
ommended that Engineering/Design drawings and
related documents of the stack bear the Professional
Engineer Seal, signature, and date.
Nothing in the Standard shall be construed to alter
or subvert the requirements of any existing code or
authority having jurisdiction over the facility.
Furthermore, alternate methods and materials to those
herein indicated may be used, provided that the engi-
neer can demonstrate their suitability to all agencies
and authorities. Note that several of the sections are
similar to ASTM D 5364 and ASME Steel Stack STS-l
Standard, and many members of that committee are
also on the FRP Stack Standard Committee.
vii
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 DEFINITIONS AND MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 RESINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Polyester Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Vinyl Ester Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.3 Phenolic Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.4 Epoxy Resin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 REINFORCEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.1 Glass Reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.2 Rovings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.3 Mats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.4 Combination Woven Roving/Chopped Strand Mat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.5 Woven And Weft Inserted (Unidirectional) Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.6 New Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 RESIN ADDITIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.1 Fire Retardants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.2 Promoters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.3 Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.4 Thixotropic Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.5 Pigments, Coatings, Gel Coats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.6 Light Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
CHAPTER 2 MECHANICAL DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 DESIGN BASIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.2 Mechanical Section Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.3 Mechanical Section Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 SIZE SELECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.1 Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.2 Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.3 Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 AVAILABLE DRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.1 Natural Draft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.2 Draft Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 HEAT LOSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4.1 Ambient Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4.2 Film Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4.3 Heat Loss Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5 THERMAL EXPANSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.6 OPTIONAL APPURTENANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

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 CHAPTER 3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2.1 Design Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2.2 Drawings and Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2.3 Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2.4 Shop Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3 TYPES OF FRP STACKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3.1 Self-Supported Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3.2 Braced Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3.3 Guyed Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4 APPLIED LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4.1 Dead Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4.2 Live Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4.3 Wind Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4.4 Thermal Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4.5 Drag Load Interference Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.4.6 Concentrated Loads due to Braced or Guyed System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.4.7 Other Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.5 MATERIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.5.1 Selection of Material of Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.6 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN PROCEDURE (LRFD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.6.2 Load Factors (LF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.6.3 Resistance Factors (RF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.6.4 Loading Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.6.5 Allowable Longitudinal Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.6.6 Allowable Circumferential Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.6.7 Allowable Bending of Stiffeners or Base Plate Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.6.8 Circumferential Stiffener Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.6.9 Interaction Equation for Longitudinal and Circumferential Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.7 DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.8 DISCONTINUITIES IN THE SHELL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.9 BASE DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.10 ANCHOR BOLTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.10.1 Material–Anchors Bolts, Washers, and Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.11 FOUNDATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.12 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.13 SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
CHAPTER 4 VIBRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1.1 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2.1 Basis for Vibration Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

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 4.3 DYNAMIC RESPONSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.3.1 Dynamic Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.3.2 Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.3.3 Mathematical Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.3.4 Earthquake Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.3.5 Wind Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.4 PREVENTION OF EXCESSIVE VIBRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.4.2 Aerodynamic Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.4.3 Stiffness Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.5 ESTIMATION OF VIBRATION CYCLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.6 SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
CHAPTER 5 ACCESS, SAFETY, AND ELECTRICAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.3 LADDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.3.1 Ladders, Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.3.2 Ladder Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.3.3 Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.3.4 Safety Cages and Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.3.5 Ladder Safety Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.3.6 Prevention of Unauthorized Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.4 PLATFORMS AND LANDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.4.1 Work and Sampling Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.4.2 Aviation Light Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.4.3 Rest Landings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.4.4 Catwalks between Stack and Adjacent Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.4.5 Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.5 ELECTRICAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.5.1 Codes, Standards, and Other Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.5.2 Aviation Obstruction Marking Light System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.5.3 Lighting Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.5.4 Convenience Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.5.5 Convenience Power Outlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
CHAPTER 6 FABRICATION AND ERECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.1 PURPOSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.2 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.3 FABRICATOR’S RESPONSIBILITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.3.1 Written Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.3.2 Qualification Laminates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.4 QUALITY ASSURANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.4.1 Resin Cure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.4.2 Acetone Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.4.3 Surface Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.4.4 Internal Corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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 6.5 TOLERANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.5.1 Peaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.5.2 Cylindrical Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.5.3 Matching Cylindrical Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.5.4 Rectangular Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.5.5 Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.5.6 Squareness of Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.5.7 Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.5.8 Straight Connections / Butt Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.5.9 Vertical Butt Seams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.5.10 Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.5.11 Wall Laminate Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.6 INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.6.1 Dimension and Thickness Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.6.2 Physical Property and Laminate Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.6.3 Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.6.4 Penetrant Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.7 SHOP FABRICATION AND FIELD ERECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.7.1 Assembly of Bolted Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.7.2 Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.7.3 Exterior Laminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.7.4 Cut Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.7.5 Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.7.6 Inner Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.7.7 Sampling Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.7.8 Electrical Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.7.9 Straightening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.7.10 Anchor Bolt Straightening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.7.11 Plumbness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.7.12 Cranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.7.13 Temporary Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.7.14 Erection Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.8 GROUTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.8.1 Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.8.2 Grout Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.8.3 Surface Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.8.4 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.8.5 Sleeves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.8.6 Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.9 HANDLING AND STORAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.9.1 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.9.2 Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.9.3 Rigging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.9.4 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
CHAPTER 7 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.1 INSPECTION DURING FABRICATION AND INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.1.2 Inspection and Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.1.3 User’s Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

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 7.1.4 Dimensions and Inspection Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.1.5 Packaging, Shipment, and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE NEED FOR STRUCTURAL EXAMINATIONS . 27
7.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.2.2 Original Design Basis versus Operating Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7.2.3 Exposure to Weather, Chemical, and Thermal Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7.2.4 Operations Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7.2.5 Cumulative Effect of Exposure and Operating Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.2.6 Ensuring Structural Adequacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.3 FIELD EXAMINATION TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.3.2 Preparation and Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.3.3 Safety Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.3.4 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.3.5 Identification of Critical Stack Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.3.6 Exterior Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.3.7 Interior Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.3.8 Thickness Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.3.9 Sounding Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.3.10 Temperature Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.3.11 Displacement Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.3.12 Surface Hardness Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.3.13 Infra-Red Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.3.14 X-ray Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.3.15 Laboratory Test Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.3.16 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.4 POTENTIAL DAMAGE AREAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.4.2 Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.4.3 Structural Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.5 EXAMINATION DATA, EVALUATION, AND DISPOSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.5.2 Examination Data Assimilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.5.3 Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.5.4 Evaluation and Disposition Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.5.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7.6 MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7.6.1 Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7.6.2 Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
FURTHER READING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

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CHAPTER 1 DEFINITIONS AND MATERIALS
1.1 DEFINITIONS
Acoustic Emission (AE): The class of phenomenon
whereby transient elastic waves are generated by
the rapid release of energy from localized sources
within a material, or the transient waves so generated
(ASTM E 1316). In FRP, AE is caused by cracking
of the matrix, debonding of the matrix from the
fibers, laminate separation, fiber pullout, and
fiber breakage.
Acoustic emission monitoring: A non-destructive
test method by which the location and severity of
active flaws are determined by monitoring the acoustic
emission from the defects. This particularly useful
NDT technique determines structural integrity.
Aggregate: Siliceous sand conforming to ASTM
C 33, except that the requirements for gradation need
not apply.
Barcol hardness: A hardness value obtained by
measuring the resistance to penetration of a sharp steel
point under a spring load. The instrument, called the
Barcol impressor, gives a direct reading on a 0 to 100
scale. The hardness value is often used as a measure
of the degree of cure of the resin. The resin must
be properly cured to develop intended degradation
resistance.
Bell and Spigot Joint: A typical field joint
consisting of a deterioration barrier and reinforcing
layer.
Bi-directional laminate: A reinforced polymer
laminate with the fibers oriented in various directions
in the plane of the laminate: a cross laminate. See also
unidirectional laminate.
Binder: The agent applied to glass mat or forms
to bond the fibers prior to laminating or molding.
Bisphenol A fumarate: A condensation product
formed by reaction to two (bis) molecules of phenol
with acetone (A) used as a component in one type of
traditional corrosion-resistant FRP resin.
Blister: An undesirable rounded elevation of the
surface of a plastic, whose boundaries may be more or
less sharply defined. The blister may burst and become
flattened.
Bond strength: The amount of adhesion between
bonded surfaces; a measure of the stress required to
separate a layer of material from the base to which it
is bonded. See also peel strength.
Benzoyl peroxide/dimethylaniline (BPO/DMA):
A resin catalyst system that provides improved deteri-
oration resistance in some chemical environments that
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are reactive to the cobalt in the more commonly used
MEKP/CoNap catalyst system.
Bromine: A fire retardant (halogen), which is
used to reduce or eliminate a resin’s tendency to burn.
Often used in conjunction with chemicals such as
antimony trioxide and pentoxide to achieve a maxi-
mum Class I fire retardancy rating and often used in
ducting systems.
Butt wrap joint: A secondary laminate wrapped
around two or more components in an edge-to-edge
configuration used to join them together.
Catalyst: A substance which changes the rate of
a chemical reaction without itself undergoing perma-
nent change in its composition; a substance which
markedly speeds up the cure of a compound when
added in minor quantity compared to the amounts of
primary reactants (hardener, initiator, or curing agent).
C Glass: A special type of glass used as a fiber
reinforcement, made and applied specifically for high
chemical resistance. The symbol C was originally
chosen for chemical resistance.
Composite: A homogeneous material created by
the synthetic assembly of two or more materials
(selected reinforcing elements and compatible matrix
resin) to obtain specific characteristics and properties.
Contact molding: A process for molding rein-
forced plastics in which reinforcement materials, such
as mat and woven roving saturated with resin, are
applied to a mold. The cure is either at room tempera-
ture using a catalyst-promoter system or heated in an
oven with no additional pressure.
Corrosion liner: see Liner.
Cross-link: The formation of a three dimensional
polymer by means of inter-chain reactions resulting in
changes in physical properties.
Cure: To change the properties of a resin by
chemical reaction, which may be condensation or
addition - usually accomplished by the action of either
heat or catalyst or both, and with or without pressure.
Delamination: To split a laminated polymer
material along the plane of its layers. Physical separa-
tion or loss of bond between laminate plies.
Discontinuity stress: Additional stress produced
where abrupt changes in geometry, materials, and/or
loading occur in an FRP laminate.
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC): DSC
is used to determine the glass transition temperature
and the degree of cure of an FRP laminate by
measuring the heat flow into and out of a sample
as the material is heated at a constant heating rate
under a nitrogen purged atmosphere. The degree of
cure may be determined by repeated heating of a
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DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS
sample beyond the glass transition temperature. If the
laminate was undercured, the glass transition tempera-
ture will continue to increase.
E glass: A borosilicate glass; the type most used
for glass fibers for reinforced polymers; suitable for
electrical laminates because of its high resistivity.
ECR glass: A deterioration grade glass exhibiting
deterioration-resistant properties superior to E glass.
Superior resistance to acids and alkalis is obtained
through the application of special treatments and
sizings to E fibers.
Epoxy plastics: Plastics based on resins made by
the reaction of epoxides or oxiranes with other materi-
als such as amines, alcohols, phenols, carboxylic
acids, acid anhydrides, and unsaturated compounds.
Epoxy resin (thermosetting): A polymer contain-
ing two or more three-membered rings, each consisting
of one oxygen and two carbon atoms. The polymer is
cured by cross-linking with an amine or anhydride
hardener, with or without heat, catalyst, or both.
Exotherm: The liberation or evolution of heat
during the curing of a plastic product.
Fiberglass-reinforced polymer (FRP): A general
term covering any type of polymer reinforced cloth,
mat, strands, or any other form of fibrous glass.
Filament winding: A process for fabrication of a
composite structure in which continuous reinforce-
ments, either previously impregnated with a matrix
material or impregnated during the winding, are
placed over a rotating and removable form or mandrel
in a previously prescribed way to meet certain stress
conditions.
Generally, the shape is a surface of revolution, may
or may not include end closures, and is either 90 degrees
to the axis of rotation (hoop filament winding) or in a
prescribed helical or dual helical pattern (helical filament
winding). When the right number of layers is applied,
the wound form is cured and the mandrel removed.
Filler: A relatively inert material added to a plas-
tic mixture to reduce cost, to modify mechanical prop-
erties, to provide thixotropy, to serve as a base for
color effects, or to improve the surface texture.
First crack strength: The strain or stress level
present at the onset of significant laminate damage.
The laminate damage is the result of resin micro-
cracking, debonding of fibers in the resin matrix, and,
occasionally, local failure of fibers.
Gelation time: That interval of time in connec-
tion with the use of thermosetting resins, extending
from the introduction of a catalyst into a liquid adhe-
sive system until the interval of gel formation.
Glass fabric: A bi-directional fabric reinforcing
material made by the weaving of glass-fiber yarn.
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Glass fibers: A commercial grade of glass fila-
ments with binder and sizing that are compatible with
the impregnating resin.
Glass reinforcement: An inorganic product of
fusion in the form of a filament, which has cooled to a
rigid condition without crystallizing. Glass filaments
are combined, cut, woven, or matted into many types
of reinforcements.
Halogenated resin: A resin combined with chlo-
rine or bromine to increase fire retardancy.
Hand lay-up: The process of placing and
working successive plies of reinforcing material or
resin-impregnated reinforcement in position on all
molds by hand.
Heat distortion temperature (HDT): The tem-
perature at which a standard test bar deflects under a
stated load.
Helix angle: The angle at which continuous fila-
ments are placed relative to the longitudinal mandrel
axis in the filament winding process.
Ignition loss: The difference in weight before
and after burning; as with glass, the burning off of the
binder or size. Used to determine the amount of glass
reinforcement.
Inhibitor: A substance, which retards a chemical
reaction, used in certain types of monomers and resins
to prolong storage life.
Isotropic laminate: One in which the strength
properties are equal in all directions, such as contact
molded laminates or metals.
Knuckle: The transition area between a shell and
bottom or end.
Laminate: To unite sheets of material by bonding
with a resin matrix. A product made by bonding.
Lamination theory: An analytical procedure in
which composite physical properties are predicted
from an examination of the properties and interaction
of the individual plies that comprise the laminate.
Liner: The continuous, usually flexible, rein-
forced resin barrier on the inside surface of the FRP
laminate, used to protect the laminate from chemical
attack or to prevent leakage under stress.
Mandrel: The mold around which resin-impreg-
nated glass is wound or placed by hand to form pipes,
tubes, vessels, or irregularly shaped components.
Mat: A fibrous material consisting of randomly
oriented chopped or swirled filaments loosely held
together with a binder.
Matrix: The resin in which the glass reinforce-
ments are distributed.
Monomer: A simple molecule which is capable
of reacting with like or unlike molecules to form a
polymer; the smallest repeating structure of a polymer.

Orthotropic: Having three mutually perpendicu-
lar planes of elastic symmetry, usually with differing
properties, typically filament wound laminates.
Peel strength: Bond strength, in pounds per inch
of width, obtained by peeling the layer.
Ply: An individual layer of reinforcement with a
total laminate comprised of several such layers.
Polyester: Thermosetting resins, produced by dis-
solving unsaturated, generally linear, alkyd resins in a
vinyl-type active monomer such as styrene, methyl
styrene, and diallyl phthalate. The resins are usually
furnished in solution form, but powdered solids are
also available.
Polyester resin (thermosetting): An ethylenic
unsaturated polymer with two or more ester groups
dissolved in a reactive diluent with vinyl unsaturation.
The polymer is cured by cross-linking by means of a
free-radical-initiated curing mechanism, such as per-
oxide catalyst and heat.
Polymer: A high-molecular-weight organic com-
pound, natural or synthetic, whose structure can be
represented by a repeated small unit. Some polymers
are elastomers while others are plastics. When two or
more monomers are involved, the product is called a
co-polymer.
Postcure: Additional elevated temperature cure,
usually without pressure, to improve final properties
and/or complete the cure. In certain resins, complete
cure and ultimate mechanical properties are attained
only by exposure of the cured resin to higher tempera-
tures than those of curing.
Promoter: A chemical, itself a weak catalyst
which, when mixed with a catalyzed resin, will speed
up the chemical reaction between the catalyst and the
resin. Also known as accelerator.
Purchaser: The firm, corporation, or government
subdivision entering into a contract or agreement to
purchase products according to this standard.
Putty: FRP matrix applied to repair minute defects.
Resin: Any of a class of solid or pseudo-solid
organic materials, often of high molecular weight,
with no definite melting point. In the broad sense, the
term is used to designate any polymer that is a basic
material for plastics.
Roving (filament winding): The term roving is
used to designate a collection of bundles of continuous
filaments either as untwisted strands or as twisted
yarns. Glass rovings are predominantly used in fila-
ment winding.
Size: A treatment consisting of starch, gelatin, oil,
wax, or other suitable ingredient which is applied to
fibers at the time of formation to protect the surface
and aid the process of handling and fabrication or to
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ASCE/SEI 52-10
control the fiber characteristics. The treatment contains
ingredients which provide surface lubricity and binding
action but, unlike a finish, contains no coupling agent.
Steady state: Stable operating or other load con-
ditions that do not change with time.
Stiffness class: The nominal stiffness of a speci-
fied pipe. Pipes are currently defined as 9, 18, 36, or
72 stiffness class.
Stress relaxation: Stress relaxation occurs when
the stresses in the structure decrease while the defor-
mation is held constant. Under this condition, the FRP
laminate will assume a permanently deformed shape
after mechanical and thermal loads are removed.
Structural laminates: That portion of the total
laminate that is designed to take the imposed equip-
ment loads. Normally does not include the corrosion
barrier or liner.
Surface layer: A filled or unfilled resin layer,
non-reinforced or reinforced, applied to the exterior
surface of the pipe structural wall.
Surfacing mat: A thin mat of fine fibers used pri-
marily to produce a smooth surface on a reinforced
polymer.
Synthetic fiber: Fibers made of materials other
than glass, such as polyester.
Tape: A unidirectional glass fiber reinforcement
consisting of rovings knitted or woven into ribbon form.
Thermoplastic: Capable of being repeatedly soft-
ened by increase of temperature and hardened by
decrease of temperature.
Thermoplastic resin: A polymer that can be repeat-
edly softened by heating and hardened by cooling and
that in the softened state can be fused or shaped by flow.
Thermoset: A polymer which, when cured by
application of heat or chemical means, changes into a
substantially infusible and insoluble material.
Thermosetting resin: A polymer that, after hav-
ing been cured by heat or other means, is substantially
infusible and insoluble.
Thixotropic: Concerning materials that are gel-
like at rest but fluid when agitated: having high static
shear strength and low dynamic shear strength, at the
same time.
Unidirectional laminate: A reinforced polymer
laminate in which substantially all of the fibers are
oriented in the same direction.
Veil: An ultra-thin mat often composed of organic
fibers as well as organic or glass fibers used primarily
in the corrosion-resistant liner. Note: The primary
function of a conductive carbon veil is to ensure elec-
trical grounding to the lightning protection system.
Warp: The yam running lengthwise in a woven
fabric.
3
DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS
Weft: The transverse threads or fibers in a woven
fabric; those fibers running perpendicular to the warp.
Weeping: A slow passage of process fluid
through an FRP laminate that can occur when a leak
path is established by extensive cracking.
Woven roving: A heavy glass fiber fabric made
by the weaving of roving and used as the primary
structural material in the laminate.
1.2 MATERIALS
Fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP) (also referred to as
glass-reinforced plastics, GRP) are a composite of
resin and reinforcements which form a laminate. The
properties of these laminates are not isotropic but can
be suited for an intended service by proper selection
and construction of its components. FRP laminates for
stack service are categorized by their construction
method as either hand lay-up or filament wound.
For either type of construction, the laminate is
formed using a selection of glass reinforcement layers
impregnated with resin. The wall construction in FRP
laminate construction usually consists of four unique
layers: the inner surface, interior layers, the structural
layer, and the outer surface.
The glass content in the first two layers is rela-
tively low; hence, the two layers together act as a cor-
rosion liner. Because cracking of the first two layers
will permit penetration of deleterious chemicals into
the structural layer, high elongation resins should be
used in their construction. This material is especially
true for structures such as stacks and liners, which are
subject to stress reversals from wind loads.
The first (or interior) layer consists of a thin veil
approximately 2.5 to 5.0 mm (0.10 to 0.20 in.) thick
with a low fiber content (only about 10% to 30%) by
weight. This layer provides a smooth interior surface
with excellent durability (corrosion resistance). Due to
its low glass content, this interior surface is also highly
resistant to micro-crack formations called crazing.
The second layer consists of a discontinuous rein-
forcement layer approximately 1.25 to 2.5 mm (0.050
to 0.100 in.) thick with a glass content of about 20%
to 30% by weight. This layer acts as a liquid seal
layer. Although glass can deteriorate under a variety of
chemical exposures, appropriate resins can be chosen
to protect the glass from most severe environments.
The corrosion liner shall have flexible properties
to resist cracking.
Prior to use in fabrication, the resin shall be
inspected, tested, and found acceptable by the inspec-
tion and tests specified in Appendix M-3 of ASME
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RTP-1. Core samples for laboratory testing are taken
with a precision core drill.
1.3 RESINS
1.3.1 Polyester Resins
1.3.1.1 Bisphenol A Polyester Fumerates
These fumerates are unsaturated, rigid polyesters
made by reacting bisphenol A with propylene oxide to
form a glycol and then reacting the glycol with
fumaric acid to produce the resin. Bisphenol A
fumarate resins exhibit excellent durability resistance
to both aggressive acid and mild alkali environments
up to 250 oF but are not suitable in strong oxidizing
conditions or solvent applications. They are substan-
tially better than the isophthalics in many severe appli-
cations. Fire-retardant varieties of bisphenol A resins
are available.
1.3.1.2 Chlorendic Polyester Resins
Chlorendic resins are unsaturated halogenated
polyester resins based on HET (hexachloro-cyclopen-
tadiene) acid or chlorendic anhydride reacted with a
stable glycol (such as neopentyl glycol). They are par-
ticularly well suited for use at elevated temperatures,
up to 350 oF, because the chlorendic backbone is
highly resistant to distortion by heat. They are able to
handle aggressive, highly oxidizing environments,
concentrated acids, and some solvents very well but
are poor in alkaline service. Chlorendic resins can be
formulated to achieve Class 1 fire rating (based on the
standard test, discussed later).
1.3.2 Vinyl Ester Resins
These resins exhibit excellent resistance to acids,
alkalis, hypochlorite, and many solvents. Conventional
vinyl ester resins are the most commonly used resin
used in FRP stack construction. Conventional vinyl
ester resins are modified (methacrylated) epoxies that
are very similar to polyester resins, although they are
classified separately. They offer excellent physical
strength and, in general, much better impact strength
and fracture toughness than the more rigid polyester
resins. Conventional vinyl ester resins are limited to
200 oF to 225 oF in most liquid service applications.
Modified vinyl esters with higher-density cross-linking
are suitable for 240 °F and higher in liquid service.
Due to its excellent insulating properties, however,
FRP can be designed for air handling systems in
continuous service up to 350 °F. Brominated versions
of vinyl esters are available when a fire-retardant

