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Green hotels
Uncovering the determinants of and green
pro-environmental consumption restaurants

for green hotels and

green restaurants 1581

A mixed-method approach Received 12 April 2019

Revised 14 July 2019
18 August 2019
Heesup Han Accepted 29 August 2019
College of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Sejong University,
Seoul, Korea
Hyoungeun Moon
Department of Hotel and Restaurant Administration,
Oklahoma State University Stillwater, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA, and
Sunghyup Sean Hyun
School of Tourism, Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea

Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to uncover the determining factors of customers’ pro-environmental intention
for green hospitality products (green hotels and green restaurants) and explore the comparative importance
among the factors. This study also investigated the difference in forming pro-environmental intention across
the green hospitality product types.
Design/methodology/approach – A mixed-method approach was taken to achieve the research
objectives. In a qualitative phase, the textual data collected via an open-ended question were analyzed using a
unit of analysis and categorization method. In a quantitative phase, the psychometric measurement items were
organized and validated through a series of tests. A structural equation modeling and structural invariance test
were used to evaluate the hypothesized relationships and difference between green hotels and green restaurants.
Findings – The textual data yielded three additional factors underlying consumers’ pro-environmental
consumption intention. Including five core variables derived from the extant theories in the pro-
environmental behavior literature, eight variables were categorized into volitional, cognitive, emotional and
moral dimensions. Among the dimensions, volitional and cognitive dimensions significantly contributed to
consumer’ pro-environmental intention. The influence of pro-environmental attitude and perceived benefits on
intention differed across green hotels and green restaurants.
Originality/value – This study uses a thorough mixed-method approach encompassing qualitative and
quantitative processes and develops the psychometric items to explore the drivers of customers’ pro-environmental
consumption intention for green hospitality products. This research is also one of the very few studies that verified
the difference in customers’ pro-environmental behavior between green hotels and green restaurants.

Keywords Green hotel, Mixed methods, Green restaurant, Metric invariance,

Pro-environmental consumption
Paper type Research paper International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
Vol. 32 No. 4, 2020
pp. 1581-1603
Funding: This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant © Emerald Publishing Limited
0959-6119
funded by the Korea government (*MSIT) (No. 2018R1A5A7059549). *Ministry of Science and ICT. DOI 10.1108/IJCHM-04-2019-0354
IJCHM Introduction
32,4 Tourists’ consumption of products and services while traveling has enormously increased
across the globe, leading to the environmental deterioration and the exhaustion of natural
resources (Hwang and Choi, 2018; Kiatkawsin and Han, 2017; Meng and Choi, 2016). Pro-
environmental consumption is critical in that such unplanned and excessive consumption of
conventional products/services often harms the environment in a severe way, (Joshi and
1582 Rahman, 2015; Moisander, 2007). Consumers also exert their capability to minimize the damage
to the environment by engaging in pro-environmental consumption behaviors (Han and Hyun,
2018; Joshi and Rahman, 2015; Moisander, 2007). Recognizing this, a growing number of
hospitality companies are recently vigorous in inducing customers’ green purchase/
consumption behaviors, activating their moral obligation for such environmentally responsible
actions (Han, 2015; Lee et al., 2010). For example, green hotels and restaurants have launched
various green initiatives and made diverse endeavors to practice green management (Choi et al.,
2015; Hwang et al., 2018; Nilnoppakun and Ampavat, 2016). One core facet of such green
initiatives is encouraging customers to choose and consume an eco-friendly hospitality
product/service (Lee et al., 2010; Tyrväinen et al., 2014; Verma et al., 2019).
In academia, previous research investigates different aspects of consumers’ pro-
environmental behaviors, such as volitional (Meng and Choi, 2016; Smith et al., 2012; Steg
and Vlek, 2009), cognitive (Kwon et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2010; Newton et al., 2015), emotional
(Bamberg and Möser, 2007; Harth et al., 2013; Onwezen et al., 2013) and moral aspects
(Klöckner and Matthies, 2004; Stern, 2000; Stern et al., 1999). However, little evidence shows
what constitutes such volitional, cognitive, emotional and moral processes in consumers’
intentions to consume at green hotels/restaurants. While both hotels and restaurants are
often considered constituents of green hospitality products (Choi et al., 2015; Han et al., 2018;
Line et al., 2016), the extant literature has centered on a single product type, either hotels or
restaurants. In addition, research that delves into the combined role of these factors in
triggering consumption decision for green product consumption is scant. This calls for
further research on how the combination of these factors transpires in forming consumers’
pro-environmental consumption intention under the effect of different green hospitality
product types (e.g. green hotels and green restaurants).
The present research was to fill these voids. In particular, considering green hotels and
green restaurants as the two major green hospitality products, this study aims (1) to unearth
the proximal determinants of customer pro-environmental intention for green hospitality
product consumption, (2) to explore the comparative importance of the identified factors in
increasing eco-friendly consumption intention, and (3) to discover the possible difference in
customers’ pro-environmental consumption intention formation across the hospitality
product types (green hotels vs green restaurants). To achieve the aforementioned objectives,
this study takes a mixed-method approach comprising both qualitative and quantitative
processes, which is rarely applied to uncover the direct driving forces of pro-environmental
consumption intention/behavior. More specifically, an open-ended question was used in a
qualitative phase to develop appropriate psychometric instruments, and a survey method
was used in a quantitative phase. The effect of green hospitality product types was
examined using the baseline model assessment and structural invariance tests.

Literature review
Pro-environmental consumption in green hospitality – green hotels and green restaurants
Pro-environmental consumption refers to consumers’ eco-friendly purchase and consumption
activities for goods and services to minimize the hazardous influence on the natural
environment (Han and Hyun, 2018; Joshi and Rahman, 2015). This is in line with
the conceptualization of green consumption which indicates that customers are aware of the Green hotels
negative impact on the environment when buying/using/disposing goods and services and green
(Moisander, 2007). The scope of this concept also includes the evasion of buying and consuming
environmentally irresponsible goods and services (Chan, 2001; Hwang and Choi, 2018).
restaurants
Such pro-environmental behaviors have been emphasized in hospitality product-related
literature, especially in hotels and restaurants. The current studies introduce the concepts
(e.g. attitudes, subjective norms and perceived control) to explore consumers’ intentions to
visit green hotels (Chen and Tung, 2014; Verma et al., 2019). The green image of hotels is 1583
also considered one of important factors in forming consumers’ pro-environmental behavior
(Nysveen et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018). The previous studies centered on restaurants verify
consumers’ personal sustainability values as crucial factors of their intentions to select
green menus (Shin et al., 2017). Although both hotels and restaurants are the key hospitality
product types, the majority of existing pro-environmental behavior research in hospitality
lies in one or the other type. In this light, this study attempts to fill a research gap by taking
both product types into account and comparing how the determinants of consumers’ pro-
environmental consumption intention differ by the product types. The following sections
elaborate the details about the theoretical anchor of this study.

Theoretical background
To explain an individual’s pro-environmental behavioral intention, several theoretical
approaches are frequently taken, such as the theory of reasoned action and theory of
planned behavior, norm activation model and value-belief-norm theory. The theory of
reasoned action and theory of planned behavior are on the basis of self-interest motives
(Ajzen, 1991; Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001; Steg and Vlek, 2009), while the other two theories
(i.e. the norm activation model and the value-belief-norm theory) include pro-social motives
(De Groot and Steg, 2009; Stern, 2000; Stern et al., 1999).
More specifically, according to the theory of reasoned action and theory of planned
behavior, there are two core influencers on a person’s intention to behave in a certain manner:
attitude and social norm (Ajzen, 1991; Madden et al., 1992). Attitude is formed based on a
person’s beliefs about results from a certain behavior and his/her evaluations of the results.
Social norm is under the effect of how the person’s reference groups would behave, which is
also influenced by the person’s motivation to comply with the reference groups. On the other
hand, the norm activation model and value-belief-norm theory rather focus on the person’s
awareness of outcomes derived from a certain behavior and whether the person feels “moral
obligation to perform or refrain from specific actions” (Schwartz and Howard, 1981, p. 191). In
this light, the major components of the theories with self-interest motives include volitional
factors (i.e. attitude and social norm) (Chen and Tung, 2014; Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001; Smith
et al., 2012) whereas the main constituents of the theories with pro-social motives contain
cognitive (i.e. environmental awareness) and moral (i.e. moral norm) factors (Steg and Vlek,
2009; Stern, 2000; Verma et al., 2019). More recently, an emotional aspect of a person’s intention
to act pro-environmentally is addressed. For instance, consumers’ guilty feeling is the key
influencer on their intentions to behave environmentally (Onwezen et al., 2013).
The importance of these factors in pro-social/pro-environmental decision formation has
been repeatedly stressed in hospitality, tourism and consumer behavior (Chan and Bishop,
2013; Chen and Tung, 2014; Choi et al., 2015; Han, 2015; Meng and Choi, 2016; Teng et al.,
2018; Verma et al., 2019). As such, for the past few decades, these socio-psychological
theories have been extensively applied for explication of one’s pro-environmental intention
formation and behaviors in a variety of contexts. Nonetheless, researchers often question the
sufficiency of these variables to capture customers’ eco-friendly intention/behavior in a
IJCHM holistic manner (Bamberg and Möser, 2007; Bamberg et al., 2007; Han, 2015; Meng and Choi,
32,4 2016; Onwezen et al., 2013; Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001). This study takes the major
constructs from the existing theories prevalently used in the pro-environmental behavior
literature.

Pro-environmental attitude, social norm, environmental awareness and moral norm

1584 One’s attitude along with social norm is regarded as a volitional process of forming his/her
certain behavior (Ajzen, 1991; Chen and Tung, 2014; Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001). Attitude
indicates customers’ tendency toward a particular object derived from their appraisal of the
object, which is either favorable or unfavorable (Han et al., 2018; Meng and Choi, 2016).
Social norm has two major facets, namely, descriptive and injunctive social norms (Cialdini
et al., 1991; Cialdini, 1988; Cialdini et al., 1990). Cialdini et al. (1990) claim that injunctive
social norm is about what has to be done and what is socially accepted in a certain situation,
whereas descriptive norm specifies what is common or typical and what most/common
people do in the situation. Regarding environmental awareness, which is a cognitive factor,
it refers to one’s conscious level of consequences, which is hazardous to the entity valued by
him/her (e.g. natural environment comprising living things [plants, animals and other
people] and non-living things [water, air, soil and natural resources]) when not engaging in
eco-friendly behaviors (Bamberg and Schmidt, 2003; Lind et al., 2015). In addition, moral
norm indicates patrons’ conviction that being engaged in a particular consumption is
ethically correct or incorrect (Han, 2015; Stern, 2000).