laminate is desired. Some brominated vinyl ester
resins achieve near ASTM E 84 Class 1 flame spread
without the addition of antimony compounds, which
can limit visual inspection.
1.3.3 Phenolic Resins
These resins are characterized by their exceptional
fire resistance combined with very low smoke and tox-
icity. They achieve Class 0 in the Fire Propagation
Test B 5476 Part 6 and Class 1 in the Surface Spread
of Flame Test B 5476 Part 7. Phenolic resin is excel-
lent at a constant temperature of 390°F or less but will
accept short excursions up to 750°F without signifi-
cant loss of physical characteristics. Phenolic resin
shows physical strength similar to that of polyester
resin by achieving these characteristics without addi-
tives. Phenolic composites are generally less dense
than other composites with fire-resistant capabilities.
Phenolic resins are inherently resistant to strong acids
but generally perform poorly in alkaline applications.
1.3.4 Epoxy Resin
These resins are a broad class of thermosetting
polymers in which the primary cross-linking occurs
through the reaction of an epoxide group. They offer
high strength, low shrinkage, and good resistance to
chemicals and solvents. Their processing versatility
makes them suitable for use in a wide range of fabri-
cation processes. In addition, they have low toxicity,
are chemically compatible with most substrates and
reinforcements, tend to “wet” surfaces easily, and
are easily cured without evolution of volatiles or
by-products.
1.4 REINFORCEMENTS
1.4.1 Glass Reinforcements
Glass for fibers used in laminate construction,
except surfacing mat, should be at least an E glass.
Fiber made from other improved types of glass is
acceptable. Surfacing veil used on the surface exposed
to chemical attack shall be made of continuous fila-
ment C glass, or other acceptable material if the
durability requirement can be affirmed by the manu-
facturer. A glass can be substituted. In some cases,
a synthetic veil should be considered due to the poten-
tial for attack on A or C glass. The fiber manufacturer
shall certify that the fibers conform to the manufac-
turer’s specification for the product and that the
strength and modulus, measured in accordance
with ASTM D 2343, are not less than 90% of the man-
ufacturer’s published minimum value for
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ASCE/SEI 52-10
resin-impregnated stands. The surface of the fiber shall
be treated to provide a bond between the fiber and the
resin matrix. Fiber reinforcement shall be inspected,
tested, and found acceptable by the inspection and
tests specified in Paragraph 2-30 of ASME RTP-1. The
use of any reinforcement that has been exposed to
water, oil, dirt, or other contamination is prohibited.
1.4.2 Rovings
1.4.2.1 Conventional Rovings
Conventional rovings, also known as assembled
rovings or classical rovings, are a series of parallel
filaments bonded together in multiple strands and
wound into roving balls. They are available in a broad
variety of yields, weights, sizing treatment, and pack-
aging configurations. Package weights are usually 18.2
kg (40 lb) to 36.3 kg (80 lb) with a yield between
8930 and 1210 TEX org兾km (56 and 414 yd兾lb).
Conventional rovings can be used in a process
where they are chopped. They “wet-out” quickly and
disperse evenly through the resin matrix during mold-
ing or forming, which makes them ideal to be chopped
for spray-up, performs, mats, centrifugal casting, and
other processes.
1.4.2.2 Direct Wound Rovings
Direct wound rovings are a collection of parallel
glass fiber filaments wound together in a single zero
catenary strand. This continuous strand is wound as a
tubeless or tube-type cylindrical package, defined by
end use, and then sheathed in a plastic sleeve that
allows it to run out without snarls.
Direct wound rovings are available in a variety of
yields and sizing treatments to perform in virtually all
of the major resin systems. As single end, zero cate-
nary reinforcements, direct wound rovings are particu-
larly applicable in the filament winding process. Due
to low fuzz and excellent strength characteristics,
direct wound rovings are also used to create woven
and knitted glass fiber fabrics.
1.4.2.3 Chopped Strand Rovings
Chopped strand is made by cutting continuous
fiber bundles into short pieces. Ranging in length from
3.2 to 12.7 mm (1兾8 to 1兾2 in.), these fibers are then
added to plastic compound to add strength, stiffness,
and dimensional stability. Chopped strand is used most
often in compression, transfer, and injection molding
compounds.
The type of continuous strand used and the
lengths to which they are cut determine the bulk den-
sity and flowability of the reinforcement. For example,
5
DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS
3.2 mm (1兾8 in.) strand can range in bulk density from
0.32 to over 64 gm兾cm2 (20 to over 40 lb兾ft2). The
type, length, and amount of chopped strand to be used
are defined by the strength and weight requirements of
the application and by the process to be used.
1.4.3 Mats
1.4.3.1 Surfacing Mats
Surfacing mat (surfacing veil) is used in combina-
tion with other reinforcing mats and fabrics to enhance
the quality of the surface finish. Surfacing veil is
designed to block out the fiber patterns of the underly-
ing reinforcements. Surfacing veil is used to provide a
smooth, corrosion-resistant surface. Carbon fibers are
used for mats when strength enhancement is desired
and to suppress static electricity formation. Carbon
fiber also better resists some corrosive atmospheres.
1.4.3.2 Chopped Strand Mat
Chopped strand mat is made by chopping bundles
of glass fiber and dispersing them evenly with a ran-
dom orientation onto a moving belt or chain. The
strands are then held together with a chemical binder.
Due to random distribution, the strength of this prod-
uct is isotropic in the plane of the mat.
Chopped strand mat is available in many widths
up to 3 m (120 in.) and weights from 230 to 920
gm兾m2 (3兾4 to 3 oz兾ft2). It should be noted that mat
weights are per ft2 while woven roving weights are
per yd2. Chopped strand mat is most commonly used
in contact molding (hand lay-up), centrifugal casting,
continuous laminating, and some closed molding
applications. Non-continuous glass fiber reinforcing
material should be chopped strand mat with a high
solubility binder, which dissolves (is compatible with)
in the resin monomer.
1.4.4 Combination Woven Roving/Chopped
Strand Mat
Fabricated by stitching or chemically bonding one
ply of woven roving to one ply of chopped strand mat,
this combination reinforcement achieves greater
strengths and more efficient handling characteristics
than either could do separately. The result is a heavy,
drapable fabric that combines the bi-directional fiber
orientation of woven roving with the multi-directional
fiber orientation of chopped strand mat. The combina-
tion of mat and woven roving lends a tremendous
advantage to hand lay-up operations because two
layers can be cut and placed in the mold in a single
operation. Available in a variety of combinations to
2.5 m (98 in.) width and 1 kg兾m (37 1兾2 oz兾yd), this
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product provides a multi-layer reinforcement while
improving the surface finish of the fabricated product
by placing the mat toward the appearance surface.
1.4.5 Woven And Weft Inserted
(Unidirectional) Fabrics
Woven roving is a heavy glass fiber fabric that
imparts high strength to molded parts. Made from
direct rovings, woven rovings come in a wide variety
of thicknesses, strength orientations, widths from
0.08 to 3.3 m (3 to 130 in.), and weights from 0.27
to 1.35 kg兾m2 (8 to 40 oz兾yd2). Woven roving is a
favored product of many hand lay-up operations
because of its high-strength laminate properties, easy
drapability, rapid wet-out, and relatively low cost.
1.4.6 New Technology
While the majority of FRP applications use fiber-
glass as the sole reinforcement, a number of other
types of reinforcements are being used in combination
with fiberglass. Of these, aramid fibers, ceramic fibers,
and carbon fibers are the most prevalent. These
hybrids allow greater strength to weight and/or ther-
mal characteristics when engineered into a reinforce-
ment system, but at a cost premium.
1.5 RESIN ADDITIVES
1.5.1 Fire Retardants
Antimony trioxide, colloidal antimony pentoxide,
and nyacol are fire-retardant additives.
1.5.2 Promoters
Promoters should be approved prior to construc-
tion in accordance with the resin manufacturer.
Catalyst - Promoter combinations can be selected
to give the correct gel time and peak exotherm.
Methylethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP), dimethyl ani-
line (DMA), and benzoyl peroxide (BPO) with cobalt
octate or cobalt naphtenate are used.
1.5.3 Inhibitors
Inhibitors may be added to allow for longer gel
times if necessary. Ten percent by weight solution of
terbutyl catechol in styrene may be used.
1.5.4 Thixotropic Agents
Thixotropic agents may be added to the structural
wall for viscosity control. Thixotropes should not be
added to the primary corrosion barrier or to the veils.
The addition of thixotropes should not exceed 3% to
5% by weight.

1.5.5 Pigments, Coatings, Gel Coats
A light colored pigmentation in the outer stack
surfaces is used frequently to reflect sunlight and
provide a selected appearance. The addition of pig-
ments or antimony trioxide inhibits visual inspection
of the FRP shell.
1.5.6 Light Inhibitors
Inhibitors for FRP protection from ultraviolet
light deterioration should be used when the stack will
be exposed to direct sunlight.
CHAPTER 2 MECHANICAL DESIGN
2.1 DESIGN BASIS
Mechanical design includes sizing of the gas
passage, in both diameter and height, and the determi-
nation of the drop in gas temperature as heat is
transferred through the stack wall. Methods for calcu-
lation of draft, draft losses, and heat losses are given.
Differential expansion of the stack components is
discussed. Design considerations for stack appurte-
nances are established.
2.1.1 General
The purpose of a stack is to vent process exhaust
gases to the atmosphere. The mechanical design of
stacks is now controlled in part by air pollution rules
and regulations. Heights and diameters are set by a
balance between structural stability and function while
at the same time meeting the requirements for air
pollution control for dispersion of gases to the atmos-
phere. The height of FRP stacks has increased to
satisfy ambient air quality. Stacks are being designed
with many appurtenances to monitor the gases and
make stack inspections.
2.1.2 Mechanical Section Symbols
A  stack mean surface area, ft2
B  barometric pressure – Mercury absolute, in.
Cp  specific heat of gas, Btu兾lb, °F
Di  inside diameter(s) of stack section, ft.
Df  inside diameter of stack at outlet, ft.
DRN  stack natural draft – water gage, in.
F  friction factor based on Reynolds number
FLf  stack friction loss – water gage, in.
FLex  stack exit loss – water gage, in.
FLen  stack entrance loss – water gage, in.
HE  stack height above centerline inlet, ft.
K  constant for breeching inlet angle
TA  absolute temperature of atmosphere,
°Rankine
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ASCE/SEI 52-10
TG  average absolute temperature of gas, °R
U  overall heat transfer coefficient
V  gas velocity at inlet, ft兾sec
W  mass flow rate of gas, lb兾h
d  gas density, lb兾ft3
hf  internal film coefficient Bt兾h-ft2, °F
ha  airspace coefficient Bt兾h-ft2, °F
hins  insulation coefficient Bt兾h-ft2, °F
hl  lining coefficient Bt兾h-ft2, °F
ho  external film coefficient Bt兾h-ft2, °F
ts  average gas temperature minus ambient
temperature, °F
tg  gas temperature entering minus gas tem-
perature exiting, °F
th  temperature drop through the h component
of the stack wall, °F
2.1.3 Mechanical Section Definitions
Appurtenances: Stack specialty design items
apart from the shell and structural members.
EPA: Environmental Protection Agency which
may be Federal, State, or local government regulatory
authority.
Film Coefficients: A measure of the heat transfer
through an air film.
NFPA: National Fire Protection Association.
Test zone: Section of stack designed for emission
testing. The location of test ports in relationship to
upstream and downstream flow pattern disturbances is
well documented in Federal and State air quality rules
and regulations. See Reference Federal EPA
Document 40CFR, Chapter Method 1 – Sample and
Velocity Traverses for Stationary Sources. A minimum
of six to eight diameters downstream and two diame-
ters from inlets and exits is generally recommended,
although vanes may be used to reduce turbulence.
Federal and State EPA Standards for test ports may
govern.
Truncated cone: A converging section reducing
the exit diameter located at the top of the stack.
2.2 SIZE SELECTION
2.2.1 Height
The stack height may be established by one or
more factors:
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regula-
tions may set the required stack height for downwash
due to local terrain or adjacent structures or to disperse
pollutants at a minimum height above the site. Refer
proposed stack location and purposes to the proper EPA
authorities for conformation of the minimum height
7
DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS

requirement per controlling air pollution control regula-
tions. See EPA 40CFR, 51.100, Stack Height
Regulation (July 8, 1985).
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
recommends the minimum height of high temperature
stacks above building roofs and structures for fire pro-
tection and human safety. Local codes are often more
stringent and must be followed. A minimum of 8 feet
of height above a roof surface or roof mounted struc-
ture within 25 feet of a stack emitting gases above
93 °C (200°F) should be maintained.
The draft requirement of the process to be vented
may establish stack height. Formulas to calculate
available draft are presented in subsequent paragraphs.
The effective height of a stack considering plume
rise may be increased by installation of a nozzle or
truncated cone (choke) at the top to increase the exit
velocity of the gases. Several plume rise formulas are
available, but in actual practice, plume rise can be
essentially negated by high wind velocities, low tem-
peratures, and site conditions.
2.2.2 Diameter
The stack diameter may be set by one or more
Stacks generally are cylindrical in shape for
efficiency in structural stability and economy in
fabrication. Cylindrical shapes may vary in diameter
throughout the height of the stack; however, diameter
changes should occur at an angle not exceeding
30 degrees from the vertical, except for on stacks of
relatively short heights
Other geometrical shapes such as octagonal, trian-
gular, etc., must be considered special and particular
attention given to dynamic stability as well as mechan-
ical design. Unusual shapes for aesthetic appearance
should be treated both structurally and mechanically as
special, and basic engineering design standards should
be followed.
2.3 AVAILABLE DRAFT
The available draft equals the natural draft minus the
draft losses.
2.3.1 Natural Draft
The approximate natural draft of a stack is calcu-
lated from Eq. 2-1:

冉 冊
factors:
1 1 B
Gas passage diameter is usually established by the DR N  7.57H E ⫺ (2-1)
stack process gas volume and available draft (natural TA TG 30
draft minus draft losses). Velocities in a round stack where
between 2400 and 3600 ft兾min are most common.
Stacks venting saturated gases sometimes limit maxi- DRN  stack natural draft, water gage, in.
mum stack velocities between 1800 and 2400 ft兾min to HE  stack height above centerline inlet, ft
reduce entrained or condensed moisture from leaving TA  absolute temperature of atmosphere, °R
the stack exit. Tests by EPRI give different ranges for TG  average absolute temperature of gas, °R
each type of inner surface (EPRI Report TR-107099). B  barometric pressure, Mercury absolute, in.
Stack shell diameters may be controlled by trans-
portation shipping limitations. Caution should be taken 2.3.2 Draft Losses
to ensure that mechanical performance and structural Stack draft losses include entrance losses, friction
stability are maintained. losses, and exit losses. Draft losses are calculated from
Structural stability may control a stack shell diam- the following formulas:
eter selection, and, therefore, any size selection based Entrance loss
on mechanical criteria must be maintained as tentative
until a structural analysis can confirm its acceptability. FLen  0.003 KV2 (2-2)
Future increases in stack gas volume should be
considered as well as future changes in process gas Friction loss

冉 冊 冉 冊冉 冊
temperatures and gas quality in the diameter selection.
EPA Regulations may set stack exit diameter 2.76 H W
FL f  共F兲共TG 兲 E5 (2-3)
because of plume rise considerations. EPA require- B Di 10 5
ments have sometimes set stack diameters in test zone
Exit loss
to provide optimum velocities for testing.