Qualitative phase of the study

Open-ended questionnaire development
In a qualitative phase of this study, an open-ended survey questionnaire was developed
through a focus group discussion. The participants in the group discussion were
purposively approached so as to gain key ideas relevant to the subject of matter as well as to
cover diverse perspectives from the participants with different background (Ritchie et al.,
2013). For this study, five hospitality academics and five operators in the hotel and
restaurant industry attended the face-to-face group discussion for about an hour and freely
discussed what the rationale of consuming at green hotels and restaurants is. Through the
in-depth discussion and review on extant exploratory studies (Jones et al., 2000; Keaveney,
1995), an open-ended item was developed, which was “If you decide to consume a green
hospitality product (green hotel or restaurant) over conventional ones, what will be the
reason(s)?”. The term, green hospitality products, was chosen to refer to green hotels and
green restaurants in the hospitality industry, as they are often described as the key product
types in hospitality (Choi et al., 2015; Han et al., 2018; Line et al., 2016). This question was
placed in the questionnaire and used to identify the determinants of customers’ pro-
environmental consumption intention for the green hospitality products. The rest parts of
the questionnaire (i.e. introductory letter encompassing explanation of the research,
questions for personal characteristics) were also reviewed and modified through the focus
group discussion. The developed questionnaire was further improved through a pre-test
with graduate students in the hospitality and tourism department.

Data collection procedure and sample characteristics

The open-ended question was distributed through an online research survey firm. Using the
firm’s database, the question was randomly distributed online to hotel and restaurant
customers in South Korea. Among the potential participants, only those who have stayed or
visited a green hotel/restaurant were requested to respond to the questionnaire. They were
first asked to write the name of green hotel/restaurant that they recently visited. Then, they Green hotels
were instructed to read the research description and write the answers for the open-ended and green
question and for other questions about demographics. A total of 100 usable responses
remained out of 109 responses after removing uncompleted ones.
restaurants
Among the respondents, 54 per cent were men, and 46 per cent were women. The
respondents’ average age was 41.12 years old. Regarding the income level, about 20 per cent
reported that their income is between $40,001 and $55,000, followed by between $25,001 and
$40,000 (20 per cent), between $70,001 and $85,000 (19 per cent), between $55,001 and 1585
$70,000 (18 per cent), $25,000 or less (11 per cent), between $85,001 and $100,000 (6 per cent)
and $100,001 or more (6 per cent). In terms of education level, the participants indicated that
they are college graduates (71 per cent), followed by graduate degree holders (13 per cent)
and high school graduates or less (6 per cent). When their most recent consumption
experience for the green hotel/restaurant product was asked, about 21 per cent indicated
within the last one month; about 63 per cent reported within the last 3 months; about 89 per
cent indicated within last 9 months; and all respondents reported within the last one year.

Additional determinants of pro-environmental consumption intention

The usable responses obtained from the questionnaire were analyzed by using both a unit of
analysis and categorization method. First, two academic experts independently conducted
the unit of analysis by coding the textual data as units to avoid outside effect (Kolbe and
Burnett, 1991). The unit of data can vary on the meaningfulness of the data, such as a word,
phrase and sentence (Merriam, 2002). In the case of this study, a sentence in the participant’s
response, “I have a good image of a green restaurant”, was taken as a unit and coded as
“good image”. Upon completion of coding the data, every unit generated by two experts was
compared, and the disparity was resolved through discussions. The refined units were then
categorized under the similar themes through comparisons among the units (categorization
process) (Spiggle, 1994). Such categorization enabled researchers to find the common
patterns that emerge from the textual data (Merriam, 2002). The findings identified three
additional categories that drive consumers’ pro-environmental consumption intention
toward green hospitality products: pro-environmental image, perceived benefits and feeling
of guilt. Although there are other concepts such as perceived control and values included in
the existing theories (Ajzen, 1991; Stern, 2000; Stern et al., 1999), those were excluded
because of the lack of relevance to consumers’ pro-environmental intention for green
hospitality products found in this qualitative phase. The following elaborates the three
additional factors found from the analyses of the textual data.
The first factor was pro-environmental image. Many respondents mentioned that they
have a favorable image about a green hotel/restaurant (e.g. “I visit the green hotel because I
have a good image of it” and “The image of the green restaurant is great”). About 43 per cent
uttered image/reputation-related words. An image of a product indicates the set of
customers’ perception/impression that they have about the product and its characteristics
(Kotler et al., 1993). Individuals often develop an image of an entity based on information
obtained and processed over time, and such information acquisition is made through diverse
channels, including direct/indirect experiences with the product/service/company/brand
(Assael, 1984; Han et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2010). When consumers’ perceived image of green
hotels and restaurants is positive, the consumers are likely to purchase/consume a green
hotel/restaurant product. (Han et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2010).
The second factor was perceived benefits. Many participants stated that they will
consume a green hospitality product because of several benefits such as health and
freshness of ingredients (e.g. “I can eat healthy foods at the green restaurant”, “Fresh foods
IJCHM and beverages are available in the green restaurant” and “Green atmospherics make me feel
32,4 healthy and relaxed when staying at the green hotel”). Approximately 42 per cent uttered
perceived benefits-/outcomes-associated words. When consuming a green hospitality
product/service, consumers seemed to expect the superior advantages than when using an
alternative/competitive conventional hospitality product/service. Perceived benefits refer to
the probability of a particular consumption behavior actually generating the expected
1586 outcomes (Han and Hwang, 2014; Hwang and Choi, 2018). Customers often expect the
superior gain obtained from engaging in the consumption of a product/service over
alternatives’ offerings (Hwang and Choi, 2018). The existing literature indicates that
customers who perceive high benefits from a specific product/service use are likely to
engage in purchasing and consumption behaviors for the product/service (Han and Hwang,
2014; Hwang and Choi, 2018).
The third factor was feeling of guilt. About 19 per cent of the participants mentioned
negative feeling associated words. The participants responded that they would consume
at a green hotel or green restaurant because of a bad feeling if they visit an
environmentally irresponsible hotel/restaurant (e.g. “I just feel sorry if I visit an
environmentally unfriendly hotel” and “I feel guilty if my consumption behaviors are
harmful to the environment”). Individuals anticipate guilty feelings when being engaged
in the pro-environmentally irresponsible consumption (Bamberg et al., 2007; Onwezen
et al., 2013). This feeling of guilt is the key facet of such self-conscious emotion
particularly in a pro-environmental product consumption situation (Han and Hyun, 2018;
Harth et al., 2013; Onwezen et al., 2013), which also makes consumers feel responsible for
their pro-environmental behavior (Gifford and Nilsson, 2014). As such, feeling of guilt is
considered the major aspect of emotional process in patrons’ eco-friendly decision
formation, which leads to their environmentally responsible consumption behaviors
(Han and Hyun, 2018; Onwezen et al., 2013).
A total of three factors unearthed through this qualitative procedure, and five core
factors derived from the extant socio-psychological theories were subsequently grouped into
greater categories representing more general phenomenon (Spiggle, 1994). The four
categories were volitional (i.e. pro-environmental attitude, descriptive social norm and
injunctive social norm), cognitive (i.e. pro-environmental image, environmental awareness
and perceived benefits), emotional (i.e. feeling of guilt) and moral (i.e. moral norm)
dimensions. Built on the findings and literature review, the theoretical framework is
proposed and visualized in Figure 1, which encompasses the following hypothesized
relationships among the variables. To investigate the associations among those factors and
consumers’ pro-environmental consumption intention, this study takes a quantitative
approach as a next step, which is elaborated in the subsequent sections.