2.2.3 Shape
The shape of the stack varies with the designer’s
FL ex  冉 冊冉 冊冉 冊
2.76
B
TG
D4f
W
10 5
2
(2-4)

preferences. where

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 ASCE/SEI 52-10

K  constant for breeching inlet angle Heat transferred through the stack wall:
d  gas density, lb兾ft3
V  gas velocity at inlet, ft兾sec Q  U A ts (2-6)
B  barometric pressure, Mercury absolute, in. Heat loss in flowing gas entering versus leaving:
F  friction factor based on Reynolds number
TG  average absolute temperature of gas, °R Q  W Cp tg (2-7)
HE  stack height above centerline inlet, ft
Di  inside diameter(s) of stack section, ft Combining Eqs. 2-6 and 2-7:
Df  inside diameter of stack at outlet, ft
W  mass flow rate of gas, lb兾h U A ts  W Cp tg (2-8)
FLf  stack friction loss, water gage, in.
FLex  stack exit loss, water gage, in. t in ⫹ t out
ts  ⫺ t amb (2-9)
FLen  stack entrance loss, water gage, in. 2
tg  tin ⫺ tout (2-10)

冋 册
The total of the calculated losses comprises the
total stack draft loss. 共t in ⫹ t out 兲
UA ⫺ t amb  WCp共t in ⫹ t out 兲 (2-11)
Total Loss 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
FLtotal  FLen ⫹ FLf ⫹ FLex water gage, in. (2-5)  ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ (2-12)
U hi ha h ins h1 ho
Consideration should be given to the possible gas Heat loss through the stack wall section:
expansion or compression draft loss in large or unusu-
ally shaped entrances. Consideration should also be Q 兾 A  U ts (2-13)
given to stack draft losses caused by stack mounted
Heat loss through each component:
sound attenuators, stack dampers, or stack caps.
Q 兾 A  h th (2-14)

2.4 HEAT LOSS Heat Loss Formula

2.4.1 Ambient Conditions
Since the heat loss through the walls of a stack
varies with the ambient conditions, it is necessary to
establish the desired design criteria. The loss ambient
temperature expected should be specified, as well as
the average normal wind speed.
2.4.2 Film Coefficients
Internal and external film coefficients affect heat
loss. The internal stack surface film coefficient varies
with gas velocity, gas temperature, stack diameter, and
surface roughness. The effect of both maximum and
minimum gas flow velocity on the film coefficients
should be studied in heat loss calculations. Therefore,
the range of expected gas flow should be specified.
The external stack film surface coefficient varies
with ambient wind speed and stack diameter. A wind
speed of 15 mph is suggested for establishing a maxi-
mum heat loss unless field data can prove higher or
lower average velocities.
2.4.3 Heat Loss Calculations
Heat loss (Q) through the walls of the stack can
be calculated with the following formula:
where
A  stack mean surface area, ft2
U  overall heat transfer coefficient
ts  average gas temperature minus ambient
temperature, °F
W  mass flow rate of gas, lb兾h
Cp  specific heat of gas, Btu兾lb, °F
tg  gas temperature entering minus gas
temperature exiting, °F
hf  internal film coefficient Bt兾h-ft2, °F
ha  airspace coefficient Bt兾h-ft2, °F
hins  insulation coefficient Bt兾h-ft2, °F
hl  lining coefficient Bt兾h-ft2, °F
ho  external film coefficient Bt兾h-ft2, °F
th  temperature drop through the h component
of the stack wall, °F.
2.5 THERMAL EXPANSION
Differential expansion between components of a stack
should be carefully studied in areas to include:
a. External and internal shells of a dual-wall or multi-
flue stack

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DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS
b. Breeching openings
c. Test and instrument ports
d. Test platform, catwalk, and ladder attachment
brackets
e. Building braces and guide lugs
f. Roof flashing and counter-flashing
g. Stack tops and truncated cone
h. Stack shells and external insulation.
2.6 OPTIONAL APPURTENANCES
Attachments to a stack may include:
a. Doors of an appropriate size for access to inspect
the bottom base of the stack and at other selected
locations for inspection and maintenance.
b. False bottoms located just below the lower stack
inlet.
c. Drains in false bottoms and/or foundations to
direct water spray away from stack base and
anchor bolts.
d. Test and instrument ports located and sized for
each specific application.
e. Inspection ports spaced appropriately over the
stack height.
f. An access ladder and test platforms selected for
job conditions with the required size of the test
platforms in width specified.
g. A painter’s track and trolley. If test platforms and
lighting access platforms are specified, considera-
tion should be given to the use and locations of
multiple painter’s tracks and trolleys.
h. Lighting requirements are established by the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Access
platforms to service lights are recommended to be
of corrosion-resistant construction. See Section 5.
i. Rain caps are generally not required on full-time
active stacks. When specified, a diameter of two
times the stack diameter and a clear height of one
stack diameter is recommended.
j. Stacks require lightning protection per NFPA
requirements.
k. Stack internal shut-off dampers and stack cap
dampers demand special consideration when
specified.
l. Straightening vanes to distribute gas flow for effec-
tive testing should be specified as required.
m. Splitter baffles are sometimes used when stack
inlets enter the stack opposite each other to reduce
back pressure in the event that isolation dampers
are not used.
n. Gin pole or davit lifts are sometimes specified for
hoisting instruments to the test platform.
10 @Seismicisolation
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o. Top of stack roofs for multiple flue stacks and dual-
wall stacks should provide proper weather protec-
tion for the inside surfaces while at the same time
provide for expected differential expansion between
the flues and stack outer shell. Consideration
should be given to the effect of ash build-up on any
flat surfaces.
p. Noise pollution control may require acoustical
attenuators within the stack.
CHAPTER 3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
3.1 SCOPE
The structural design section includes methods to
determine the geometry of the FRP stack to resist inter-
nal and external loads. These loads are dependent on
the site location and topography, the intended use of
the structure, and the operating conditions for the stack.
3.2 GENERAL
3.2.1 Design Limitations
The design recommendations made in this stan-
dard are applicable only to stacks made of FRP mate-
rial or steel materials acting as a composite with FRP.
The stack may be self-supported, guyed, or braced by
an external structure.
3.2.2 Drawings and Computations
Design drawings of the FRP stack shall be made in
sufficient detail to complete the fabrication of the stack
or to serve as a stand alone reference to complete shop
drawings that will be used during fabrication. Design
computations shall be prepared to substantiate the stack
design. The computations and drawings shall be sub-
mitted to all authorized parties if requested.
3.2.3 Location
The stack design shall be completed with refer-
ence to the appropriate site. External loads shall be
calculated based on actual site conditions.
3.2.4 Shop Drawings
Shop drawings giving all information required for
completion of the fabrication of the stack and its com-
ponents shall be completed before fabrication. Both
shop and field connections shall be completely defined
in the fabrication drawings. Additional attachments
and temporary bracing required for shipment and field
erection shall be shown on the shop drawings.

3.3 TYPES OF FRP STACKS
3.3.1 Self-Supported Stacks
All stacks that are attached at the base to a
foundation or other support structure are included.
Additional lateral or vertical support is not provided.
3.3.2 Braced Stacks
An external structure is provided to brace the
stack in the lateral direction at additional locations to
the base. Lateral loads are resisted by the bracing
structure acting either alone or in combination with the
FRP stack. The bracing structure is analyzed in combi-
nation with the stack to determine the dynamic
response of the system.
3.3.3 Guyed Stacks
Guy systems anchored at ground level or at neigh-
boring structures are used to provide lateral support to
the FRP stack. The guyed system with anchoring
structure must be analyzed in combination with the
stack to determine the dynamic response of the stack
and guy system. The anchoring structure must be
analyzed to ensure that it has sufficient capacity to
support the additional guy-wire forces.
3.4 APPLIED LOADING
3.4.1 Dead Load
The dead load used for design calculations shall
consist of the weight of the FRP stack and material
that is permanently attached to the stack. Address
dead load conditions with and without the weight
of the corrosion allowance when examining load
combinations.
3.4.2 Live Load
Live loads shall be established based on the
intended use of the stack and any attached platforms.
A minimum of 50 lb兾ft2 shall be applied to each plat-
form or walkway. Higher live loads may be required to
satisfy other design codes that apply.
3.4.3 Wind Load
Wind loads determined in ASCE 7-05 or by meth-
ods using accepted engineering practice including
model wind tunnel studies.
3.4.3.1 Force Coefficient Interference Effect
For grouped or clustered stacks having a center to
center spacing of 3.0 diameters or less, an increase in
the force coefficient (Cf ) value of 20% is suggested.
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ASCE/SEI 52-10
3.4.3.2 Gust Effect Factor Calculation
The gust effect factor Gf for main wind-force
resisting systems of FRP stack shall be calculated in
accordance with the equations shown in Mandatory
Appendix I.
3.4.4 Thermal Load
Thermal loads on the FRP stack are created
by non-uniform temperatures in the gas stream.
Non-uniform temperatures may occur in either the
longitudinal or the circumferential direction. Thermal
loads may also develop when a differential tempera-
ture through the shell thickness is combined with a
boundary restraint.
3.4.4.1 Longitudinal Stresses due to Thermal Loads
The longitudinal stress produced by thermal loads
is made up of the direct flexural stress, secondary axial
stress, and flexural stress produced by the temperature
difference through the shell thickness.
3.4.4.2 Direct Flexural Stress
A stack will rotate when subjected to a tempera-
ture differential about its circumference unless it is
restrained. Longitudinal stresses develop in the shell
when the rotation is restrained. The equivalent
moment and resulting longitudinal stress are deter-
mined by Eqs. 3-1 through 3-4.
Equivalent Moment:
0.4E LIL⌬TT
M LT  (3-1)
r
The temperature differential of the stack across its
diameter:
⌬TT  ⌬Tg共1 ⫺ K r 兲 (3-2)
The differential temperature of the gas across the
diameter at height h:
⌬Tg  共⌬T共gbase兲 兲e ⫺0.2h兾r (3-3)
where
h  the height above the top of the breaching.
Resulting longitudinal stress:
M LT
f Lt  (3-4)
r 2t
3.4.4.3 Secondary Axial Stress
Longitudinal secondary stress resulting from a
differential temperature across the diameter is calcu-
lated by Eq. 3-5:
11
DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS
FLt  0.1E LL⌬Tg (3-5)
3.4.4.4 Primary Axial Stress (Radial Stress due to
Thermal Loads)
The longitudinal stress is calculated by Eq. 3-6:
FLt  0.5E LL⌬Tw (3-6)
3.4.4.5 Circumferential Stresses due to Thermal
Loads (Hoop Stress)
The temperature differential through the shell
thickness produces stresses in the circumferential direc-
tion due to bending. The stress is calculated by Eq. 3-7:
Ft  0.5E ⌬Tw (3-7)
3.4.5 Drag Load Interference Effects
For grouped or clustered stacks having a center-
to-center distance of 3.0 diameters or less an increase
in the force coefficient value of 20% is suggested in
the absence of model wind tunnel testing or existing
full scale data. (Re. ASME STS-1)
3.4.6 Concentrated Loads due to Braced
or Guyed System
The FRP shell must be designed for the concen-
trated loads that occur at the brace/guy/stack interface.
The brace/guy system may produce both lateral and
vertical concentrated forces at the shell interface, and
both forces must be accounted for in the design. The
wind loads on the guys must be included in the deter-
mination of the guy loads. In order for the guy system
to provide lateral support the stack must deflect.
Accordingly, a stack having a fixed base or more than
one level of guy attachments shall be analyzed as a
vertical beam with spring supports.
3.4.7 Other Loads
Additional loadings such as internal pressures,
expansion joint thrusts, concentrated loads from
attached platforms, live loads, ash/sludge loads, earth-
quake, or other external loads must be considered in
the design.
3.5 MATERIAL
3.5.1 Selection of Material of Construction
Materials of construction shall be selected from
those materials listed in Section 1. Corrosion allowances
and reduced material properties at elevated temperatures
shall be considered in the design (ASME RTP-1).
Epoxy resins are generally used where more durability
12 @Seismicisolation
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is required. Minimum FRP material properties shall be
specified by the owner or design engineer and proven
by tests by the FRP stack fabricator.
3.6 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR
DESIGN PROCEDURE (LRFD)
3.6.1 General
For Load Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) load
factors are applied to the nominal loads and resistance
factors are applied to the nominal strength to account
for deviations between estimated and actual condi-
tions. For final design the resistance capacity of the
FRP stack is greater than the factored design loads.
3.6.2 Load Factors (LF)
The load factors to use for the LRFD design are
as follows:
LF  0.9 or 1.2 for dead loads (D)
 1.3 for wind and earthquake load
(W or EQ)
 1.1 for temperature load (T)
 1.1 for circumferential pressure (CP).
3.6.3 Resistance Factors (RF)
Resistance factors used for design shall be taken
as the product of the material resistance factor (MRF)
and the time and temperature reduction factor (TTRF).
RF  MRF ⫻ TTRF.
3.6.3.1 Material Resistance Factors
Material resistance factors shall be taken as
follows:
 0.65 for tension produced by axial or flexural
or both
 0.40 for compression due to axial or flexural
or both
 0.65 local bending of stiffeners
 0.25 tension, compression, or bending of lugs
and base plates.
3.6.3.2 Time and Temperature Reduction Factor
TTRF is used to reflect the reduction in capacity
due to the operating environment. The following
values shall be used:
 0.2 tension stresses and long term operating
conditions
 0.6 tension stresses and short term abnormal
conditions
 0.7 compression stress and long term operating
conditions
 ASCE/SEI 52-10

 0.8 compression stresses and short term abnor-
mal conditions
 0.7 local bending of base plate, lugs, or stiff-
ener long term rating conditions
 0.8 local bending of base plate, lugs, or stiff-
ener short term abnormal conditions.
3.6.4 Loading Combinations
Load combinations for long term and short term
loadings include:
1) 1.2D ⫹ 1.1T ⫹ 1.1CP Long Term
2) 0.9D ⫹ 1.1T ⫹ 1.1CP Long Term
3) 1.2D ⫹ 1.1T ⫹ 1.3(W or EQ)
⫹ 1.1CP Short Term
4) 0.9D ⫹ 1.1T ⫹ 1.3(W or EQ)
⫹ 1.1CP Short Term.
3.6.5 Allowable Longitudinal Stress
3.6.5.1 Compressive Stress
Allowable longitudinal compressive stress is
found by Eq. 3-8:
3.6.7 Allowable Bending of Stiffeners
or Base Plate Elements
Allowable bending stress is calculated as follows:
Fb  RF共FU 兲 (3-13)
The allowable stress applies to the local bending
of a flat plate and not to the overall bending of the
shell structure.
3.6.8 Circumferential Stiffener Requirements
Circumferential stiffeners shall be provided when
the un-stiffened shell is not able to support the circum-
ferential loads. These loads may result from external
wind, internal gas pressure, lateral restraints such as
bumpers or guy wires, or erection loads. When
required the stiffener spacing shall not exceed 1 1兾2
diameters or 25 ft whichever is less. The required
bending stiffness for the stiffener shall be determined
as follows:
PL 1r 3
EI S  (3-14)
1.15RF

冉 冊
3.6.9 Interaction Equation for Longitudinal
K nt
FLC  0.6共RF兲 兹E LE  (3-8) and Circumferential Stress
r When the longitudinal and circumferential stress
where are both compressive, interaction shall be checked as
follows:
r
K n  1 ⫺ 0.91共1 ⫺ e兲 ⫺ 0.06兹t (3-9)
fL 共 f 兲2
⫹  2ⱕ1 (3-15)
3.6.5.2 Tensile Stress FLC 共FC 兲
Allowable longitudinal tensile stress is found
by Eq. 3-10: 3.7 DEFLECTION

FLt  共RF兲FLU (3-10) Deflection of the stack shall be evaluated to determine

3.6.6 Allowable Circumferential Stress
3.6.6.1 Compressive Stress
Allowable circumferential compressive stress is
determined by use of the following equation:
the effect on any attached mechanical equipment, elec-
trical equipment, or ladders and platforms. The designer
shall consider the stiffness of the FRP stack support
structure when calculating deflections. The procedures
outlined in Section 4 can be used to calculate and con-
trol deflections resulting from dynamic response.

Fc 
冉冊
RF共0.765兲关共E L 兲0.25共E  兲0.75 兴
t
r
1.5

(3-11)
3.8 DISCONTINUITIES IN THE SHELL

L1 Discontinuities in the shell shall be designed to trans-

r fer all loads around the opening. The section of shell
above and below the opening can be designed as a
3.6.6.2 Tensile Stress beam to transfer the vertical loads to the sides of the
Allowable circumferential tensile stress is deter- opening. The sides of the opening are to be designed
mined by the following equation: as axial members to transfer the vertical reactions of
the assumed horizontal beams above and below the
Fb  RF共Fu 兲 (3-12) opening. The shell cross section at the opening shall

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DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS
have sufficient strength to resist all loads acting at the
opening. Strain compatibility between any built up
frame around the opening and the remaining shell
shall be examined to verify any loading assumptions
that are made. Design procedures shall be followed
as outlined in (ASME 2007). Design reinforcement
of openings, attachments, and supports are as outlined
in Section X RD-1174.
3.9 BASE DESIGN
The base of the FRP stack shall be designed to trans-
mit all force and moment reactions at the base that
are calculated during the FRP stack design. For a
cylindrical base ring, the designer may use the meth-
ods outlined in ACI 307 to determine the location of
the neutral axis, anchor bolt tensions, and base ring
pressure. For non-circular bases the analysis may
require references from other sources.
3.10 ANCHOR BOLTS
Anchor bolts shall be designed to transfer the
reactions at the base of the FRP stack into the
foundation or base support structure.
3.10.1 Material–Anchors Bolts, Washers, and Nuts
(a) Anchor bolts may be of threaded bolt and
stud stock normally used as connectors or of
round stock of structural material that may be
threaded. They are typically one of the following
specifications:
(1) Carbon steel threaded fasteners conforming to
the ASTM A 307 Specification;
(2) Carbon steel bolts for general applications
conforming to the ASTM A 449 Specification;
(3) Alloy steel bolts, studs, and threaded fasteners
conforming to the ASTM A 354 Specification;
(4) Alloy steel bolts and studs with enhanced
impact properties conforming to the ASTM A
687 Specification;
(5) Carbon steel conforming to the ASTM A 36
Specification:
(6) High-strength, low alloy steels conforming to
the ASTM A 572 or A 588 Specification;
(b) Material for washers shall conform to the ASTM F
436 Specification and correspond to the anchor
bolt material.
(c) Material for nuts shall conform to the ASTM A
563 Specification and correspond to the anchor
bolt material.
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(d) Protection against corrosion may be required.
Section 3 should be consulted and utilized as
appropriate.
(e) Double nutting or an appropriate locking device is
recommended.
Anchor bolts shall be designed using AISC LRFD. No
load increase shall be allowed for wind or seismic
loading.
3.11 FOUNDATION
When the stack rests directly on a foundation, the
foundation shall be designed to support all reactions at
the base of the stack. The full weight of the foundation
can be assumed effective in resisting overturning and
sliding forces. A minimum factor of safety of 1.5 or as
stated in applicable building code shall be provided
against both sliding and overturning when the stack is
subjected to service loads. The design of the rein-
forced concrete footing shall meet the requirements of
ACI 318. If a pile foundation is used, a reduction in
the allowable pile load shall be considered for clus-
tered piles. When the stack is supported on a new or
existing structure, the structure and its foundation
must be capable of supporting the stack loads along
with any other loads that are applied.
3.12 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
The FRP stack shall be connected to its support struc-
tures in a manner that allows for unrestrained move-
ments due to thermal differences while providing the
required load transfer. Resistance to thermal movement
is allowed if the load condition is incorporated into the
design. Lateral deflections of the stack will produce
secondary moments in the stack equal to the product of
the stack’s weight above the cross section being ana-
lyzed and the deflection. The secondary moment is neg-
ligible for FRP stacks. Provisions shall be made during
the stack design to account for all loads that develop
during construction and erection. Stress levels in the
stack and stability against overturning and sliding shall
be examined for all stages of construction. The designer
shall provide erection procedures to ensure that stack
capacities are not exceeded during construction.
3.13 SYMBOLS
EIS Transformed flexural stiffness of a ring
stiffener at temperature.