H1. The association between pro-environmental attitude and pro-environmental

consumption intention is significant.
H2. The association between descriptive social norm and pro-environmental
consumption intention is significant.
H3. The association between injunctive social norm and pro-environmental
consumption intention is significant.
H4. The association between pro-environmental image and pro-environmental
consumption intention is significant.
 Green hotels
Volitional dimension and green
Pro-environmental restaurants
attitude
H1
Descriptive social
norm
H2 1587
Injunctive social
norm
H3

Cognitive dimension
Pro-environmental
H4
image

Pro-environmental
Environmental consumption
awareness H5 intention

Perceived benefits
H6

Emotional dimension
H7
Feeling of guilt

Moral dimension
H8
Figure 1.
Moral norm Proposed theoretical
framework

H5. The association between environmental awareness and pro-environmental

consumption intention is significant.
H6. The association between perceived benefits and pro-environmental consumption
intention is significant.
H7. The association between feeling of guilt and pro-environmental consumption
intention is significant.
H8. The association between moral norm and pro-environmental consumption intention
is significant.

Quantitative phase of the study

Based on the findings from the open-ended question and review of the relevant previous
research literature, the final survey contained 27 items introduced from the existing
research. The reliability and validity of these psychometric items were assured through a
series of tests, including content validity check by experts, pretest of a survey and factor
analysis (Kim, 2009; Truelove and Gillis, 2018). To analyze the survey data, this study used
IJCHM covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM) for several reasons. With a large
32,4 size of sample (e.g. more than 250 usable responses), CB-SEM shows better parameter
accuracy and consistency as well as less bias in results, compared to partial least squares
SEM that is often used in mixed-method research (Reinartz et al., 2009; Sarstedt et al., 2016).
In addition, CB-SEM is often used to test a hypothesized model supported by strongly
established theories (Hair et al., 2013), such as the pro-environmental behavior-related
1588 research literature that holds enriched theories. To investigate the group difference between
green hospitality product types (green hotel vs green restaurant), invariance tests were
conducted, which examines whether a particular relationship between variables differs
across the groups. The following sections delineate the survey development process.

Measurement items and survey questionnaire

Measurement items for pro-environmental attitude, descriptive social norm, injunctive social
norm, environmental awareness, moral norm and pro-environmental consumption intention
were adopted from the extant literature (Ajzen, 1991; Bamberg and Schmidt, 2003; Cialdini
et al., 1990, 1991; Han, 2015; Han and Hyun, 2018; Onwezen et al., 2013; Perugini and Bagozzi,
2001). Measurement items for pro-environmental image, perceived benefits and feeling of
guilt were developed on the basis of the participants’ responses to the open-ended question as
well as the existing environmental studies (Han et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2010; Onwezen et al.,
2013). Specifically, four items were used to measure pro-environmental attitude (e.g. “For me,
purchasing a green hotel/restaurant product would be ‘Unattractive’ [1]/”Attractive” [7]). We
used three items for the assessment of descriptive social norm (e.g. “Most people who are
important to me purchase a green hotel/restaurant product that is less harmful for the
environment when there is a choice.”) and three items for the evaluation of injunctive social
norm (e.g. “Most people whose opinions I value would prefer that I purchase a green hotel/
restaurant product.”).
In addition, three items were, respectively, used to measure pro-environmental image
(e.g. “Overall, I have a good image of purchasing a green hotel/restaurant product.”),
environmental awareness (e.g. “The hospitality industry generates the environmental
impacts on the neighboring areas and wider environment.”) and perceived benefits
(e.g. “Consuming a green hotel/restaurant product would enable me to eat fresh and healthy
foods.”). For the assessment of feeling of guilt, three items were also used (i.e. “guilty”,
“remorseful”, “and sorry”). Last, three items were, respectively, introduced to evaluate moral
norm (e.g. “I feel personally obliged to purchase a green hotel/restaurant product.”) and pro-
environmental consumption intention (e.g. “I will expend my efforts on consuming a green
hotel/restaurant product instead of a conventional hotel/restaurant product in the future.”)
were used. The questionnaire comprised these measures was pre-tested to increase its face
validity. Based on the comments of faculty members, graduate students and practitioners in
the hospitality industry, we refined the questionnaire. The questionnaire was then finalized
through two academic experts’ review. All study variables measured with multiple items
using a seven-point scale (Appendix).