EL Modulus of elasticity of the FRP stack
in the longitudinal direction at tempera-
ture, ksi.
E Modulus of elasticity of the FRP stack in
the circumferential direction at tempera-
ture, ksi.
fLT Resulting longitudinal stress from differ-
ential temperature effects, ksi.
FLC Allowable longitudinal compressive
stress, ksi.
FLt Allowable longitudinal tensile stress, ksi.
Fb Allowable bending stress, ksi.
FLU Ultimate longitudinal tensile strength of
the stack wall at temperature, ksi.
Fc Allowable circumferential compressive
stress, ksi.
FT Allowable circumferential tensile stress, ksi.
Fu Ultimate longitudinal tensile strength of
the stack wall, ksi.
fØt Resulting circumferential stress from dif-
ferential temperature effects, ksi.
f Acting circumferential stress produced by
design load combinations.
fL Acting longitudinal stress produced by
design load combinations.
FU Ultimate tensile strength of the FRP base
ring or stiffener at temperature, ksi.
Gf Gust effect factor for main wind-force
resisting system of FRP stacks.
h Height above top of breaching, ft.
I Moment of inertia of the stack cross
section, in.4
Kn Knockdown factor used to calculate
allowable longitudinal compressive stress.
Kr Ratio of thermal resistance from gas
stream to the middle of the FRP wall to
the total radial thermal resistance of the
FRP stack.
L1 Spacing between circumferential stiffen-
ers, in.
LF Load Factor.
MLT Equivalent moment in the shell due to dif-
ferential temperature across the circumfer-
ence, k-in.
MRF Material Reduction Factor.
P Pressure on the FRP stack wall, psi.
r Average radius of the FRP stack, in.
qo Along wind velocity pressure evaluated at
height z above the ground (lb兾ft2).
RF Resistance Factor.
t Thickness of FRP stack, in.
TTRF Time and Temperature Reduction Factor.
⌬TT Temperature differential of the stack
across its diameter, °F.
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ASCE/SEI 52-10
⌬Tg Gas temperature differential across the
diameter at height z, °F.
⌬Tg (BASE) Gas temperature differential across the
diameter at the top of the breach, °F (25
°F minimum).
⌬Tw Temperature differential thru the shell
thickness, °F.
L Coefficient of thermal expansion for the
shell in the longitudinal direction,
in.兾in.兾°F.
 Coefficient of thermal expansion for the
shell in the circumferential direction,
in.兾in.兾°F.
CHAPTER 4 VIBRATION
4.1 SCOPE
4.1.1 Loads
This section of the Standard is intended to provide
practical design tools for consideration of the dynamic
and static effects of wind and earthquake on FRP stacks.
4.2 GENERAL
4.2.1 Basis for Vibration Consideration
FRP stacks are generally flexible, light in weight,
and susceptible to dynamic loads. Effects of dynamic
loads, including wind action and earthquake ground
motion, are discussed in 4.3.2.
4.3 DYNAMIC RESPONSES
4.3.1 Dynamic Characteristics
The dynamic characteristics of natural frequen-
cies, corresponding mode shapes, and damping shall
be considered in wind loading. Modes of vibration that
could occur based upon the wind loads considered in
the design shall be investigated.
4.3.2 Frequencies
Stack frequencies and corresponding mode shapes
are a function of the stack configuration and the verti-
cal and lateral support conditions. The frequencies and
mode shapes shall be calculated using a suitable math-
ematical modeling method or model (wind tunnel)
testing.
4.3.3 Mathematical Modeling
Appropriate detailed calculation methods
shall be used for dynamic analysis of more complex
15
DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS
configurations. These configurations include stacks
with variable diameters and thickness, guyed or later-
ally supported stacks, derrick supported stacks, and
stacks with flexible foundations. The finite element
analysis techniques shall be used in these cases.
However, for simple stack configurations, simpler
models can be used if justification can be provided.
For FRP stacks supported on rock or firm soil
and/or supported on end bearing piles, a fixed base
modeling approach is acceptable. For FRP stacks sup-
ported on buildings, the interactive effects of the build-
ing shall be included. For FRP stacks supported with
shallow foundations on soil or on friction piles, appro-
priate methods of analysis shall be used to account for
interaction effects. Parametric studies may be neces-
sary to account for the uncertainty of soil properties.
4.3.4 Earthquake Responses
Except for special cases seismic loading is not a
governing load for design of FRP stacks. Therefore,
seismic design of FRP stacks is excluded from this
Standard.
4.3.5 Wind Responses
In addition to analysis and design of FRP stacks
for static wind load conditions, each design should be
checked to determine whether wind induced vibrations
might be a problem. Under wind loading conditions for
a certain range of wind velocity FRP stacks can vibrate
in a direction transverse to the wind. For a stack at its
critical wind velocity vortices are formed downwind of
the stack and shed from opposite sides at a regular fre-
quency called Von Karman Vortices. This phenomenon
exerts an alternating differential pressure on the FRP
shell causing an oscillating movement of the stack.
When the frequency of formation and shedding of
these vortices approaches a natural frequency of vibra-
tion of the stack, a resonant oscillation results whose
frequency remains close to the natural frequency of the
stack. At this resonant wind velocity called critical
velocity, the oscillation will continue to increase until
the energy dissipated by the damping in the stack
equals the energy supplied by the wind loading.
4.3.5.1 Vortex Shedding
Across wind loads for plumb or nearly plumb
(less than ⫹兾⫺ 10% diameter variation over the top
1兾3) stacks, the mean hourly speed at 5兾6 height
above ground, Vzcr (ft兾sec), shall be used for evaluat-
ing the critical vortex shedding velocity.
The value of Vzcr shall be calculated as follows:
Vz cr  b共Z cr兾33兲共22兾15兲VR (4-1)
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The critical wind speed for vortex shedding (ft兾sec)
for any mode of vibration is given by
Vc  n1D兾S (4-2)
Vortex shedding loads shall be calculated for all
modes of vibration where Vc ⬍ Vzcr. Fatigue analysis
must be considered. The vortex shedding loads need
not be combined with along wind loads.
Vortex shedding loads shall be calculated for all
modes of vibration where Vzcr ⬍ Vc ⬍ 1.2 Vzcr.
The resulting loads may be reduced by the factor
(Vzcr兾Vc)2. Fatigue analysis need not be considered.
If Vc ⬎ 1.2 Vzcr, then response vortex shedding
can be ignored.
For variable diameter stacks a range of critical
speeds must be considered.
4.3.5.2 Ovalling
The immediate application of vortex forces on the
stack could cause ovalling resonance. The FRP stack
possesses minor damping to restrict ovalling and may
experience excessive stresses and deflections at critical
ovalling wind velocity. For FRP stacks ovalling natural
frequency is calculated as follows:
t
fo  2.75 兹E兾 (4-3)
D2
and critical wind velocity for ovalling is
vco  fo D兾2 S (4-4)
If the vco is less than VZ the FRP stack should be
reinforced with ring stiffeners meeting the require-
ments of Table 4-1. The required minimum section
modulus of stiffener, Ss (in.3), with respect to the neu-
tral axis of its cross section parallel to the longitudinal
axis of the stack is
Ss  共2.52 ⫻ 10 ⫺3 兲 共vco 兲2D21s兾σa (4-5)
where σa shall be 0.65 Fφu (see Sections 3.6.3 and
3.6.6.2). Steel stiffeners can be used in lieu of FRP in
which case σa shall be 0.6 Fy.
Table 4-1. Maximum Stiffener Spacing
Inside Diameter, D (ft) Maximum Stiffener Spacing (ft)
D ⬉ 3.5 5D
3.5 ⬍ D ⱕ 6.5 3D
6.5 ⬍ D ⱕ 18.0 2D
D ⬎ 18.0 25

In the area where helical strakes are attached to
the stack, ring stiffeners may be omitted if helical
strakes are proven to provide adequate stiffness.
4.3.5.3 Interference Effects
A stack downwind of another stack may experi-
ence larger vortex shedding loads than an unobstructed
stack. When the distance between stacks, A, divided
by the diameter, D, of the obstructed stack is less than
15, the Strouhal number, S, shall be determined from
Eq. 4-6. The resulting increase in vortex shedding
velocity and resulting loads shall be considered. This
increase may result in increasing the critical velocity
beyond the design consideration value of 1.2 Vzcr for
wind directions near the line of the stacks.
S  0.16 ⫹ 共1兾300兲关共A兾D兲 ⫺ 3兴 for A兾D ⱕ 15
S  0.20 A兾D ⱖ 15 (4-6)
For all stacks that are identical and have center to
center distances of less than three mean diameters or
for stacks that are not identical, interference effects
shall be established by reference to model test or other
studies of similar arrangements.
4.3.5.4 Damping
FRP stacks have relatively low inherent structural
damping compared to concrete or masonry stacks
but have relatively high damping compared to metal
stacks. Additional damping may be gained from
inclusion of the foundation system or aerodynamic
methods, which disrupt vortex formation although
aerodynamic methods may reduce damping.
For wind loads, the structural damping value (βs)
of 0.01 has been observed for FRP stacks. Other
damping values may be used for support conditions
that have inherently large damping or utilize the damp-
ing methods of Section 4.4.2 when justified by results
of testing or analysis. Consideration should be given to
stacks supported on steel frames.
Aerodynamic damping shall also be considered.
The aerodynamic damping value, βa, is calculated as
follows:
CfDV Z
a  (4-7)
4 man1
where ma  mass per unit length of the top
1兾3 of the stack.
For vortex shedding V Z is in the vicinity (⫹兾⫺
30%) of Vzcr and the aerodynamic damping is negative
and shall be included. The procedures may be used to
calculate the negative aerodynamic damping.
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ASCE/SEI 52-10
The total damping shall be as follows:
  S ⫹ a (4-8)
4.3.5.5 Dynamic Stresses in Stacks
The dynamic stress level at the resonant velocity
is determined by calculating the static wind force at
resonant velocity and applying an appropriate magnifi-
cation factor. Without damping this multiple would
be infinite. Loading tests on FRP stacks indicate
magnification factors range from 10 to 50. Generally
for design purposes, a magnification factor of 50 is
suggested based on the additional damping, the
effect of the stack foundation, and the adjacent soil.
Mathematically, the dynamic or magnification factor
at the resonant frequency is equal to
M.F.   兾 ln. dec. (4-9)
where ln. dec. is the logarithmic decrement; define
L as the natural logarithm of the ratio of successive
amplitude of a damped force vibration curve. Log Dec
is defined in Hartog’s Mechanical Vibrations1, p. 40.
The decrement
Dec  An 兾 An+1, (4-10)
where An  amplitude for nth cycle
An+1  amplitude for nn+1 cycle.
Also ln. dec.  2 . (4-11)
Therefore M.F.  1 兾 2. (4-12)
4.4 PREVENTION OF EXCESSIVE
VIBRATION
4.4.1 General
Many methods have been used to prevent exces-
sive vibrations in stack designs. Although it is not the
intent of this Standard to determine the exact method
to be used in the design of stacks, one or more of the
following methods have been used successively to pre-
vent or diminish resonant vibrations: aerodynamic,
damping, and stiffening.
4.4.2 Aerodynamic Methods
Aerodynamic methods disrupt the formation of
vortices on the sides of the stack and limit the source
of vibration.
1 Hartog, D. (1985). Mechanical Vibrations, 4th Ed., Dover
Publications, New York.
17
DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS
4.4.2.1 Helical Strakes
A three-start set of curved plate helical strakes
120 degrees apart on the stack circumferences may be
attached to the center surface of the stack with a strake
plate approximately perpendicular to the stack surface
at all points. The pitch of the helix should be five
times the aerodynamic diameter and the strakes should
project 1兾10 diameter from the aerodynamic diameter.
Strakes of adequate structural thickness should be pro-
vided on the top one-third of the stack height. Each
strake is to be aerodynamically continuous except at
specific locations where cuts may be necessary to
clear ring stiffeners or other attachments. The maxi-
mum gap allowed between the stack shell and strake
shall be equal to (0.1 ⫻ strake width). The presence of
strakes significantly increases drag forces, and a drag
coefficient of 1.4 used in conjunction with the outside
diameter of the stack is recommended. Segments of
flat vertical strakes at helical locations are not accept-
able methods for disrupting vortices.
4.4.2.2 Shrouds
Stability against lateral vibration can also be
achieved by mounting a perforated cylindrical shroud
that covers the upper 30% of the stack length. The gap
between the shroud and stack should be 6% to 12% of
the stack diameter, and the perforations should be cir-
cular holes measuring 5% to 7% of the stack diameter
on the side and should comprise a minimum of 30% of
the shroud area. Minimum values are stated and may
be modified if proven by testing.
4.4.2.3 Damping Methods
Mass Damper: The mass damper represents a
secondary mass-spring system attached to the top of
the stack. The mass ratio of the secondary system to
the equivalent mass of a stack at the attachment loca-
tion is normally not more than 5%. This method has
demonstrated to provide a damping value of up to
approximately 0.10.
Fabricated Fabric Pads: The control of damping
in a stack is obtained by installing a pre-formed fabric
pad at the base of the stack. The placement of the fab-
ric pads shall ensure that all stress paths between the
stack and its support are through segments of the fab-
ric pads. This approach will require the addition of a
perforated fabric pad (washer) and steel backing plate
beneath each anchor bolt nut. This method has been
demonstrated to provide a damping value up to
approximately 0.03.
Other Devices: Other devices producing impact
damping between a support and the FRP shell have
been proven to increase damping in a stack system
18 @Seismicisolation
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during vibration. The damping values provided shall
be documented by design or testing.
4.4.3 Stiffness Methods
The response to vortex shedding can be signifi-
cantly affected by changing the critical diameter, stack
height, or mass distribution or adding lateral supports
or guy wires to the stack system. Changes to these fac-
tors can be used to increase the critical velocity beyond
Vzcr or lower the critical velocity to an acceptable level.
4.4.3.1 Stack of Variable Diameter
Increasing the stack diameter will make resonance
less likely by increasing natural frequency and critical
wind velocity. Also during wind induced oscillation,
cyclic bending stresses will be smaller due to larger
section modulus of the stack.
4.4.3.2 Stack Height
The stack height should be no more than the mini-
mum required for its draft efficiency or by the safe
dispersion of effluent gases into the atmosphere. The
advantages of a shorter stack include:
1. Higher natural frequency
2. Higher critical wind velocity
3. Smaller flexural stresses
4. More restricted exposure due to low wind velocity
near the surface of the terrain.
4.4.3.3 Stack Mass
Increasing mass per unit length of a stack will
decrease the natural frequency and critical wind veloc-
ity. The lateral pressure on the stack from the dynamic
loads and the amplitude of vibration will decrease.
Increasing mass will also decrease the range of winds
above critical that tolerate self-excitation during reso-
nance. The net result of increasing mass will be lower
cycles at smaller stress range. Note the along wind
loads due to the static wind pressure will not be
decreased by increasing the mass. Our experience
indicates increasing mass is not an effective tool to
resolve excessive dynamic loads, especially those
caused by vortex shedding. This is generally because
the amount of mass increase required to cause a signif-
icant change in the natural frequency is not cost-effec-
tive. Consider the natural frequency of a cantilevered
stack is more a function of the stiffness, and therefore
a function of geometry, than it is of mass.
4.4.3.4 Guy Wires
Stack flexibility is reduced by the installation of
guy wires. Static as well as dynamic deflection in the
stack is reduced by inherent damping in guy wires.

Guyed stacks are of particular interest for a large diam-
eter or where lateral support frame work is not feasible.
4.4.3.5 Braced Stack
A stack may be laterally supported by surrounding
structures or by a framed structure that encloses a por-
tion of the stack height. One or more points of lateral
supports can be provided. Because of these supports,
static and dynamic displacement of the stack is reduced.
4.4.3.6 Vertical Stiffeners
Installation of vertical stiffeners will increase
section modulus of the stack, thus reducing cyclic
bending stresses.
4.5 ESTIMATION OF VIBRATION CYCLES
Fatigue need not be considered for earthquake excita-
tion because of its short duration and infrequent occur-
rences. However, for the stacks with low critical wind
speeds the estimate of the number of vibration cycles
is necessary for a fatigue consideration.
For “normally proportioned” FRP stacks over the
height range considered in this Standard that will not
experience large tip amplitude motion due to vortex
shedding, fatigue loads need not be considered. For
stacks that experience large tip motion (perhaps 8
inches per 100 feet), fatigue loads shall be analyzed.
Fatigue analysis can be performed using the methods
in the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
Manual.
4.6 SYMBOLS
A Horizontal distance between stacks center-
lines, feet
b Terrain exposure constant governing Table
I1, Mandatory Appendix I, ASME STS-1-
2006
Cf Force coefficient given in Table IS,
Mandatory Appendix I, ASME STS-1-2006
D Diameter of stack at elevation under consid-
eration, feet
D Diameter of the obstructed stack, feet
f0 Ovalling natural frequency of the stack, Hz
Ls Spacing between circumferential stiffeners,
determined as the sum at half of the dis-
tance to adjacent stiffeners or either side of
the stiffener under consideration, inches
ma Mass per unit length of upper 1兾3 of
stack, lb兾ft
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n1 First natural frequency of the stack, Hz
S Strouhal number usually used as 0.2 for sin-
gle stacks and may vary due to Reynolds
numbers and multiple stacks
t Stack shell thickness, inch
VZ Mean hourly wind speed, ft兾sec
Vzcr Mean hourly wind speed at zcr (5兾6 height
above ground), ft兾sec
VR Reference design speed, which is V factored
by the importance factor V√I, mph
Vc Critical wind speed for vortex
shedding, ft兾sec
vco Ovalling critical wind velocity, ft/sec
Z Elevation under consideration, feet
 Coefficient given in Table I1, Mandatory
Appendix I, ASME STS-1-2006
 Total damping value
a Aerodynamic damping value
S Structural damping value
 Density of air (lbm兾ft3)
a Allowable tensile stress in stack
stiffener (psi)
CHAPTER 5 ACCESS, SAFETY,
AND ELECTRICAL
5.1 SCOPE
The access and safety section applies to the design,
construction, and maintenance of components that pro-
vide access and are attached to stacks. Such compo-
nents include ladders, climbing protection devices, and
platforms. These components may be built of either
metals or fiberglass. Although the strength and proper-
ties of metals and fiberglass differ, provisions regard-
ing clearance and strength requirements apply to both
metal and fiberglass components.
Provisions of the electrical section apply to per-
manent electrical items as related to stacks and shall
not apply to items used during construction or demoli-
tion of fiberglass stacks.
5.2 GENERAL
The purpose of the access and safety section is to pro-
tect people through establishing a minimum standard
for design, installation, and maintenance of the com-
ponents that are commonly used to provide access to
fiberglass stacks. The electrical section identifies the
electrical items commonly used with stacks and estab-
lishes guidance as they relate to such items.
19
DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS
5.3 LADDERS
Ladders must be maintained in good usable condition
at all times.
5.3.1 Ladders, Design Loads
All ladders, appurtenance, and fastenings shall be
designed to meet the following load requirements:
• The minimum design live load shall be a single con-
centrated load of 250 lb per each 7 ft length of ladder.
• The live loads imposed by persons occupying the
ladder shall be considered to be concentrated at such
point as to cause maximum stress in the element
being considered.
• The dead load of ladder and attached appurtenances
shall be considered simultaneously with live loads in
design of ladder.
5.3.2 Ladder Parts
5.3.2.1 Supports
• The weight of ladder plus live load discussed in
paragraph 5.3.1 shall be considered in the design of
supports. Support spacing shall not be greater than
l0 ft. Ladder supports shall not be attached to any
stack components or accessories unless such compo-
nent is designed to carry ladder design loads.
5.3.2.2 Side Rails (Grab Bars)
• Rails shall be spaced at a minimum of 18 in. and a
maximum of 24 in. (inside) apart.
• All splices shall provide smooth transitions so as
to provide minimum interference with the gripping
surface. Sharp or extensive projections shall not be
permitted.
• Provisions for expansion due to thermal changes
shall be made at the siderail splices if these provi-
sions are required to prevent bulking or the buildup
of the stresses in the siderails.
• Heads of bolts shall be countersunk or of the button
type. The heads shall be on the inside of the
siderails. Bolts shall not be less than 5兾8 in. in
diameter with bolted siderail joints. There shall be a
minimum of two bolts on each side of each joint.
• Welded siderail splices shall be full penetration butt
welds. These welds shall be staggered at least one
rung distance apart.
5.3.2.3 Rungs
• The center to center spacing between rungs shall not
exceed 12 in. and shall be uniform throughout the
length of the ladder.
20 @Seismicisolation
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• Rungs shall be free of splinters, sharp edges, burrs,
or other hazardous projections.
• The minimum clear length of rungs shall be 16 in.
• The minimum spacing from center to center of rungs
to any stack component shall be 7 in.
5.3.3 Pitch
Ladder pitch is defined as the angle between the
horizontal and the ladder. The pitch shall never exceed
90 deg. nor less than 75 deg. from the horizontal. The
pitch shall not be such that a person’s position is
below the ladder when climbing.
5.3.4 Safety Cages and Wells
Except as provided in paragraph 5.3.5, safety
cages shall be provided for ladders of more than 20 ft
to a maximum length of 50 ft. Safety cages shall also
be provided for elevated ladders less than 20 ft.
• Cage shall extend to a minimum of 3 ft 6 in. above
the top of a landing unless other acceptable protec-
tion is provided.
• Cage shall extend down the ladder to a point not less
than 7 ft nor more than 8 ft above the base of the
ladder with the bottom flared not less than 4 in. or
the portion of the cage opposite the ladder shall be
carried to the base.
• Cages shall not extend less than 27 in. nor more
than 30 in. from the center line of the rungs. Cage
shall not be less than 27 in. in width. The inside
shall be clear of projections. Vertical bars shall be
located at maximum spacing of 40 deg. around the
circumference of the cage. This will give a maxi-
mum spacing of approximately 9 1Ⲑ2 in. center to cen-
ter of the vertical bars. There shall be 7 vertical bars
located inside the hoops.
• If vertical bars are bolted together, and to the hoops,
bolt heads shall be countersunk on the inside.
• Where a caged ladder is so located that it could be
ascended on the uncaged side, a sheet baffle shall be
erected extending from the ground or floor level to a
height of at least 8 ft to prevent access to the
uncaged side of the ladder.
• Climbing protection devices may be used in
combination with cages if additional protection
is desired.
5.3.5 Ladder Safety Devices
Ladder safety devices may be used with, or in lieu
of, cage protection. In these cases no landing platform
is required for maximum of 150 ft of travel.
• All ladder safety devices such as those that incorpo-
rate life belts, friction brakes, and sliding attachments
shall meet the design requirements of the ladder.