Data collection and samples characteristics

An online survey that consisted of those psychometric measurement items was distributed
to general hotel and restaurant patrons in South Korea using the database of the online
research firm. Those who have had a consumption experience with any green hotel/
restaurant within the last one year at the time of data collection were qualified to participate
in the survey. These customers were requested to carefully read the explanation of the
survey and asked to indicate the green hotel/restaurant name that they visited recently.
Then, they were requested to answer to the measurement items. We gained 408 complete Green hotels
and usable responses through this data collection procedure. and green
Among the respondents, 50 per cent were female patrons and the rest 50 per cent were
male patrons. The participants’ average age was 39.85 years old. In terms of the
restaurants
participants’ income level, about 25.5 per cent reported that their income is between $25,001
and $40,000, followed by between $55,001 and $70,000 (18.4 per cent), between $40,001 and
$55,000 (17.9 per cent), $25,000 or less (13.7 per cent), between $70,001 and $85,000 (11.5 per
cent), between $85,001 and $100,000 (6.6 per cent) and $100,001 or more (6.4 per cent).
1589
Regarding the participants’ education level, about 77.2 per cent indicated that they have a
college degree, followed by graduate degree holders (13 per cent) and high school graduates
or less (9.8 per cent). Next, the participants’ recency of green hospitality product
consumption was asked. About 18.4 per cent reported within the last one month; about 52.7
per cent indicated within the last 3 months; about 90.2 per cent reported within last
9 months; and all participants reported within the last one year.

Measurement model evaluation and construct validity assessment

A confirmatory factor analysis was performed for the generation of the measurement model
using AMOS 20. Our result demonstrated the satisfactory level of the goodness-of-fit-
statistics in the measurement model ( x 2 = 660.677, df = 239, p < 0.001, x 2/df = 2.764,
RMSEA = 0.066, CFI = 0.957, IFI = 0.958). Measurement items were all significantly loaded
to their associated factors (p < 0.01). Our calculation of the composite reliability revealed
that all values ranging from 0.860 to 0.941 were greater than the recommended threshold of
(0.7) (Table I). This provided the evidence of internal consistency among within-construct
items. Average variance extracted (AVE) values were calculated. The values shown in
Table I all exceeded the suggested cutoff of (0.5), supporting convergent validity of the
within-construct measurement items (Hair et al., 1998). These values were also greater than
the squared correlation between variables (Table I). Hence, the discriminant validity of the
construct measures was evident.

Structural model evaluation and hypotheses testing

A SEM was performed to test a measurement model and the proposed hypotheses. The
model comprises an acceptable level of the goodness-of-fit statistics ( x 2 = 700.049, df = 240,
p < 0.001, x 2/df = 2.917, RMSEA = 0.069, CFI = 0.953, IFI = 0.954). Overall, the model
included a satisfactory level of prediction power for pro-environmental consumption
intention. Specifically, about 76.9 per cent of the total variance in pro-environmental
consumption intention was accounted for by its eight predictors. Subsequently, the research
hypotheses were tested. The detailed results are reported in Figure 2 and Table II. As
expected, pro-environmental attitude exerted a positive and significant influence on pro-
environmental consumption intention ( b = 0.171, p < 0.01), and descriptive social norm had
a significant positive influence on pro-environmental consumption intention ( b = 0.279, p <
0.01). This result supported H1 and H2. However, the impact of injunctive social norm on
intention was not significant ( b =
0.033, p > 0.05). Thus, H3 was not supported. Next, the
proposed impact of pro-environmental image, environmental awareness and perceived
benefits on intention was tested. The result showed that both pro-environmental image ( b =
0.282, p < 0.01), environmental awareness ( b = 0.150, p < 0.01) and perceived benefits ( b =
0.182, p < 0.01) included a positive and significant impact on intention. Therefore, H4, H5
and H6 were supported. The hypothesized impact of feeling of guilt and moral norm on
intention was evaluated. Our result revealed that feeling of guilt ( b =
0.122, p > 0.05) and
 32,4

1590

Table I.
IJCHM

analysis and
Confirmatory factor

correlation (N = 408)
Variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

(1) Pro-environmental attitude 1.000 – – – – –

(2) Descriptive social norm 0.477 (0.228) 1.000 – – – –
(3) Injunctive social norm 0.326 (0.106) 0.681 (0.464) 1.000 – – –
(4) Pro-environmental image 0.571 (0.326) 0.695 (0.483) 0.548 (0.300) 1.000 – –
(5) Environmental awareness 0.350 (0.123) 0.411 (0.169) 0.367 (0.135) 0.455 (0.207) 1.000 –
(6) Perceived benefits 0.469 (0.220) 0.746 (0.557) 0.685 (0.469) 0.678 (0.460) 0.466 (0.217) 1.000
(7) Feeling of guilt 0.508 (0.258) 0.750 (0.563) 0.646 (0.417) 0.728 (0.530) 0.418 (0.175) 0.733 (0.537)
(8) Moral norm 0.576 (0.332) 0.746 (0.557) 0.609 (0.371) 0.813 (0.661) 0.520 (0.270) 0.729 (0.531)
(9) Pro-environmental consumption intention 0.578 (0.334) 0.684 (0.468) 0.552 (0.305) 0.725 (0.526) 0.535 (0.286) 0.682 (0.465)
Mean (SD) 5.211 (1.072) 4.534 (1.128) 4.071 (1.445) 4.903 (1.124) 4.444 (1.135) 4.243 (1.270)