• Special consideration shall be given to account for
the increased possibility of corrosion at the top of
stacks resulting from the action of stack gases.
5.3.6 Prevention of Unauthorized Access
Means of access restriction shall be provided to
prevent unauthorized access to fiberglass stacks. These
means may be in the form of a locked gate at the base
of the stack. Other effective means are accepted.
5.4 PLATFORMS AND LANDINGS
5.4.1. Work and Sampling Platforms
Platforms shall be provided wherever duties
require an employee to work at elevations above sur-
faces adjacent to the stack. Sampling platforms shall
extend beyond sampling ports and provide adequate
room for sampling operation. The platform elevation
shall be such that there is no interference between
platform handrail and sampling devices. The minimum
design live load for work and sampling platforms is
50 lb兾ft2 plus any concentrated equipment load.
5.4.2 Aviation Light Platforms
A platform is required when aviation lights are
required for a stack. This platform not only accommo-
dates a service area for the lights, but also provides
support for the light system. The minimum design live
load for aviation light platform is 50 lb兾ft2.
5.4.3 Rest Landings
When caged ladders without climbing protection
devices are used to ascend to heights exceeding 50 ft,
rest landings or landing platforms shall be evenly
spaced at intervals of 50 ft or less.
Where installation conditions (even for a short,
unbroken length) require that adjacent sections be off-
set, landing platforms shall be provided at each offset.
The total depth of the platform shall provide a mini-
mum space of 30 in. from the center of the ladder on
the climbing side. The width of the platform shall not
be less than 30 in. The minimum design live load for
rest landings is 50 lb兾ft2.
5.4.4 Catwalks between Stack
and Adjacent Structures
When a catwalk is provided, added catwalk con-
nections to stack or structure shall be such that there is
no load transferred in any direction between the stack
and the structure. Connections shall also allow for dif-
ferential thermal growth between the stack and struc-
ture. Minimum design live load on the catwalk shall be
50 lb兾ft2. Wind load on the catwalk shall be considered.
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ASCE/SEI 52-10
5.4.5 Parts
5.4.5.1 Surfaces
The flooring shall be of the grating type. The
space between the grating bars should be such that a
1 in. ball cannot pass through. The grating shall with-
stand a minimum uniform load of 50 lb兾ft2 or a
concentrated load of 250 lb.
5.4.5.2 Railings
Railings shall be used on all platforms. A standard
railing shall consist of top rail, intermediate rail, and
posts and shall have a nominal height of 42 in. from
upper surface of top rail to top of grating. The inter-
mediate railing shall be approximately 22 in. above
top of grating. The ends of the rail shall not overhang
the terminal posts except where such an overhang does
not constitute a projection hazard. Any part of the rail-
ing and the post shall be capable of withstanding a
force of 50 lb兾ft horizontally or a concentrated load of
200 lb in any direction.
5.4.5.3 Toe Plates
The main purpose of toe plates is to prevent mate-
rial from falling into persons below the platform. Toe
plates shall be at least 4 in. nominal height from the
top edge to top of grating. They shall be securely
fastened with not more than 1兾4 in. clearance above
the grating.
5.5 ELECTRICAL
5.5.1 Codes, Standards, and Other Documents
The electrical considerations related to FRP stacks
shall consider the following codes and standards:
• National Electric Code, NFPA No. 70
• Lightning Protection Code, ANST/NFPA 78
• Underwriters Laboratories, Standard UL 96A
• FAA, Current Advisory Circular AC 70/7460
5.5.2 Aviation Obstruction Marking Light System
5.5.2.1 FAA Requirements
It is recommended that, immediately following
the determination of the location and height of the pro-
posed stack, the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) should be contacted to determine the FAA’s
specific requirements.
5.5.2.2 System Components
When required, an obstruction marking light sys-
tem shall conform to the requirements of the FAA
21
DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS
Current Advisory Circular AC 70/7460. Obstruction
marking lights also shall be grounded for lightning
protection as specified in Section 5.5.3. Light systems
may be as follows:
• Flood lights located at or near the base of the stack
are considered non-standard, but may be utilized
with FAA approval, provided they offer equal or
greater intensity in coverage than specified in the
FAA Current Advisory Circular AC 70/7460.
• High intensity white obstruction lights mounted on
the stack at particular elevations and at specific posi-
tions around the circumference should be as required
by the FAA Current Advisory Circular AC 70/7460.
This type of system is used with a light sensitive
control device, which faces the north sky to control
the intensity for a 24 h period.
• Aviation red obstruction lights mounted on the stack
at particular elevations and at specific positions
around the circumference should be as required by
the FAA Current Advisory Circular AC 70/7460. All
red obstruction lighting should be exhibited from
sunset to sunrise, unless otherwise specified. When
the red light system is used, it may become neces-
sary to paint the stack with an orange and white
color pattern for daytime obstruction marking.
• Medium intensity lighting as designated by FAA
Advisory Circular AC 70/7460 is recommended for
FRP stacks, since heights do not exceed 500 ft.
5.5.3 Lighting Protection
FRP shell, ladders, platforms, or other steel struc-
tures attached to stacks require proper grounding as
specified in the latest ANSI / NFPA.
5.5.4 Convenience Lighting
Convenience or area lighting on test and monitor
platforms, access systems, annular space, etc., may be
considered as specified as applicable.
5.5.5 Convenience Power Outlets
Convenience power outlets are generally useful
during testing of stack and maintenance of monitoring
equipment.
CHAPTER 6 FABRICATION AND ERECTION
6.1 PURPOSE
This section is designed to establish a good level of
fabrication and erection quality and for the standardi-
zation of joint requirements in the construction, fabri-
cation, and erection of FRP stacks, as well as to create
22 @Seismicisolation
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a high degree of public safety and confidence in these
structures.
6.2 SCOPE
This section covers the recommended guidelines
applying to the fabrication and erection of FRP stacks.
This section includes, but is not limited to, single-wall,
dual-wall, and multi-flue stacks. It applies whether or
not they are freestanding, self-supported, guy or cable
supported, or supported by structural steel braces or
framework. These guidelines also pertain to both shop
or field fabrication and erection.
6.3 FABRICATOR’S RESPONSIBILITES
The fabricator shall be responsible for designing,
demonstrating, and assuring the laminate in the FRP
stack has the strength and modulus values, wrap angle,
and resins design values specified in Section 6.3.2.
6.3.1 Written Procedure
The fabricator shall prepare a written procedure
detailing fabrication methods and materials for the
stack and flat laminates required under the following
paragraph. The design engineer shall approve the pro-
cedure prior to fabrication of the stack. Specific com-
binations of resin, fiber, ply sequence, ply orientations,
and weight of fiber reinforcement shall be included.
The cure procedure and post-cure, if required, shall be
stipulated in the procedure. Variation between the
materials used to fabricate the stack and those used to
determine the elastic strength values upon which the
design is based will not be permitted.
6.3.2 Qualification Laminates
In order to demonstrate that the laminate design
proposed by the fabricator meets the design require-
ments, the fabricator will prepare qualification laminates
and destructively test them as detailed below. Laminates
shall be either flat laminated or filament wound cylin-
ders. The qualification laminates shall have similar
materials and similar construction to the laminates used
in the stack with the exception that the inner and outer
surface layers should not be included. The fiber content
of the laminates shall be between 90% and 105% of the
minimum fiber content of the stack laminates.
Fabrication of the stack shall not begin until testing of
the qualification laminates has been completed and the
results demonstrate that the measured properties equal
or exceed the properties specified.
 ASCE/SEI 52-10

The individual who conducted or supervised testing
shall certify the results. For flat plate laminates, 1兾4 in.
and 1兾2 in. laminate shall be used. For the tensile
strength and modulus of elasticity tests, the 1兾2 in. lami-
nate shall be used. For the in plane shear strength and
bearing strength tests, the 1兾4 in. laminate shall be used.
The fiber content shall be measured for both laminates.
The flat plate and filament wound laminates shall
be tested according to the ASTM procedures given in
Table 6-1.
procedure is to rub a few drops of acetone on the surface
and determine whether it is tacky after the acetone evapo-
rates. Persistent tackiness indicates incomplete cure.
6.4.3 Surface Condition
All resin spillage, drippage, or run-downs shall be
removed prior to applying the outer surface lamina.
6.4.4 Internal Corners
The minimum radius of internal corners shall
be 1 in.

6.4 QUALITY ASSURANCE

All FRP materials shall be fabricated according to 6.5 TOLERANCES

ASME RTP-1, except when directed otherwise by the Unless otherwise specified below or by the owner
owner, the design engineer, or this Standard. The fabri- or design engineer, the acceptable fabrication toler-
cator shall certify that all materials used are as speci- ances shall be as follows:
fied by the owner or design engineer. Materials shall
be new and free from degradation and contamination. As specified in Subpart
Thickness 2C of ASME RTP-1
6.4.1 Resin Cure
Dimensions less than 12 in. ⫹兾⫺ 1兾8 in.
The provisions of Article 6-910(a) of ASME RTP- Dimensions 12 in. to 20 ft ⫹兾⫺1兾4 in.
1 shall be followed during fabrication. The resin must Dimensions greater than 20 ft ⫹兾⫺1兾2 in.
be properly cured, as demonstrated by Barcol hardness
tests in accordance with ASTM D 2583. At least two
Barcol hardness determinations shall be made for each 6.5.1 Peaking
two feet length of stack. The Barcol determinations Peaking is a localized deviation of stack
shall be distributed along the length of the stack with cylindrical section contour from a true circle at
an equal number taken on the interior surface and on junctions. Peaking of joints and seams shall not
the exterior surface. The Barcol hardness of the cured exceed 6 mm (1兾4 in.) maximum as measured
surfaces shall be within the tolerances specified by the from a 450 mm (18 in.) long template cut to the
resin manufacturer. The results of the Barcol determi- prescribed radius.
nations and the tolerances must be recorded.
6.5.2 Cylindrical Sections
6.4.2 Acetone Test Tolerance, including out-of-roundness, shall be
An acetone test shall be used to detect surface inhi- ⫹兾⫺ 0.2% of specified diameter with a 1兾2 in.
bition on surfaces exposed to air during cure. The maximum.

Table 6-1. Qualification Laminate Tests

Flat Plate Laminates Filament Wound Laminates

Property Measurement ASTM Test Method ASTM Test Method
Tensile Strength in longitudinal direction D 638, D 3039, or D 5083 D 2105
Tensile modulus of elasticity in longitudinal direction D 638 or D 5083 D 2105
Tensile strength perpendicular to longitudinal direction D 638, D 3039, or D 5083 D 1599 with restrained ends
per D 2992
Tensile modulus of elasticity perpendicular D 638, D 3039, or D 5083 D 1599 with restrained ends and
to longitudinal direction strain gauges per D 2992
In plane shear strength D 3846 D 5448
Bearing strength D 953 D 953
Glass content, weight percent D 2584 D 2584

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DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS
6.5.3 Matching Cylindrical Sections
Matching cylindrical sections shall be fabricated
in both diameter and circumference so as to achieve
tolerances of Section 6.4.1.
6.5.4 Rectangular Sections
Sizes of rectangular sections shall be determined
by inside dimensions. Tolerances on ordered sizes
shall be ⫹兾⫺ 0.5% of the specified dimension with a
1兾2 in. maximum.
6.5.5 Height
Overall stack height is from finished base pad
elevation. Tolerances on overall height shall be ⫹兾⫺
0.1% of the specified height unless arrangements
are made to allow for field trimming.
6.5.6 Squareness of Ends
Ends shall be square within ⫹1兾8 in.
6.5.7 Fittings
Wall thickness of fittings shall be at least that of
the exhaust section of same size. Rating of fittings
shall be equal to or greater than rating of the exhaust
section of same size.
6.5.8 Straight Connections / Butt Joints
Strength of butt joint shall be at least equal to that
of stack itself. Total minimum width of joint shall be 3
in. for 1兾8 in. thickness, 4 in. for 3兾16 in. thickness,
and 6 in. for 1兾4 in. thickness. Butt joints shall be
used as required.
6.5.9 Vertical Butt Seams
All vertical butt seams are to be staggered a mini-
mum of 90 degrees. All cylindrical sections joined to
other cylindrical sections by circumferential shall have
their vertical seams staggered from each other a mini-
mum of 90 degrees.
6.5.10 Diameter
The difference between the maximum and mini-
mum inside diameters at any cylindrical cross section
along the height shall not exceed 2% of the diameter
with a 1兾2 in. maximum.
6.5.11 Wall Laminate Thickness
The stack wall laminate shall be accurate to
within ⫹兾⫺ 2% of the specified thickness.
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6.6 INSPECTION
6.6.1 Dimension and Thickness Checks
During the course of fabrication, the fabricator
shall make dimension and thickness checks as speci-
fied in paragraph 6-920 and Subpart 2C of ASME
RTP-1.
6.6.2 Physical Property and Laminate Tests
The fabricator is responsible for producing lami-
nates that will meet or exceed the specified design
property values. The fabricator and inspector shall
conduct the relevant tests and inspections specified
in paragraph 6-930 of ASME RTP-1. In accordance
with ASTM D 2584, the fabricator shall conduct two
burnout tests for each stack section using samples
taken from the cutouts, shell end trims, or cores.
The glass content shall be equal to or greater than
that measured on the qualification laminates.
6.6.3 Visual Inspection
Visual inspection shall be as specified in para-
graph 6-940 of ASME RTP-1. The sections shall
satisfy the structural layer level 2 visual inspection
acceptance criteria specified in Table 6-1.
6.6.4 Penetrant Inspection
Liquid penetrant may be used in determining the
nature of a defect. Examination shall be conducted to
the provisions of paragraph RT-630 of Section X of
the ASME code.
6.7 SHOP FABRICATION AND FIELD
ERECTION
6.7.1 Assembly of Bolted Connections
“Drifting”, if required, shall not enlarge the holes
or distort the members. Holes that must be enlarged
shall be reamed.
Bolts shall be tightened using one of the following
methods:
1. Turn-of-the-nut method
2. Load indicating washers
3. Calibrated wrenches
6.7.2 Flanges
Flange Attachment: FRP wall at hub of flange
shall be at least one and one-half times normal thick-
ness and taper to normal thickness over a distance of at
least one flange width. Fillet radius shall be at least 3兾8
in. at point where the hub meets back of the flange.

Face of Flange: Face of flange shall have no pro-
jections or depressions greater than 1兾32 in. and shall
be perpendicular to the centerline of duct within 1兾2
degree. A camber of 1兾8 in. with respect to the center-
line, measured at outside diameter of the flange, will
be allowed.
Drilling: Standard flanges shall be supplied
un-drilled.
Flange Bolting: Bolts shall straddle the centerline
unless otherwise specified. Rectangular flange width
and bolt spacing shall be the same as that for diame-
ters corresponding to the longer sides. Metal washers
shall be used under all nut and bolt heads. All bolts,
nuts, and washers shall be Type 316-SS. Hardware for
joining flanges shall be Type 316 stainless steel. Care
shall be exercised in tightening of flange bolts so as to
not over-stress flange or its attachment to the stack.
Gaskets: Flanged joints shall be provided with a
gasket of suitable material which is compatible with
the chemical environment and materials from which
stack is made. After joint assembly, gasket material
shall not protrude more than 1兾8 in. beyond inside
surface of the stack, nor shall be of sufficient thickness
to properly seal a joint, and shall be a minimum of
3兾32 in. thick. Gaskets shall be of the full-face type,
having an unbroken perimeter. Provide RTV caulking
sealant between FRP and gasket.
Drains: A drain connection shall be provided at
a centerline elevation above the base of the stack.
The stack shall contain a sloped false bottom to drain
connection.
6.7.3 Exterior Laminate
The most exterior laminate shall be relatively
smooth with no exposed fibers or sharp projections.
The exterior laminate should be 20 to 30 mils thick
and contain a minimum 50% resin by volume to
ensure exterior corrosion resistance. Exterior gel coat
is required containing an ultraviolet inhibitor and pig-
ment of a color specified by owner.
The outer surface of the top fifteen feet of a stack
is generally subjected to the same corrosive environ-
ment as the inside of the stack because of downdrafts
and should be designed and specified accordingly.
6.7.4 Cut Edges
All cut edges and drilled holes shall be coated with
resin (minimum 10 mils coating) so that no glass fibers
are exposed and all voids filled. Where sealant or adhe-
sives are applied to the exterior surface of the material,
the gel coat shall be first cleaned with acetone. Air
entrapment (bubbles) limits are limited as follows:
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ASCE/SEI 52-10
Surface layers: 2 per in.2 up to 1兾16 in. maximum
except ⬍ 1兾64 in. unlimited
Structural layer: 2 per in.2 up to 1兾4 in. except ⬍ 1兾8
in. unlimited.
6.7.5 Joints
All finished joints shall be built up in successive
layers and be as strong as the pieces being joined and
crevice-free. Interior surfaces of joints shall conform
to the previous requirements indicated herein.
6.7.6 Inner Surfaces
The most inner surfaces of the FRP materials
shall be composed of woven polyester veil fabric
worked to a resin-rich finish of at least 20 to 30 mils
in thickness; the next inner laminate shall consist of a
minimum 1-1兾2 oz. chopped strand glass mat thor-
oughly wetted with resin, to a (resin to glass) ratio of
2 to 1. Glass laminates shall be constructed using an
acceptable resin.
6.7.7 Sampling Ports
Sampling ports shall be equipped with blind
flanges. Ports shall be capable of supporting a vertical
shear of 200 lb, horizontal shear of 50 lb, radial ten-
sion of 50 lb, and a horizontal moment of 500 ft. lb.
6.7.8 Electrical Requirements
The stack shall be complete with lightning protec-
tion. The stack shall be grounded to grade level such
that the installer connects at grade and runs to ground.
Provisions for aviation lights shall also be provided.
6.7.9 Straightening
Straightening of FRP sections is not practical and
is not permitted.
6.7.10 Anchor Bolt Straightening
Anchor bolt straightening or bending by heating is
prohibited. Use of a sheet metal template to properly
orient anchor bolts to match base of stack is recom-
mended. See ASME STS-1.
6.7.11 Plumbness
When erected, the stack shall be true and plumb
to within 25 mm (1 in.) in 15.4 m (50 ft).
6.7.12 Cranes
Dimensions and weights of stack sections, crane
capacities, and working radii of cranes shall be
checked and verified. Crane capacities and working
radii shall not be exceeded.
25
DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS
6.7.13 Temporary Devices
Lifting clips, lugs, dogs, brackets, and other items
attached to the stack sections or other parts of the per-
manent structure and used for erection or fit-up pur-
poses will be removed, if required, without damaging
the base material.
6.7.14 Erection Equipment
Erection scaffolding, ladders, etc., shall be in
accordance with the latest applicable and/or specified
ASCE 37, safety codes, and OSHA requirements.
6.8 GROUTING
6.8.1 Use
Grouting is recommended when the stack is
supported by a concrete foundation or elevated
concrete pad.
6.8.2 Grout Properties
After the stack is completely erected plumb and
the anchor bolts have been torqued, the space between
the bottom of the base plate and the top of the founda-
tion shall be grouted. The grout shall be a non-shrink
type. The grout shall harden free of bleeding or drying
shrinkage when mixed and placed at any consistency;
fluid, flowable, plastic, or damp-pack. Stainless steel
shims if used for plumbing the stack during erection
may be left in place if exposed.
6.8.3 Surface Areas
Surfaces of areas to be grouted shall be free of all
foreign matter and wetted down prior to grouting.
6.8.4 Temperature
The ambient temperatures of the grout, base plate,
and foundation during grouting should be in accor-
dance with the grout manufacturer’s recommendations.
6.8.5 Sleeves
If bolts are set in open sleeves, care must be taken
to ensure complete filling of sleeve cavity.
6.8.6 Torque
Bolts should be re-torqued after 30 days.
6.9 HANDLING AND STORAGE
6.9.1 Safety
Handling during unloading, erecting, or moving
any section using a crane, lift, hoist, or manpower
should be safely planned.
26 @Seismicisolation
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6.9.2 Cleanliness
Shipping protective coverings, if provided, shall
remain on their respective stack section areas or loca-
tions as long as possible. Components to be set down
prior to erection shall be kept off the ground and prop-
erly positioned and braced to prevent damage.
6.9.3 Rigging
All items such as slings, hooks, chokers, beams,
lifting lugs, etc., shall be of adequate strength to han-
dle all sections and parts in a safe manner.
6.9.4 Storage
All parts shall be stored in a manner to preclude
being kinked, cracked, dented, bent, misshapen, or
otherwise mangled.
All parts shall be above ground and so positioned
as to minimize water-holding pockets, soiling, contam-
ination, or deterioration of the coating or lining.
Items that may deteriorate or become damaged
due to the influence of the elements shall be properly
protected.
CHAPTER 7 INSPECTION
AND MAINTENANCE
7.1 INSPECTION DURING FABRICATION
AND INSTALLATION
7.1.1 Scope
The acceptance criteria for inspection of stacks
for special user specification or instructions are some-
times referred to in the purchase order. The responsi-
bility for inspection and compliance thereof with these
requirements or others must be clearly identified prior
to performance of the fabrication, installation, and
maintenance work.
7.1.2 Inspection and Responsibility
The Fabricator has a responsibility to the User to
comply with all special purchase order requirements,
specifications, instructions, and drawings. Fabrication
shall not proceed beyond a hold point designated by the
Inspector until the specified inspections are completed.
7.1.3 User’s Inspection
Any special inspection required by the User shall
be performed by an Inspector approved by the User.
7.1.4 Dimensions and Inspection Requirements
The inspector shall verify all stack dimensions and
tolerances to assure compatibility with the planned
installation. Tolerances concerning the location and/or
 ASCE/SEI 52-10

orientation of nozzles, man-ways, attachments, and other
stack appurtenances shall be clearly noted on the docu-
ments. See Fig. 7-1 for typical inspection requirements.
7.1.5 Packaging, Shipment, and Installation
The Inspector shall check that all equipment
is handled, packaged, and shipped according to the pur-
chase order. The inspector shall assure that all informa-
tion on nameplates is correct. The Inspector shall
assure that all joining or assembly kits required for
field installation are complete and ready for shipment.
7.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE NEED
FOR STRUCTURAL EXAMINATIONS
7.2.1 General
FRP stacks are often exposed to adverse chemical
conditions and high temperatures. Additionally, many
stacks are also subject to the varying environmental
conditions associated with local weather and atmos-
pheric pollution. The purpose of a preventive mainte-
nance examination of existing stack systems is to
ascertain the structural adequacy of the stacks in regard
to safe and efficient function as originally designed
after repeated exposure to these adverse conditions.
Owners and plant operators usually consider
stacks to have virtually unlimited strength and durabil-
ity. However, experience has shown this belief to gen-
erally be untrue. Regular structural examinations shall
be part of a planned preventive maintenance program
that would preclude structural deterioration and costly
repair or replacement of the stacks. Therefore, such
structural examinations are just as important for stacks
as normal scheduled examinations and maintenance
are for other plant equipment.
Selection of, and consistent use of common
terminology at the start of, a structural maintenance

Joint Procedures and Joint Qualification

In-process Inspection of Laminate Quality
Inspection of Core or Insulation Installation
Shop Fit-up of Shop Assembled Items
In-process Fabrication of Nozzle to Shell Joints
Acetone Wipe Test
Barcol Hardness Test
Ultraviolet Stabilizing Record
Removal of Mold Release Agents
Supply Nozzle Cutout Specimens
Testing of Nozzle Cutout Specimens
Final Inspection of Laminate Quality
Laminate Thickness
Postcutting
Hydrostatic Test
External Dimensioning
Stiffening Ribs
Internal Dimensional
Certified Test Results
Roundness
Bearing Surface Flatness
Secondary Lay-ups and Sealing
Nameplate Stamping
Final Cleaning and Shipping Preparation
Shop Fit-up of Field Assembled Items
Check Match Marks of Field Assembled Items

FIGURE 7-1. Inspection Requirements Checklist.

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DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS
examination is beneficial for all involved. An under-
standing of the stack system definitions will contribute
to successful communication of examination tasks,
procedures, data, and reports.
7.2.2 Original Design Basis versus Operating Basis
Both the original design and the historic operating
basis for the stack system shall be reviewed prior to
performing any comprehensive examination. The
objective of the review is to fully understand the serv-
ice conditions assumed by the original design engineer,
as well as the conditions under which the stack system
has been operating. A comparison of the two bases can
be very informative and can assist in identifying poten-
tial problems or explaining observed problems.
Items to be reviewed shall include the design
input or criteria, design calculations, and design draw-
ings for the original system design. Further attention
shall be given to available shop fabrication details and
erection drawings, previous inspection reports, ongo-
ing maintenance reports, and operating data. Operating
data should include normal occurrences such as oper-
ating temperatures and pressures as well as unusual
events that have occurred during operation.
The structural engineer shall become aware of any
modifications to the stack, support structures, or the
mode of operation made during the system’s operating
history. Equipment additions or changes may cause the
redistribution of loads to a structure originally
intended to solely support only the stack. Upgrades or
changes to internal flow distribution devices such as
splitters and turning vanes may increase the dead loads
or alter the stack system’s vibrational characteristics.
Revised plant or boiler operating conditions may result
in the stacks being exposed to elevated pressures,
increased temperatures, and thermal gradients. Also,
changing to a different fuel source may produce
increased loads, due to the accumulation of ash or
sludge, or accelerate the rates of erosion or corrosion.
Finally, updates to local building codes or industry
design specifications may alter the design wind or
seismic loads acting on the stack structural.
While most stack designs incorporate a certain
degree of conservatism, the accumulated effect of
these modifications could present a safety concern.
Areas that exhibit differences between the original
design basis and the current operating basis warrant a
more detailed structural examination.
7.2.3 Exposure to Weather, Chemical,
and Thermal Conditions
Outdoor stacks may incur damage due to the
accumulation of snow and ice or the variable loads
28 @Seismicisolation
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associated with gusting wind and driving rain. Water
from frequent dampness, rain, or melting snow may
find a path through seams in the lagging to the under-
lying insulation, embedded steel items if used, stiffen-
ers, and expansion joints. For stacks located indoors,
plant wash-downs can transport plant by-products and
serve as a source of water. Additionally, the chemistry
of the accumulated water may be altered by plant by-
products, creating acidic conditions which may accel-
erate the damage to the FRP stack.
Insulated stacks may experience thermal varia-
tions commonly known as “cold spots” at areas of
damaged insulation, areas of external water or air con-
tact, expansion joints, test ports, supports, and plat-
form penetrations. This condition results in a cooler
stack surface, which causes subsequent internal con-
densation and eventual deterioration.
The impact of flue-gas desulfurization (FGD)
processes on the integrity of a stack is of particular
importance because of the highly corrosive nature of
the by-products created and collected by the process.
The FGD processes use a variety of additives to condi-
tion the flue-gas and to enhance the removal of pollu-
tion particles. These additives may also be contributors
to the internal degradation of the stack. Consequently,
progressive interior deterioration can result in holes in
the stack which will cause in-leakage, expose plant
personnel to potential hazards, and threaten the exter-
nal structural elements and the overall structural
integrity of the stack.
Thermal growth presents numerous opportunities
for the development of structural damage. Such
growth, whether uniform or distorted, produces fric-
tion forces within bottom supported stacks which must
be resisted by the supporting structure. Original
designs typically anchor a stack at one location and
guide the system’s thermal growth at other locations.
Progressive deterioration or misalignment can increase
these friction forces. Consequently, any examination
shall include an assessment of the capability of the
stack support legs, the support steel, and the guides to
transmit thermally induced friction forces and resist
associated thermal deformations.
7.2.4 Operations Records
Many plants maintain extensive records of stack
structural problems, behavior problems, damage, and
associated structural repairs. Repairs of stack acces-
sories, such as expansion joints, dampers, and control
linkages, may be indicative of a problem within the
stack structure or with its arrangement. Also, ineffi-
ciency of the fans may be attributed to extensive stack
air in-leakage caused by deterioration. When historical

records indicate that frequent outages of significant
duration have been necessary for the repair of a stack,
a comprehensive maintenance examination shall be
scheduled.
Plant records may also identify unusual events of
major or minor significance to the structural engineer.
From a structural standpoint, information pertaining to
the magnitude, duration, and frequency of transient
pressure and excursion temperatures may provide a
basis for review or resolution of stack structural con-
cerns. Any information regarding past fires in the stacks
may also be significant. Knowledge of chronic large ash
or sludge deposits in sections of the stack is also helpful
when planning the examination and when reviewing
and evaluating the collected examination data.
The lead examining structural engineer shall also
interview the plant staff, preferably before starting the
examination. Historical concerns or ongoing chronic
problems are most often clearly presented by plant
operators, site-based results, engineers, and long term
maintenance staff.
7.2.5 Cumulative Effect of Exposure
and Operating Conditions
As mentioned in Section 7.2.4, rain, snow, ice,
wash-down water, and plant by-products can provide
the catalyst for accelerated stack deterioration.
Frequent exposure to water may deposit acidic con-
centrations, which can accelerate the corrosion of the
stack and external stiffeners. For hot stacks, cold spots
may induce thermal shock, chemical changes within
the FRP, corrosion, cracking, and subsequent deterio-
ration. Such cumulative effects often develop within
stack systems. However, these concerns can go unno-
ticed, since in-leakage may not be obvious from
outside the stack.
The cumulative effects of plant operations also
may influence ongoing structural deterioration.
Repetitive exposures to such unusual conditions as
transient pressures and excursion temperatures may
induce mechanical damage or accelerate material dete-
rioration. The occurrence of unexpected thermal gradi-
ents can also cause damage. These conditions, when
combined with cyclic plant operations, can result in
the binding of sliding surfaces and damage to the criti-
cal interfaces with the support structure. Consequently,
forces and events not necessarily considered in the
original design may induce buckling and tearing of the
stack and structural elements of the stacks.
7.2.6 Ensuring Structural Adequacy
A structural preventive maintenance examination
shall assess the cumulative effect of plant operations
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upon the structural adequacy of a stack. Plant down-
time and unit outages for structural repairs are obvi-
ously not desirable. Simply stated, the function of
stacks is the movement of air and flue-gas. Many
potential problems that can jeopardize this function,
as well as the safety of plant personnel and the stack’s
structural integrity, can be identified and corrected
with scheduled, preplanned preventive maintenance
examinations. The scheduling of preventive mainte-
nance examinations may be heavily influenced by
the plant operating cycle; thus plant outages may
not coincide with desired monitoring frequencies.
However, structural preventive maintenance examina-
tions for stacks shall always be part of regular plant
maintenance.
These routine condition assessments shall also be
considered to be an integral part of all safety related
and plant life extension programs.
7.3 FIELD EXAMINATION TECHNIQUES
7.3.1 General
To facilitate both exterior and interior stack exam-
inations, sufficient time must be invested in adequate
preparation and pre-outage planning. Based on the
importance of the factors presented in Section 7.2, the
following types and methods of preventive mainte-
nance structural examination shall be evaluated and
appropriately selected.
7.3.2 Preparation and Planning
A basic understanding of the stack structural sys-
tem design and intended behavior can be beneficial
when coupled with a pre-examination site visit. Every
detail of an examination shall be fully developed well
in advance so that valuable plant outage time is not
sacrificed due to lack of access, equipment, and sup-
port personnel. An allowance for cool-down of the
stack and owner checkout must be factored into the
schedule. Field preparation activities, such as the
installation of temporary lighting, ladders, and scaf-
folding and the cleaning of interior surfaces by vacu-
uming, water-washing, or grinding, shall be planned
ahead of time to reduce the critical outage time com-
mitted to these tasks. Also, if the examination is
planned well before the outage, the amount of ash or
sludge accumulation can be documented. The avail-
ability of laborers to assist with the examination
efforts shall also be established with the plant
personnel prior to the examination.
Preparations shall always address personnel
safety. Planning for the considerations as described
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DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS

in Section 7.3.3 is essential and must be coordinated
with the owner.
Daily or frequent meetings between the plant
personnel and the lead structural examining engineer
are essential to enable clear communications through-
out the examination. Final planning shall also include
the preparation of contingency plans in the event
that the scope of an examination must be changed
during the effort.
7.3.3 Safety Considerations
The procedures for stack examinations shall address
the owner’s responsibility and safety requirements plus
current United States government Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) requirements.
Two particular OSHA regulations pertain to stack
examinations. OSHA Standard 29CFR, 1910.146,
Permit Required Confined Spaces, addresses work
within a confined space and 29CFR, 1926.59, Hazard
Communication, addresses exposure to hazardous mate-
rials. Tests to check for existence and levels of haz-
ardous materials shall be performed with or preferable
by the owner. If this information is unknown and is not
to be determined, the worst conditions shall be assumed.
Project related stack examination procedures shall
also identify other precautions, including working in
areas of: hot ash; soft deep ash; items weakened by
corrosion or erosion such as handholds, ladders,
handrails, and stack floor; slippery surfaces; and
abrupt changes in stack direction via gas distribution
devices. Also important is the need to wear paper face
masks or respirators.
7.3.4 Equipment
The selection of equipment for a preventive main-
tenance examination is subject to the project scope and
available resources. The items listed in Fig. 7-2 may
be appropriate for an effective and efficient preventive
maintenance examination of stacks.
Items to facilitate access, such as ladders, Bosun’s
chairs, scaffolding, safety belts and harnesses, and
climbing cages, shall be available as appropriate.
These items are normally provided by the plant or a
contractor. Planning ahead of time to arrange for the
use of these access items is just as important as pro-
viding the items on the suggested equipment list pre-
sented in Fig. 7-2. The use of plant labor to assist with
the examination effort is also very important and must
be well coordinated with the plant personnel.
Quite often, the installation of thermal displace-
ment measuring devices at strategic locations on the
stacks is helpful. Obtaining cold and hot stack location

Flashlights Ultrasonic Thickness Detector

Flashlight Holsters Liquid Dye Penetrant Test Kits
Camera and Flash Infra-red Imaging Equipment
Camera Film Inclinometers
Video Camera Thermocouples
Video Camera Tapes Accelerometers
Binoculars Spark Testers
Tape Measures Ph Meter
Calipers Weld Profile Gauge
Thickness Gauges Ladders
Chipping Hammers Bosun's Chair
Picks and Shovels Scaffolding
Wire Brushes Safety Belts
Stationary Mirrors Harnesses
Telescopic Mirrors Climbing Cages
Plumb Bobs Eye Protection
Clip Boards Dust Masks
Pens (many) Gloves
Ruled Paper Coveralls
Cloth Rags Key Chains
Crayons, Chalk Work Shoes
Markers Two-way Radios

FIGURE 7-2. Structural Maintenance Examination - Equipment Checklist.

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measurements from a fixed reference point will indi-
cate the amount and direction of thermal expansion.
The use of more specialized equipment may be
warranted for more comprehensive or unusual exami-
nations. Such items could include infra-red imaging
equipment and thermocouples. Temperature indicating
crayons may also be of value. For the examination
of stack linings, spark testers, pH meters, and thick-
ness gauges for thin material measurement may be
appropriate.
7.3.5 Identification of Critical Stack Sections
Stacks vary in size and shape for a variety of rea-
sons. Transition sections, elbow sections that abruptly
change directions, and manifolds are examples of stack
sections that may require regular preventive mainte-
nance examinations. Depending on the stack system’s
design and configuration, certain sections may experi-
ence higher than expected loads, higher than expected
temperatures, subsequently elevated stresses, and per-
haps extensive thermal movements. With continued
operations, these sections may not perform as the struc-
tural design engineer intended, and they may undergo
significant wear, deformation, and deterioration.
The type and arrangement of supports are impor-
tant considerations in a determination of the scope of a
stack maintenance examination. Stack systems may be
hung by variable or constant support hangers or bot-
tom supported. The bottom supports may be at an
anchor or a guide. Sometimes stacks are supported by
a combination of the aforementioned means. The
degree of structural determinacy is often related to the
potential for structural distress. Stacks with minimal
supports (4 to 6) are more likely to behave in a manner
consistent with the structural analysis. The behavior of
indeterminate stacks with many supports tends to be
quite different than that predicted by classical struc-
tural analysis. Such differences are the result of ther-
mal growth or restraint, secondary stresses, and the
stress induced by the construction sequence. The
arrangement of the structural supports, the means by
which the system loads are distributed to the support-
ing structure, and the degree of redundancy all con-
tribute to a stack section’s structural behavior and the
likelihood of structural deterioration.
Other critical stack sections include areas with
internal flow distribution devices. Concentrated ero-
sion may occur at these sites which reduces the thick-
ness of structural components and threatens their
structural integrity. In some cases, the flow distribution
devices also serve as internal struts for structural load
transfer or wall panel support. The location of these
devices within the stack system and the amount of
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particulate within the flow are factors to consider
when prioritizing maintenance examination tasks.
Any preventive maintenance examination shall
include the points of entry into the stack, including
access doors, grab bars, handrails, and platforms. The
examination shall also include all stack probe penetra-
tions. Since the condition of hatches and access doors
is critical to both personnel safety and the system’s gas
tight integrity, the examination shall include all seals.
Stack probe penetrations, for such items as thermocou-
ples and gas test sample ports, offer possible areas for
accelerated deterioration from air or water intrusion or
cracking from high stresses or vibrations.
7.3.6 Exterior Inspections
Observation of the external features of a stack
system can provide valuable information related to the
stack’s behavior and condition. This type of examina-
tion may be performed in advance of a plant outage
and the subsequent detailed external and internal
examination. In many cases, indicators of potential
damage can be noted during exterior inspections, as
discussed in Section 7.4.2, which may identify prob-
lems or locations that shall be emphasized during a
more comprehensive or detailed exterior and interior
examination. Removal of selected insulation and lag-
ging if applicable may be necessary to perform an ini-
tial inspection. This activity is usually only done after
the unit comes out of service.
Exterior inspections shall also include a cursory
examination of stack system elements, which are
remote or inaccessible from grade or viewing plat-
forms. Binoculars or a video camera may provide
adequate viewing for these areas. A cursory examina-
tion may substantiate the need for a comprehensive
examination, necessitating the erection of scaffolding,
climbing cages, or ladders. Also, if the structural engi-
neer performing the examination believes that a com-
prehensive examination of certain remote areas is
required, the required access shall be provided.
When possible, both a “hot” on-line and a “cold”
off-line exterior inspection shall be considered to
observe and record the movement and thermal growth
during load and temperature variations. Baseline meas-
urements while the plant is off-line, referenced to per-
manent stationary structures, may provide valuable
insight with regard to thermal growth and support
alignment. Displacement measuring trams are nor-
mally used to collect these readings.
7.3.7 Interior Inspections
Assuming adequate access, internal stack struc-
tural elements can and shall be examined in a detailed
31
DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS
manner. To perform a comprehensive examination,
careful planning shall be done. Subsequently, the con-
dition of critical structural elements, as described in
Section 7.4.3, can be determined. The condition of
these internal structural elements shall be thoroughly
and accurately recorded. Since internal examinations
may be limited in time and schedule, the examination
team shall work as efficiently and fast as possible. A
detailed condition assessment of certain stack internal
structural elements can subsequently be performed on
the basis of documented observations. Other than the
obvious condition of structural elements, observations
worthy of documentation include the distribution and
depth of ash accumulations, wet areas, surface discol-
orations, crystalline deposits, cracks, blisters, delami-
nations, and the general alignment of parallel members
and walls.
7.3.8 Thickness Measurements
Both internal and external stack elements may
experience corrosion and erosion. The field measure-
ment of the material thickness is not always practical;
however, thickness measurements are essential for
determining an element’s current structural properties
in order to evaluate its load carrying capability. Local
loss of thickness can result in weak elements and
offers sites for future failures. Detailed planning shall
be performed to select, gain access to, and prepare
these areas for measurement. Some areas may require
the drilling of holes to allow thickness measurements
to be taken with calipers or calibrated depth gauges.
Plans shall include capping or plugging these test
holes after completion of measurements.
7.3.9 Sounding Measurements
This method can detect voids which are hollow
areas and delaminations. Tapping the surface with a
wand reveals delaminations and blisters by emitting a
high pitched sound in the area of the void.
7.3.10 Temperature Monitoring
The temperature of flue-gas or air within stacks
can vary considerably from the established design
basis. In some instances, the expected temperatures
and the actual on-line temperatures may vary enough
to warrant field measurement. Also, unanticipated
thermal stratification and temperature differentials
may occur within the stacks. Specific localized tem-
peratures of elements within the stack can be obtained
and recorded instantaneously over a period of time
through the installation of thermocouples. Thermal
records developed during plant start-up and shutdown,
as well as those associated with steady-state
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operations, often identify thermal gradients. During
start-up and shutdown, structural elements may experi-
ence a time related temperature lag when compared to
adjacent elements within the system. This temperature
lag can also be identified if the data are collected
properly. When strategically placed and properly
installed, thermocouples can provide the additional
information necessary to explain the structural behav-
ior of the stack.
During external on-line examinations of operating
stacks, temperature indicating crayons or digital ther-
mometers can provide accurate measurements of hot
and cold spots on the lagging and stack.
7.3.11 Displacement Measuring
To collect information pertaining to the actual
thermal growth and expansion of the stacks, thermal
displacement measuring devices shall be installed at
strategic locations on the stacks. Readings shall be
obtained when the stacks are at their operating temper-
ature and when the plant is off-line. Comparing the
cold and hot stack location measurements will indicate
the amount and direction of thermal expansion.
7.3.12 Surface Hardness Measurements
This measurement with a Barcol Impressor (ASTM
A 2583) provides an indication of the extent of laminate
cure. When compared to previous measurements
decreasing Barcol hardness readings indicate a reduc-
tion in physical properties and chemical resistance.
7.3.13 Infra-Red Survey
Infra-red surveying of the exterior of the stacks
can be performed during an exterior inspection while
the plant is in operation. This temperature survey can
provide information related to air or gas leakage. Thin
areas, voids, delaminations, and other defects can be
identified. Qualified operators of this equipment can
detect local hot spots, which can generally be corre-
lated with a structural concern or developing structural
problems.
7.3.14 X-ray Tests
X-ray radiographic tests detect and quantify
delaminations, permeation depth, and other unusual
sub-surface conditions.
7.3.15 Laboratory Test Samples
In some instances, samples of the stack shall be
obtained for chemical and physical laboratory
analyses. A means to obtain, identify, and transport
the samples shall be a part of the comprehensive
stack examination plan. Specification of the desired