Notes: Goodness-of-fit statistics: x 2 = 660.677, df = 239, p < 0.001, x 2/df = 2.764, RMSEA = 0.066, CFI = 0.957, IFI = 0.958. Squared correlations between
constructs are in parentheses
(continued)
Variables (7) (8) (9) CR AVE

(1) Pro-environmental attitude – – – 0.904 0.703

(2) Descriptive social norm – – – 0.908 0.832
(3) Injunctive social norm – – – 0.941 0.888
(4) Pro-environmental image – – – 0.942 0.845
(5) Environmental awareness – – – 0.874 0.700
(6) Perceived benefits – – – 0.887 0.797
(7) Feeling of guilt 1.000 – – 0.895 0.740
(8) Moral norm 0.754 (0.569) 1.000 – 0.922 0.798
(9) Pro-environmental consumption intention 0.654 (0.428) 0.743 (0.552) 1.000 0.860 0.677
Mean (SD) 4.578 (1.175) 4.586 (1.210) 4.817 (0.998)
1591
and green
Green hotels

Table I.
restaurants
IJCHM
32,4 Volitional dimension
Pro-environmental
attitude
H1: 0.171**
Descriptive
social norm
H2: 0.279**
1592
Injunctive
social norm H3: – 0.033
Cognitive dimension
Pro-environmental
image H4: 0.282**

Pro-environmental
Environmental consumption
awareness H5: 0.150** intention

Perceived benefits
H6: 0.182*

Emotional dimension
H7: –0.122
Feeling of guilt

Moral dimension
H8: 0.126
Moral norm

Figure 2.
Evaluation of the Notes: Goodness-of-fit statistics for the structural model: χ2 = 700.049, df = 240,
proposed theoretical p < 0.001, χ2/df = 2.917, RMSEA = 0.069, CFI = 0.953, IFI = 0.954; *p < 0.05,
framework
**p < 0.01

moral norm ( b = 0.126, p > 0.05) were not significantly associated with intention.
Accordingly, H7 and H8 were not supported.

Baseline model evaluation and invariance test

To uncover the possible difference in pro-environmental consumption intention between
two green hospitality product types, a test for metric invariance was performed. The
participants were divided into green hotel group (n = 205) and green restaurant group (n =
203) based on their indication pertinent to their most recent green hospitality product
consumption experience in the questionnaire. The baseline model comprising these two
groups was then generated. The model contained the acceptable level of goodness-of-fit
statistics ( x 2 = 1023.801, df = 494, p < 0.001, x 2/df = 2.072, RMSEA = 0.051, CFI = 0.947,
IFI = 0.948, TLI = 0.936). This model was then compared to the nested models using a chi-
square test. As shown in Table III and Figure 3, our result indicated that the path from pro-
environmental attitude to pro-environmental consumption intention was significantly
different between green hotel and restaurant groups (D x 2 [1] = 4.126, p < 0.05). However,
Proposed relationships Coefficients t-value Hypothesis
Green hotels
and green
H1: Pro-environmental attitude ! Pro-environmental restaurants
consumption intention 0.171 3.906** S
H2: Descriptive social norm ! Pro-environmental
consumption intention 0.279 3.284** S
H3: Injunctive social norm ! Pro-environmental
consumption intention
0.033
0.602 NS 1593
H4: Pro-environmental image ! Pro-environmental
consumption intention 0.282 3.653** S
H5: Environmental awareness ! Pro-environmental
consumption intention 0.150 3.716** S
H6: Perceived benefits ! Pro-environmental consumption
intention 0.182 2.153* S
H7: Feeling of guilt ! Pro-environmental consumption
intention
0.122
1.388 NS
H8: Moral norm ! Pro-environmental consumption intention 0.126 1.333 NS
Goodness-of-fit statistics: x 2 = 700.049, df = 240, p < 0.001, x 2/df = 2.917, RMSEA = 0.069, CFI = 0.953,
IFI = 0.954 Table II.
Total variance explained: R2 of pro-environmental consumption intention = 0.769 *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01
SEM and hypotheses
Notes: S = supported; NS = not supported testing (N = 408)

the links from descriptive social norm (D x 2 [1] = 0.035, p > 0.05) and injunctive social norm
(D x 2 [1] = 0.012, p > 0.05) to intention did not significantly differ across product types. Our
finding also showed that the paths from pro-environmental image (D x 2 [1] = 0.558, p > 0.05)
and environmental awareness (D x 2 [1] = 0.059, p > 0.05) to intention did not differ
significantly between two groups. Yet, the link from perceived benefits to intention was
significantly different between green hotel and restaurant groups (D x 2 [1] = 4.069, p < 0.05).
Finally, as reported in Table III, the linkages from feeling of guilt (D x 2 [1] = 0.554, p > 0.05)
and moral norm (D x 2 [1] = 0.155, p > 0.05) to intention were not significantly different
between groups.