laboratory tests shall be determined well in advance of
the examination. These tests include those associated
with material verification or classification, strength,
the determination of creep, impact properties, and con-
tamination identification.
The results of the material testing program shall
be used as part of any subsequent assessment of the
stack system’s structural adequacy. Comparison of the
results to the established design basis, industry stan-
dards, and available historical or academic data may
offer insight pertaining to the material strength, serv-
iceability, and rate of deterioration.
7.3.16 Documentation
The investment in the performance of preventive
maintenance stack system examinations can be
enhanced by the complete and accurate recording of
the collected information. First, a procedure shall be
created to properly record the examination field notes.
This procedure shall address basic considerations such
as the uniform use of pens, paper, markers, and the
type, format, and desired detail of notes and abbrevia-
tions. Specific instructions shall include the exact
type of information to be recorded, such as references,
orientation, sizes, and type of damage and visual
observations.
The presentation of information on previously
developed data sheets will facilitate collection, compi-
lation, and evaluation of the examination field notes.
Where practical, markers or paint may be used directly
within the stack system and support structure to high-
light critical findings or merely indicate that a portion
of the examination is complete.
Photographs and video recording of damage and
any unusual observations is highly recommended.
Good and safe lighting must be provided in order to
obtain quality photographs.
All information collected during a stack field
structural examination, including photographs, shall be
included in the final report. See Section 7.5.4 for more
recommendations regarding the examination final
report. This report shall serve as an important refer-
ence document for the continued future evaluation of
the stack system.
7.4 POTENTIAL DAMAGE AREAS
7.4.1. General
The structural condition assessment of stack shall
include an investigation of any indicators of potential
damage areas as listed in Section 7.4. The presence of
some of these indicators or problems with others, as
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the case may be, may warrant a detailed, rather than a
cursory, examination of the key structural elements in
the area of the indicators. See Section 7.4.3 for discus-
sion on examination details of these key structural
elements.
7.4.2 Indicators
The following items shall be examined during a
structural maintenance examination as possible indica-
tors of adjacent structural damage.
Discoloration: Interior stack surfaces frequently
exhibit a reddish brown or gray color. The examiner
shall note blackened areas that may indicate the prior
existence of an overheated condition such as a temper-
ature excursion. White or very light colored areas indi-
cate severe in-leakage of water. Subsequently, in both
of these areas the material properties and the strength
of adjacent elements may have been affected.
Structural damage might also be present in these areas.
Corrosion: Internal stack elements may be sub-
jected to corrosion as evidenced by blistering.
Corrosion may be attributed to operating temperatures
or local temperatures, which are below the dew point
of the flue-gas. Since corrosion may reduce the
strength of the stack elements, attention to the safety
of examiners shall be considered throughout an exami-
nation, especially within FGD system stacks.
External stack members may be subjected to cor-
rosion from external water sources.
Erosion: Internal stack members are subject to
abrasion from particulate matter carried by the flow.
The conservative design of these members, as well as
the attachment of sacrificial shielding members, can
provide additional protection and prolong service life.
However, almost all internal surfaces are subject to
some degree of erosion. Noticeably worn or polished
areas typically develop at flow distribution devices, in
corners, and in areas where the stack configuration
changes. Areas of high local velocity and high particu-
late content shall be examined to ascertain the extent
of any erosion.
Cracking: Stack stiffeners, transitions, support
locations, and other areas susceptible to varying tem-
peratures are prone to surface cracking.
Delaminations: This defect can occur anywhere.
However, stack stiffeners, transitions, and support
locations are likely areas due to high stress concentra-
tions, temperature variations, and likelihood of
deposits.
Lagging: Visual observation of the lagging can
provide information pertaining to the condition of a
stack structural system. Several indicators of potential
structural problems include localized stains, general
33
DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS
deterioration, buckling, separation of seams, binding at
supports or guides, and the ponding of water. The
topographic condition of lagging surfaces can be an
indicator of the configuration or settlement of the
stack surface beneath the lagging.
Insulation: Preventive maintenance examination
shall identify areas with missing, damaged, or non-
uniform insulation if used. Hot spots that cause stress
variations in these stack sections and cold spots that
accelerate corrosive deterioration may then be avoided
or eliminated by repairing the insulation.
Expansion Joints: Cracked or torn expansion
joints may be an indicator of erosion, ash packed and
hardened in the joints, and unusual stack movements.
A more careful examination of the stack supports adja-
cent to damaged joints may be warranted to determine
the extent of any stack damage and the amount of
stack support thermal movements. The material and
configuration of any damaged expansion joints shall
be investigated to assess its compatibility with the
operating environment. Ash or sludge buildup in
expansion joints is a frequent cause of damage. Once
the joints get packed with ash or sludge, the stack sec-
tions may be unable to freely expand, which could
result in damage to the stack sections. Erosion shields
or covers for thin metal joints and liners or baffles for
non-metallic joints shall be examined for deterioration
and ash buildup.
Expansion joint frames shall also be examined for
damage. Damage to these rigid frames is usually
caused by improper insulation details, improper joint
seals, or a packed joint.
Condition of Coatings and Linings: Small
cracks in surface treatments can be an indication of the
direction of stresses within an element. A detailed
examination report shall include an accurate depiction
of such patterns. Peeled paint on adjacent support steel
could indicate that the steel has been subjected to very
high temperatures, while the spalling of paint may
indicate the buckling of underlying material. If the
support steel is painted in the vicinity of sliding sup-
ports, worn paint surfaces can accurately indicate the
amount of thermal growth.
Excessive Deflections: Stack structural internal
members may exhibit vertical or horizontal buckling,
deflection, or rotation. Also, external stiffeners may
become buckled, warped, or severely bowed. Member
web crippling and excessive connection deformation
may also be observed. In all of these cases, the condi-
tion of the member and its associated end connections
shall be recorded. All sags and bows in the stack or
stiffeners shall be accurately measured during the
examination. Accurate measurements of deformations
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and rotations may facilitate the assessment of the
potential causes.
The buckling or out-of-plane distortion of stacks
often indicates that the external stiffeners have sepa-
rated from the wall. If not, they are usually quite dam-
aged. Distorted roofs could indicate a loss of lagging
integrity. This damage is usually caused by ponding of
external water or thermal gradients associated with
poorly distributed flows.
Fly Ash and Scrubber Sludge Accumulation:
Particular attention shall be given to areas where high
volumes of fly ash and scrubber sludge accumulate.
These areas shall be examined before and after
removal of the accumulations. Since fly ash and scrub-
ber sludge acts as an insulator, stack floors may be
cooler than the wall and roof sections. Temperature
differentials and corrosion of the stack can occur in
these locations. Stack corners as applicable shall be
closely examined for the presence of cracks in the
stack, joints, stiffeners, and corner reinforcement,
since large thermal stresses build up and produce the
greatest damage in areas which lack flexibility.
The amount and locations of significant deposits
shall be recorded during the examination. Samples
may be collected if density tests are needed to accu-
rately determine the weight of the accumulation.
7.4.3 Structural Elements
The following structural elements shall be exam-
ined during a structural maintenance examination.
Supports, Slide Bearings, and Guides: All com-
ponents of the stack’s support system shall be care-
fully examined. The condition of the various types of
bottom supports may reflect different types of opera-
tional concerns and a history of events. For example,
slide bearings with scorch marks and peeling surfaces
would indicate that very high temperatures have
existed at this location during operation. Guide bars at
sliding supports shall be examined for cracks in welds,
permanent deformation, and wear marks. Where visi-
ble, low friction surfaces shall also be examined for
large scratches or gouges, delaminations, acid holes,
and bulges at the center of the stack. When examining
off-line stack systems, thermal movements can be
determined by measuring the clean areas of slides that
develop as the stacks cool and contract from the oper-
ating position. Comparison of these measurements
with those theoretically predicted is an essential
method of assessing the stack’s structural behavior.
At bolted connections, each bolt shall be checked
for shear or tension failure or any observed deforma-
tion, engagement, looseness, and deterioration.

The amount of bearing or contact area shall also be
examined. Within sliding connections, bolts shall be
plumb but loose enough to enable the design move-
ment to occur.
Hangers: Both variable and constant load type
hangers are used to support stacks. Loads other than
expected, excessive load changes, or excessive vertical
movement may occur in hangers that could result in
damage to either the hanger, the hanger support steel,
or the stack at or adjacent to the hanger attachment.
The condition of the hanger connections to the
stack and to the support steel shall be examined. In
addition, the hanger manufacturer, model number, and
spring constant shall be recorded. For each hanger, the
vertical movement and the position of the indicator pin
shall be recorded for both cold and hot conditions.
7.5 EXAMINATION DATA, EVALUATION,
AND DISPOSITION
7.5.1 General
Field data collected from the examination shall be
neat, complete, accurate, carefully complied, carefully
evaluated, properly dispositioned, and organized into a
final report for presentation to the owner. The field
notes shall also include maps of the noted damage so
that it can be easily located later by the evaluation
engineer, the owner’s representatives, and the repair
contractor.
7.5.2 Examination Data Assimilation
Field data shall be completely and accurately
recorded. Photographs or video tapes shall be taken of
defective, damaged, or problem areas. Field notes shall
indicate the associated location and date of each pho-
tograph. Pertinent data, such as a means of picture
identification, orientation, reference directions, sizes,
lengths, and measurement scales, may be marked on
or near the item being photographed prior to photo-
graphing.
Accurate sketches, showing dimensions and orien-
tations, shall be compiled for all areas examined.
Maps of all examined areas will enable the correlation
of field data to specific areas of the stacks. Maps
showing the locations of thickness measurements are
also required. Examination forms shall be prepared
ahead of time to reduce the amount of time recording
field notes and sketches.
7.5.3 Repairs
Where damage is found, structural repairs are usu-
ally required. These repairs may be designed for a
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short term or long term life, depending on the circum-
stances. These repairs are necessary to render the stack
safe for continued plant operation. Engineering
sketches, in lieu of detailed design drawings, are
often used to specify repairs quickly and efficiently
in the field.
Prior to an examination, generic or standard
repairs for anticipated damage shall be prepared. Such
an approach will minimize valuable examination and
outage time dedicated to the development of repairs.
Standard details will also promote uniformity and an
orderly and cost-effective construction process.
In addition, certain repairs can be implemented
while the plant is operating. Such options include the
replacement of deteriorated lagging and insulation and
modification of lagging. This is assuming access and
surface temperatures can be handled properly.
Depending upon the extent and magnitude of the dam-
age and deterioration, outage based repairs may be pri-
oritized on the basis of criticality over several future
outages. The lead times for replacement parts, such as
expansion joints or certain structural members, could
impact the scheduling of repairs. Any significantly
damaged structural members shall be addressed by
immediate reinforcement or complete replacement.
Recognizing the need to assure the stability of the
stack system and the safety of plant personnel, many
of the repairs or modifications may need to be coupled
with the design and installation of temporary support
structures. After repairing corroded areas or areas with
deteriorated coatings, cleaning and recoating may be
an appropriate measure to arrest future deterioration.
7.5.4 Evaluation and Disposition Considerations
Many factors must be considered regarding the
disposition of structural examination findings.
Potential issues for resolution include: the severity of
damage or deterioration, future monitoring plans, the
commitment of non-outage versus outage repair
efforts, time constraints, capital expenses, and alterna-
tives to plant operation philosophies. The purpose of a
thorough condition assessment goes beyond providing
an immediate repair or estimating the frequency of
future repairs. A full assessment shall address the
causes of damage, identify any concerns, attribute doc-
umented damage with one-time occurrences or ongo-
ing mechanisms, and make recommendations for long
term corrective action.
Severe or unexpected damage will most likely
require further evaluation. In some cases, a structural
analysis of the stack system that incorporates those
components with severe corrosion, buckles, cracks, or
excessive deflections might be necessary. Calculations
35
DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS
and pertinent industry and academic data may be
applied to predict the rate of deterioration.
Subsequently, the remaining useful service life of
stack structural components may be estimated.
A comprehensive evaluation shall also differenti-
ate between localized and potentially progressive fail-
ures. The evaluation shall include a comparison of
actual service conditions and loads as observed during
the examination and those assumed in the original
design. Stress intensities must be an integral part of
the evaluation process for deteriorated areas. Their
remaining factors of safety, if any, must be deter-
mined. Finally, if the documented damage is deemed
catastrophic, a detailed assessment shall consider alter-
nate modes of unit operation as a means of providing a
resolution to the potential dangers.
Alternative resolutions to repairs, whether minor
or major, often may have to be coupled with a change
of operating conditions. This option is quite drastic
and, therefore, is rarely considered to be viable.
However, shall such extreme conditions warrant this
type of evaluation, additional multi-discipline input
shall be sought, with special attention given to the
experience of plant operators. Similarly, certain prob-
lems may be of a chronic, recurring nature and may
never be resolved without a complete redesign of the
stack system. However, experience has proven that
most damage and deterioration can be alleviated
through the development of a systematic, routine, and
comprehensive preventive maintenance structural
examination.
7.5.5 Final Report
The final examination report will serve as an
important future reference and shall be comprehensive.
All aspects of the preventive maintenance examination
effort shall be included within the final report. All
field data, repair sketches, and analysis work, if any,
shall be summarized and presented in a very detailed
fashion. All photographs and video tape shall be
included as an attachment. All information shall be
concise, clearly presented, and carefully arranged. The
report shall include all conclusions and recommenda-
tions for future courses of action. A suggested format
for the final report follows. Due to the effort and the
length of time that may be required to prepare this
important document, exit interviews with plant
personnel are frequently conducted as a preview
to the final report.
Suggested Final Report Table of Contents:
1. Purpose
2. History
36 @Seismicisolation
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3. Summary
4. Scope and Methods of Examination
5. Details of Examination
6. Conclusions and Recommended Future Course
Attachments:
A. Access Sketches
B. Damage Report
C. Inspection Photographs
D. Repair Sketches
7.6 MAINTENANCE
7.6.1 Program
A stack management maintenance program,
systemized to establish inspection frequency, repair
priorities, manage costs, and develop a database
management system, shall be implemented.
7.6.2 Guidelines
Regular inspection intervals of FRP stacks will
provide information for condition assessment by com-
parison of the results. Early detection of concerns shall
minimize damage by institution of corrective actions.
The type and frequency of FRP stack inspections
depends on age and physical condition as well as oper-
ation and exposure factors. Both interior and exterior
surfaces shall be inspected.
Exterior Surface: All cracks, flaw, deterioration,
and other deficiencies in the exterior surfaces shall be
repaired as warranted for the installation and by the
severity of the imperfection.
Interior Surface: Periodic removal of particle
deposits on the interior surfaces using high-pressure
wash or other effective and practical methods is recom-
mended. Other deficiencies in the FRP shall be
repaired as warranted for the installation and by the
severity of the imperfection.
Drains: All drains and false bottoms shall be kept
clean through periodic maintenance.
Appurtenances: All appurtenances shall be
repaired as necessary for safety and intended use.
Anchor Bolts: Areas around the anchor bolts
shall be kept clean and free of particle deposits and
moisture. Inspect and tightened anchor bolts as fol-
lows:
Step 1: Field identify anchor bolts with numbers so as
to keep a record of which bolts were checked
or tightened.
Step 2: Examine the anchor bolts, washers, nuts, and
grout for any flaws, corrosion, or deterioration.

Step 3: Establish 0° reference location for the first
anchor bolt to be checked.
Step 4: Second, third, and fourth anchor bolts
checked will be 180°, 90°, and 270° from
reference position, respectively.
Step 5: Prior to unloading lock nut of bolt to be
checked, punch mark the lower nut with a
matching punch mark on the upper chair rail
plate (not washer plate) to establish existing
anchor bolt reference position (Points A &
B). At any given time no more than one (1)
anchor bolt may be unloaded.
Step 6: Loosen lock nut.
Step 7: Loosen lower nut to full zero bolt load
condition.
Step 8: Tighten lower nut to snug tight position with
series of jerk torques applied to ensure that
nut is fully bearing on washer plate causing
small initial tension in the bolt.
Step 9: Punch mark upper chair rail plate matching
existing punch mark on lower nut (Point C).
In-line Points A & C now establish reference
“Snug-Tight” position.
Step 10: If angle developed by arc CB is equal to or
greater than the recommend turn of nut for
final torque, tighten lower nut so that refer-
ence lines A up with original reference point
B. This alignment indicates that anchor bolt
retained original pre-load.
Step 11: Tighten lock nut by jerk torques.
Step 12: If angle developed by arc CB is less than the
recommended turn of the nut for final torque,
tighten lower nut to the recommended turn of
the nut valve.
Step 13: Tighten lock nut by jerk torques.
Step 14: If these four (4) anchor bolts checked align
with Step 10 of this procedure, no further
checking is necessary. If any or all four (4)
anchor bolts checked align with Step 12,
continue bolt checking procedure by alternat-
ing at 180° from one another until pre-load is
established throughout the system.
FURTHER READING
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) (2007). Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
ASME, New York. (Section X, “Fiber-Reinforced Plastic
Pressure Vessels”).
Blanchard, R. J. (1988). “What’s New in Utility
and Industrial Chimney Liner?” ASTM
Standardization News.
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ASCE/SEI 52-10
Hertlein, B. H., ed. (2003). Chimney and Stack
Inspection Guidelines, ASCE, Reston, Va.
Plecnik, J. M., Gerwein, P. H., and Pham, M. G.
(1981). “Design and Construction of World’s Tallest
Free-standing Fiberglass Stack.” Civil Engineering,
51(1), 57–59, ASCE.
Rao, K. R., ed. (2008). Companion Guide to the
ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code, 3rd Ed.,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
New York. (Volume 2, Chapter 25).
Shadduck, A. K. (1977). Design of FRP Stacks:
Managing Corrosion with Plastics, NACE
International, Houston, Texas.
Warren, R. M. (1988). “Fiberglass Reinforced
Plastic as a Design Material for Industrial Chimneys.”
Paper 38, 6th International Chimney Conference,
Brighton, England.
American Concrete Institute (ACI) 307, Code
Requirements for Reinforced Concrete Chimmeys.
ACI 318, Building Code Requirements for
Structural Concrete.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 7,
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures.
ASCE 37, Design Loads on Structures during
Construction.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) RTP-1, Reinforced Thermoset Plastic
Corrosion Resistant Equipment.
ASME STS-1, Steel Stacks Standard.
ASTM International (ASTM) ASTM A 36/A 36M,
Standard Specification for Carbon Structural Steel.
ASTM A 307, Standard Specification for Carbon
Steel Bolts and Studs, 60,000 PSI Tensile Strength.
ASTM A 354, Standard Specification for
Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel Bolts, Studs, and
Other Externally Threaded Fasteners.
ASTM A 449, Standard Specification for Hex Cap
Screws, Bolts and Studs, Steel, Heat Treated, 120/105/
90 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength, General Use.
ASTM A 563/A 563M, Standard Specification for
Carbons and Alloy Steel Nuts.
ASTM A 572/A 572M, Standard Specification
for High-Strength Low-Alloy Columbium-Vanadium
Structural Steel.
ASTM A 687, Standard Specification for High-
Strength Nonheaded Steel Bolts and Studs.
(Discontinued 1999; no replacement.)
ASTM C 33/C 33M, Standard Specification for
Concrete Aggregates.
ASTM D 638, Standard Test Method for Tensile
Properties of Plastics.
37
DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS
ASTM D 953, Standard Test Method for Bearing
Strength of Plastics.
ASTM D 1599, Standard Test Method for
Resistance to Short-Time Hydraulic Pressure of
Plastic Pipe, Tubing, and Fittings.
ASTM D 2105, Standard Test Method for
Longitudinal Tensile Properties of “Fiberglass” (Glass-
Fiber-Reinforced Thermosetting-Resin) Pipe and Tube.
ASTM D 2343, Standard Test Method for Tensile
Properties of Glass Fiber Strands, Yarns, and Rovings
Used in Reinforced Plastics.
ASTM D 2583, Standard Test Method for
Indentation Hardness of Rigid Plastics by Means of a
Barcol Impressor.
ASTM D 2584, Standard Test Method for Ignition
Loss of Cured Reinforced Resins.
ASTM D 2992, Standard Practice for Obtaining
Hydrostatic or Pressure Design Basis for “Fiberglass”
(Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Thermosetting-Resin) Pipe
and Fittings.
ASTM D 2996, Standard Specification for
Filament-Wound “Fiberglass” (Glass-Fiber-
Reinforced Thermosetting-Resin) Pipe.
ASTM D 3039/3039M, Standard Test Method for
Tensile Properties of Polymer Matrix Composite
Materials.
ASTM D 3846, Standard Test Method for
In-Plane Shear Strength of Reinforced Plastics.
ASTM D 5083, Standard Test Method for Tensile
Properties of Reinforced Thermosetting Plastics Using
Straight-Sided Specimens.
38 @Seismicisolation
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ASTM D 5364-93, Standard Guide for Design,
Fabrication and Erection of Fiberglass Reinforced
Plastic Chimney Liners with Coal Fired Units.
ASTM D 5448/5448M, Standard Test Method for
Inplane Shear Properties of Hoop Wound Polymer
Matrix Composite Cylinders.
ASTM E 1316, Standard Terminology for
Nondestructive Examinations.
ASTM F 1154, Standard Specification for Anchor
Bolts, Steel, 36, 55, and 105-ksi Yield Strength.
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Report
TR-107099, Wet Stacks Design Guide.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
40CFR, “Procedures for Implementing the
Requirements of the Council on Environmental
Quality on the National Environmental Policy Act.”
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 70-7460,
“Obstruction Marking and Lighting.”
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 70,
National Electric Code.
NFPA 78, Lightning Protection Code.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) 29CFR 1910.146, “Permit-Required Confined
Spaces.”
OSHA 29CFR 1926.59, “Hazard Communication.”
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) 96A, Standard
Installation Requirements for Lightning Protection
Systems.
 INDEX
Page numbers in boldface are glossary definitions.
access and safety, 19–22 bolts. See anchor bolts
electrical safety, 21–22 bolts, ladder, 20
field examination, 29–30 bond strength, 1
ladders, 20–21 BPO/DMA (benzoyl peroxide/dimethylaniline), 1
platforms and landings, 21 braced stacks, 11
access ladders, 10 concentrated loads from, 12
access to ladders, unauthorized, 21 critical wind velocity and, 19
acetone tests, 23 brominated vinyl ester resins, 4–5
acoustic emission (AE), 1 bromine, 1
acoustic emission monitoring, 1 butt joins, tolerances of, 24
AE (acoustic emission), 1 butt seams, tolerances of, 23
aerodynamic damping, 17 butt wrap joint, 1
aerodynamic methods for preventing vibration, 17
aesthethic stack shapes, 8 C glass, 1
aggregate, 1 caged ladders, 20, 21
allowable stresses, 13 carbon fibers, 6, 7
ambient conditions, heat loss through, 9 catalyst, 1
anchor bolts, 14 catalyst-promoter combinations, 7
assembly of bolted connections, 23 catwalks, 21
maintenance of, 36–37 ceramic fibers, 7
applied loading, 11–12 checklists
allowable stresses, 13 inspection requirements, 27
loading combinations, 13 structural maintenance examination
appurtenances, 7 equipment, 30
ladder, 20 chemical conditions, exposure to, 28
maintenance of, 36 chlorendic anhydride, 4
optional, 10 chlorendic polyester resins, 4
aramid fibers, 7 chopped conventional rovings, 6
assembled rovings. See conventional rovings chopped strand mats, 6
assembly. See fabrication and erection combination woven roving/chopped
attachments to stacks, optional, 10 strand mat, 6
available draft, 8–9 chopped strand rovings, 5–6
aviation lighting, 10, 21, 21–22 circumferential stiffeners
allowable bending of, 13
barcol hardness, 1 requirements for, 13
Barcol hardness tests, 23, 32 circumferential stress
base plate, 13–14 allowable, 13
allowable bending of, 13 interaction with circumferential stress, 13
anchor bolts, 14 from thermal loads, 12
foundation, 14 classical rovings. See conventional rovings
structural design, 14 cleanliness, 26
basis for inspection, 28 coatings (resin additives), 7, 34
bell and spigot joint, 1 “cold spots” (insulated stacks), 28
bending stress, allowable, 13 composite, 1
benzoyl peroxide/dimethylaniline (BPO/DMA), 1 comprehensive vs. localized evaluations, 36
bi-directional laminate, 1 compressive stress, allowable, 13
binder, 1 concentrated loads (braced or guyed systems), 12
bisphenol a fumarate, 1 construction materials, 12. See also materials
bisphenol A polyester fumerates, 4 contact molding, 1
blister, 1 contents of final examination report, 36
bolted connections, assembly of, 23 convenience lighting, 22

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DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS

convenience power outlets, 22 end squareness tolerances, 24

conventional rovings, 5 entrance loss (draft), 8
corrosion, 33 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 7
corrosion liner, 1, 4 exit diameter regulations, 8
cracking, 33 stack height regulations, 7–8
cranes, 25 EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), 7
critical stack sections, identifying, 31 exit diameter regulations, 8
critical wind velocity, 16 stack height regulations, 7–8
cross-link, 1 epoxy plastics, 2
cumulative effects of exposures or operation, 29 epoxy resin (thermosetting), 2
cure, 1 epoxy resins, 5
cut edges, fabricating, 25 equipment for field examinations, 30–31
cylindrical section tolerances, 23 erection. See fabrication and erection
cylindrical shrouds, 18 erection equipment, 26
cylindrical stack shape, 8 evaluation considerations, 35–36
examination data assimilation, 35
damage areas, potential, 33–35 excessive deflection, 34
damping (vibration), 17 exit diameter regulations, 8
data assimilation, 35 exit loss (draft), 8
davit lifts, 10 exotherm, 2
dead load, 11 expansion (thermal), 9–10
deflection, 13 expansion joints, damage to, 34
excessive, 34 exposures, awareness of, 28
delamination, 1, 33 exposures, cumulative effect of, 29
diameter, stack, 8 exterior field inspections, 31
critical wind velocity and, 18 exterior laminate fabrication and erection, 25
diameter tolerances, 23 exterior surface maintenance, 36
differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), 1 external stack film surface coefficient, 9
differential thermal expansion, 9–10
dimension checks (inspection), 23, 26–27 FAA lighting requirements, 10, 21–22
direct flexural stress, 11 fabric pads, at stack base, 18
direct wound rovings, 5 fabricated fabric pads, 18
discoloration, 33 fabrication and erection, 22–26
discontinuities in the shell, 13–14 grouting, 26
discontinuity stress, 1 handling and storage, 26
displacement measuring, 32 inspection, 24
disposition considerations, 35–36 quality assurance, 23
documentation of field inspection, 33 responsibilities of fabricator, 22–23
doors for inspection, 10 shop fabrication and field erection, 24–26
draft and draft losses, 8–9 tolerances, 23–24
drag load interference effects, 12 false bottoms, 10
drain maintenance, 36 fastenings, ladder, 20
drains, 10 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) lighting
drawings, structural design, 10 requirements, 10, 21–22
DSC (differential scanning calorimetry), 1 FGD (flue-gas desulfurization), 28
dynamic responses to vibration, 15–17 fiberglass-reinforced polymers (FRPs), 2, 4
dynamic stresses, vibration and, 17 field examination techniques, 29–33
filament winding, 2
E glass, 2 filler, 2
earthquake response, 16 film coefficients, 7
ECR glass, 2 heat loss through, 9
effective stack height, 8 final examination report, 36
electrical safety, 21–22 fire retardants, 6
shop fabrication and field erection, 25 first crack strength, 2

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 ASCE/SEI 52-10

fittings tolerances, 24 inhibitor, 2

flange fabrication and erection, 23–24 inhibitors, 6
flexural stress, direct, 11 inner surfaces, fabrication of, 25
flood lights, 22 inspection and maintenance, 27–36
flooring surfaces, 21 data, evaluation, and disposition, 35–36
flue-gas desulfurization (FGD), 28 field examination techniques, 29–33
fly ash, 34 inspection requirements checklist, 27
force coefficient interference effect, 11 need for structural examination, 27–29
foundation, 14 potential damage areas, 33–35
frequencies, vibrational, 15 regular inspection intervals, 36
friction loss (draft), 8 inspection doors, 10
FRP stacks. See entries at stack inspection ports, 10
FRPs (fiberglass-reinforced polymers), 2, 4 installation inspection, 27
insulated stacks, thermal conditions of, 28
gas passage sizing, 7–8 insulation, damage to, 34
gaskets, 25 interaction equation for longitudinal and circum-
gel coats (resin additives), 7 ferential stress, 13
gelation time, 2 interference effects
gin pole, 10 drag load interference effects, 12
glass fabric, 2 force coefficient interference effect, 11
glass fibers, 2 wind response, 17
glass reinforcement, 2 interior field inspections, 31–32
glass reinforcements, 5 interior surface maintenance, 36
glass-reinforced polymer. See fiberglass-rein- internal corners tests, 23
forced polymers (FRPs) internal flow distribution devices,
grab bars (ladders), 20 sections with, 31
grouting, 26 internal stack film surface coefficient, 9
GRP. See fiberglass-reinforced polymers (FRPs) isotropic laminate, 2
guides, damage to, 34–35
gust effect factor, 11 joints
guyed stacks, 11 fabrication and erection, 25
concentrated loads from, 12 tolerances of, 23
critical wind velocity and, 18–19 joints, tolerances of, 24

halogenated resin, 2 knuckle, 2

hand lay-up, 2
hanger connections, damage to, 35 laboratory test samples, 32–33
hardness measurements, 23, 32 ladders, 20–21
HDT (heat distortion temperature), 2 lagging, 33–34
heat distortion temperature (HDT), 2 laminate, 2
heat loss, 9 laminate fabrication and erection, 25
height of FRP stacks, 7–8 laminate tests, 23
critical wind velocity and, 18 laminate thickness tolerances, 23
height tolerances, 24 laminates, 4
helical strakes, 17, 18 laminates qualification, 22–23
helix angle, 2 lamination theory, 2
HET (hexachloro-cyclopentadiene) acid, 4 landings, 21
high-intensity obstruction lights, 22 lateral deflections of stack, 14
hoop stress, 12 LF (load factors), 12
light inhibitors, 7
ice damage, 28 lighting (aviation), 10, 21, 21–22
ignition loss, 2 lightning protection, 10
indicators of potential damage, 33–34 liner, 2
infra-red surveying, 32 linings, condition of, 34

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DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS

liquid penetrant inspection, 23 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), 8

live loads, 11 lightning protection requirements, 10
load and resistance factor design (LRFD), 12–13 natural draft, 8
load factors (LF), 12 NFPA (National Fire Protection Association)
loading combinations, 13 lightning protection requirements, 10
loads, 11–12 stack height regulations, 8
allowable stresses, 13 noise pollution control, 10
ladders, 20 non-uniform temperatures, loads
loading combinations, 13 from, 11–12
seismic loading, 16 nuts (with anchor bolts), 14
wind, 16–17
localized vs. comprehensive evaluations, 36 obstruction lights, 21–22
logarithmic decrement, 17 operating basis for inspection, 28
longitudinal stress operating conditions, cumulative effect of, 29
allowable, 13 operations records, 28–29
interaction with circumferential stress, 13 optional appurtenances, 10
from thermal loads, 11 original design basis for inspection, 28
loss, draft, 8–9 orthotropic, 3
loss, heat, 9 ovalling resonance, 16–17
LRFD (load and resistance factor
design), 12–13 packaging inspection, 27
painter’s track and trolley, 10
maintenance, 36–37 peaking of joints and seams, 23
mandrel, 2 peel strength, 3
mass damper, 18 penetrant inspection, 23
mass of stack, vibration prevention and, 18 phenolic resins, 5
mat, 2 physical property inspection, 23
matching cylindrical sections, tolerances on, 24 pigments (resin additives), 7
material resistance factors (MRF), 12 pile foundations, 14
materials, 4–7 pitch, ladder, 20
anchor bolts, washers, and nuts, 14 planning for field examination, 29–30
fiberglass-reinforced polymers (FRPs), 2, 4 plant operations, cumulative effect of, 29
reinforcements, 5–6 plant records, 29
resin additives, 6–7 platforms, 21
resins, 4–5 plumbness, stack, 25
selection, 12 ply, 3
matrix, 2 polyester, 3
mats, 6 polyester resin (thermosetting), 3
combination woven roving/chopped polyester resins, 4
strand mat, 6 polymer, 3
mechanical design of stack, 7–10 postcure, 3
available draft, 8–9 potential damage areas, 33–35
design basis, 7 power outlets, 22
heat loss, 9 preparing for field examination, 29–30
optional appurtenances, 10 preventative maintenance. See inspection and
size selection, 7–8, 18 maintenance
thermal expansion, 9–10 prevention of excessive vibration, 17–19
minimum stack height, 7–8 primary axial stress, 12
mode shapes, 15 promoter, 3
modeling vibration, 15–16 promoters, 6
monomer, 2 purchaser, 3
MRF (material resistance factors), 12 putty, 3

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 ASCE/SEI 52-10

QA (quality assurance), 23 sounding measurements, 32

qualification laminate tests, 22–23 splitter baffles, 10
quality assurance (QA), 23 squareness tolerances, 24
stack attachments, optional, 10
radial stress from thermal loads, 12 stack cap dampers, 10
radiographic tests, 32 stack component design, 7–8
railings on platforms and landings, 21 stack deflection, 13
rain caps, 10 stack diameter, 8
rain damage, 28 critical wind velocity and, 18
rectangular sections, tolerances on, 24 stack draft and draft losses, 8–9
reinforced concrete footings, 14 stack frequencies, 15
reinforcements, 5–6. See also fiberglass- stack mass, vibration prevention and, 18
reinforced polymers (FRPs) stack shell diameters, 8
repair records, 28–29, 35 stacks, types of, 11
repairs, making, 35 steady state, 3
resin, 3 stiffeners
resin additives, 6–7 allowable bending of, 13
resin cure tests, 23 bending stress and, 19
resins, 4–5. See also fiberglass-reinforced maximum spacing, 16
polymers (FRPs) stiffness class, 3
resistance factors (RF), 12–13 storage, parts, 26
resonant wind velocity, 16–17 straight connections, tolerances of, 24
responsibilities of fabricator, 22–23, 26 straightening of FRP sections, 25
rest landings, 21 straightening vanes, 10
rigging, 26 strakes, helical, 17, 18
roofs, top-of-stack, 10 stress relaxation, 3
roving (filament winding), 3 stresses. See also applied loading
rovings, 5–6 allowable, 13
rungs, ladder, 20 dynamic, vibration and, 17
ladders, 20
safety. See access and safety seismic loading, 16
safety cages with ladders, 20, 21 wind, 16–17
sampling platforms, 21 structural adequacy, ensuring, 29
sampling ports, 25 structural damping, 17
scaffolding, 26 structural design, 10–15
scrubber sludge accumulation, 34 anchor bolts, 14
secondary axial stress, 11–12 applied loading, 11–12
seismic loading, 16 base design, 14
self-supported stacks, 11 deflection, 13
shape, stack, 8 discontinuities in shell, 13–14
shell discontinuities, 13–14 foundation, 14
shipment inspection, 27 indicators of potential damage, 34–35
shop drawings, 10 load and resistance factor design
shop fabrication and field erection, 24–25 (LRFD), 12–13
shrouds, 18 materials, 12
shut-off dampers, 10 special considerations, 14
side rails (ladders), 20 symbols, list of, 14–15
size (treatment), 3 types of FRP stacks, 11
size selection (stack), 7–8 structural examination, need for, 27–29
critical wind velocity and, 18 structural laminates, 3
slide bearings, damage to, 34–35 structural maintenance examination
snow damage, 28 equipment, 30

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DESIGN OF FIBERGLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP) STACKS

structural stability track, painter’s, 10

stack diameter and, 8 trolley, painter’s, 10
stack shape and, 8 truncated cone, 7
supports, damage to, 34–35 TTRF (time and temperature reduction
supports, ladder, 20 factor), 12–13
surface coefficients. See film coefficients
surface condition tests, 23 unauthorized access to ladders, 21
surface hardness measurements, 23, 32 unidirectional laminate, 3
surface layer, 3 user’s inspection, 26
surface maintenance, 36
surfaces of platforms and landings, 21 veil, 3
surfacing mat, 3 vertical butt seams, tolerances of, 23
surfacing mats, 6 vertical stiffeners
surfacing veils. See surfacing mats bending stress and, 19
symbols, list of maximum spacing, 16
for mechanical design, 7 vibration, 15–19
for structural design, 14–15 dynamic responses to, 15–17
for vibration, 19 estimation of vibration cycles, 19
synthetic fiber, 3 excessive, prevention of, 17–19
symbols, list of, 19
table of contents, for final report, 36 vinyl ester resins, 4–5
tape, 3 visual inspection, 23
temperature monitoring, 32 indicators of potential damage, 33–34
tensile stress, allowable, 13 Von Karman Vortices, 16
test platforms, 10 vortex shedding, 16
test samples (for laboratory), 32–33 aerodynamic damping and, 17
test zone, 7
thermal conditions, exposure to, 28 wall, heat transferred through, 9
thermal expansion, 9–10 wall laminate thickness tolerances, 23
thermal growth, 28 warp, 3
thermal load, 11–12 washers (with anchor bolts), 14
thermoplastic, 3 weather, exposure to, 28
thermoplastic resin, 3 weeping, 4
thermoset, 3 weft, 4
thermosetting resin, 3 wells, ladder, 20
thickness checks (inspection), 23, 26–27, 32 wind loads, 11, 28
thixotropic, 3 wind response (vibration), 16–17
thixotropic agents, 6 work platforms, 21
tightening bolts, 24 woven roving, 4
time and temperature reduction factor woven rovings, 6
(TTRF), 12–13 combination woven roving/chopped
toe plates, 21 strand mat, 6
tolerances, 23–24 written fabrication procedures, 22
top-of-stack roofs, 10
total draft loss, 9 X-ray tests, 32

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