Discussion and conclusions

This study explored the determining factors of customer pro-environmental decision for
green hospitality products based on mixed methods encompassing qualitative and
quantitative phases. The analyses on the textual data obtained through the open-ended
question identified three additional key drivers of environmentally responsible consumption
intention (i.e. pro-environmental image, perceived benefits and feeling of guilt). Including the
five core factors derived from the major theories in consumer pro-environmental behavior
literature (i.e. pro-environmental attitude, descriptive social norm, injunctive social norm,
environmental awareness and moral norm), eight factors were grouped under the volitional,
cognitive, emotional and moral dimensions. The outcomes from the quantitative phase
unearthed the dissimilarity in the pro-environmental attitude and intention relationship and
on the perceived benefits and intention relationship between green hotel customers and
green restaurant customers. The extant literature in hospitality and tourism has provided a
limited view regarding the triggers of customer environmentally responsible consumption
intention for green hospitality products. In addition, despite the abundant green hotel/
restaurant research, the convoluted and meticulous mixed-method approach has been
seldom applied for explicating the formation of customer pro-environmental intention. This
 test
32,4

1594
IJCHM

Table III.
Baseline model and
structural invariance
Green hotel (N = 205) Green restaurant (N = 203)
Nested model
Baseline model (freely (constrained to be
Paths b t-values b t-values estimated) equal)

Pro-environmental attitude ! Pro- 0.253 3.873** 0.103 1.653 x 2 (494) = 1023.801 x 2 (495) = 1027.927a
environmental intention
Descriptive social norm ! Pro- 0.329 2.279* 0.278 2.159* x 2 (494) = 1023.801 x 2 (495) = 1023.836b
environmental intention
Injunctive social norm ! Pro-
0.046
0.555
0.055
0.646 x 2 (494) = 1023.801 x 2 (495) = 1023.813c
environmental intention
Pro-environmental image ! Pro- 0.233 2.065* 0.310 2.595** x 2 (494) = 1023.801 x 2 (495) = 1023.243d
environmental intention
Environmental awareness ! Pro- 0.143 2.466* 0.128 2.178* x 2 (494) = 1023.801 x 2 (495) = 1023.860e
environmental intention
Perceived benefits ! Pro-environmental 0.138 1.248 0.259 1.993* x 2 (494) = 1023.801 x 2 (495) = 1027.870f
intention
Feeling of guilt ! Pro-environmental
0.203
1.683
0.036
0.247 x 2 (494) = 1023.801 x 2 (495) = 1024.355g
intention
Moral norm ! Pro-environmental intention 0.158 1.077 0.070 0.487 x 2 (494) = 1023.801 x 2 (495) = 1023.956h
a e
Chi-square test: D x 2 (1) = 4.126, p < 0.05 D x 2 (1) = 0.059, p > 0.05 Goodness-of-fit statistics:
b 2 f 2
D x (1) = 0.035, p > 0.05 D x (1) = 4.069, p < 0.05 x 2 = 1023.801, df = 494,
c g
D x 2 (1) = 0.012, p > 0.05 D x 2 (1) = 0.554, p > 0.05 p < 0.001, x 2/df = 2.072,
d h
D x 2 (1) = 0.558, p > 0.05 D x 2 (1) = 0.155, p > 0.05 RMSEA = 0.051, CFI = 0.947,
IFI = 0.948, TLI = 0.936 *
p < 0.05, **p < 0.01
 Green hotels
Volitional dimension and green
Pro-environmental
attitude Green hotel: 0.253** restaurants
Green Res.: 0.103
Descriptive
social norm Green hotel: 0.329**
Green Res.: 0.278*
Injunctive
Green hotel: – 0.046 1595
social norm
Green Res.: –0.055

Cognitive dimension
Pro-environmental Green hotel: 0.233*
image Green Res.: 0.310**

Pro-environmental
Environmental Green hotel: 0.143* consumption
awareness Green Res.: 0.128* intention

Perceived benefits Green hotel: 0.138

Green Res.: 0.259*

Green hotel: – 0.203

Emotional dimension Green Res.: – 0.036

Feeling of guilt

Moral dimension
Green hotel: 0.158
Green Res.: 0.070
Moral norm

Notes: Goodness-of-fit statistics for the baseline model: χ2 = 1023.801, Figure 3.

df = 494, p < 0.001, χ2/df = 2.072, RMSEA = 0.051, CFI = 0.947, IFI = 0.948, Evaluation of the
baseline model
TLI = 0.936; *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01

research successfully filled this gap in the existing literature, thereby including the strong
theoretical, practical and methodological value and originality.

Theoretical implications
There are several meaningful theoretical implications derived from the findings of this
study. First, this research identifies additional crucial factors (i.e. pro-environmental image,
perceived benefits and feeling of guilt) underlying the consumption intention for green
hotels/restaurants through an exploratory qualitative procedure. Many studies show that
the eco-friendly image of a firm and the benefits provided to consumers by the firm are
significant factors of consumers’ intentions to consume at a green hotel or restaurant
(Han et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2010). Despite such an emphasis on these factors, little research
takes a comprehensive viewpoint and explores these factors with other factors such as
consumers’ pro-environmental attitude, social norms, feeling of guilt and moral norms,
which are considered in this study. In addition, a few research shed light on the emotional
aspect of pro-environment consumption intention (Han and Hyun, 2018; Onwezen et al.,
2013), while the existing theories mainly center on the self-interest (Ajzen, 1991; Steg and
IJCHM Vlek, 2009) and pro-social motives (Stern, 2000; Stern et al., 1999). In this regard, the findings
32,4 of this study include an important theoretical meaning in that these concepts are
inadequately delineated in the popular socio-psychological theories with self-interest
(i.e. theory of reasoned action and theory of planned behavior) and pro-social motives
(i.e. norm activation theory and value-belief-norm theory). For researchers, the active use of
these concepts when developing any theoretical framework (or conducting an expansion of
1596 any existing theory) is desirable to increase the predictive ability of their framework and its
comprehensiveness.
Second, this study provides remarkable implications regarding the volitional, emotional
and moral dimensions in forming consumers’ pro-environmental consumption intention. In
terms of the volitional dimension, the outcomes of this research reveal that descriptive social
norm is the most influential driver of pro-environmental consumption intention, followed by
pro-environmental attitude, while injunctive social norm appears to be invalid factor. This
interesting finding implies that consumers’ are under the bigger effect of their reference
groups’ decisions to consume green hospitality products than the groups’ expectations of the
consumers to purchase the green products. In other words, consumers consider rather what
decisions others make than how they are perceived by the others. In addition, consumers’
favorable attitude toward green hospitality products plays an important part in building
their intention to consume the green hospitality products. Another noticeable result from
this study is that emotional (feeling of guilt) and moral (moral norm) dimensions appear to
be non-significant factors in building consumers’ intentions to consume green hospitality
products. This outcome provides somewhat contrary perspective of consumers’ pro-
environmental consumption intention, in which previous studies highlight these internal
factors in consumers’ pro-environmental consumption in a green hospitality context
(Han, 2014; Onwezen et al., 2013; Shin et al., 2017). This study addresses that consumers’
favorable attitude and their reference groups’ decisions to consume green hospitality
products exert more powerful impact than their feeling guilty of and obligation to
purchasing traditional hospitality products.
Finally, this research shows that the effect of consumers’ attitude toward and their
perception of benefits of purchasing a green hospitality product on their pro-
environmental consumption intention differently exert across green hospitality product
types. The findings from the metric invariance test reveal that the relationships between
pro-environmental attitude and intention and between perceived benefits and intention
were under the significant influence of hospitality product types (green hotel and
restaurant). The pro-environmental attitude – intention association was significantly
stronger in the green hotel customer group ( b = 0.253, p < 0.01) than in the green
restaurant customer group ( b = 0.103, p > 0.05). In contrast, the perceived benefits –
intention association was significantly stronger in the green restaurant customer group
( b = 0.259, p < 0.05) than in the green hotel customer group ( b = 0.138, p > 0.05). This
finding implies that at the similar level of attitude, green hotel customers show the
stronger willingness to engage in eco-friendly consumption behaviors than green
restaurant customers do, and that at the similar level of perceived benefits, green
restaurant customers show the stronger readiness to practice eco-friendly consumption
behaviors than green hotel customers do. This study is one of the few studies that
informed us that the difference exists on customer environmentally responsible intention
generation process between green hospitality product types, deepening the extant
framework explaining hospitality customer pro-environmental intention formation by
effectively taking product types and its effect into account.
Practical implications Green hotels
Based on the results, this study provides several practical implications to the green and green
hotel and restaurant management. First, to increase consumers’ pro-environmental
intention for green hospitality products, practitioners are encouraged to elicit cognitive
restaurants
drivers (e.g. a firm’s pro-environmental image, consumers’ environmental awareness
and perceived benefits). Our findings reveal that pro-environmental image,
environmental awareness and perceived benefits under the cognitive dimension are of
utmost importance. It is hence clear that an effective stimulation of customers’ pro- 1597
environmental intention is on the basis of such focal variables. One suggestion is to
develop/improve a firm’s corporate social responsibility activities, which is effectual to
make the firm’s image better (Farrington et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018). It is also found
that advertising the health-related advantages (e.g. green foods and beverages, fresh air
and health green physical environments) is efficient to help customers have better
perceived outcomes when consuming eco-friendly products (Han et al., 2010; Hwang
and Choi, 2018; Lee et al., 2010). In addition, it is essential to boost customers’
environmental awareness for the effective stimulation of eco-friendly consumption
decision.
Second, the green hotel and restaurant management are recommended to develop
different strategies in accordance with their different context of products/services. Our
finding provides valuable information about what aspect of building consumers’ pro-
environmental consumption intention different manifest in different green hospitality
products. More specifically, consumers’ pro-environmental attitude plays critical role in
a green hotel, while in a green restaurant their perceived benefits of being healthy are
important. One recommendation to boost pro-environmental attitude is the
enhancement of eco-friendly hotel interior and hotel products (e.g. travel kits). For
green restaurants, focusing on the increase of perception regarding obtainable benefits
from dining experiences (e.g. eating fresh and healthy foods and beverages, mental
well-being derived from green indoor atmospherics) can be advantageous for
restaurant patrons.
Finally, the practitioners in green hotels and restaurants should also put their effort
to stimulate consumers’ emotions and norms of purchasing traditional hospitality
products over green products. Although feeling of guilt and moral norm appear to be
invalid factors of consumers’ pro-environmental consumption intention, these should
not be neglected in the green hospitality industry as one of the major industries causing
(check intro and reference). The comparison of the scenes between the environmental
harms and the exhaustion of natural resources derived from the environmentally
unfriendly hotels/restaurants, and the reduced environmentally hazardous impact by
using green products may display through various communication channels (e.g. indoor
posters, outdoor banners, social network services, internet and TV). This could be an
effective way to trigger customers’ empathy and guilty feeling as well as obligation to
consume green hospitality products.

Limitations and future research

Despite the imperative theoretical and practical meanings, this study contains a few
limitations. First, while we took the effect of different hospitality products (hotels and
restaurants) into account, the influence of customer types on eco-friendly intention
formation was not considered in the present study. Hospitality customers’ decision/
behavior can be different across first-time visitors, repeat visitors and members of a
loyalty program (Han et al., 2019). Future research should deepen the proposed
IJCHM theoretical framework by taking the possible influence of customer types into account.
32,4 Second, as this research focused on consumers’ pro-environmental consumption
intentions in general, specific pro-environmental behaviors taking place in green hotels/
restaurants were not further investigated. Future studies may delve into what types of
pro-environmental behaviors could be performed by consumers during their
consumption at the hotels/restaurants under the effect of the driving factors found in
1598 this study.

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customer attitudes: an investigation in a café setting”, International Journal of Hospitality
Management, Vol. 41, pp. 10-20.
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Corresponding author
Sunghyup Sean Hyun can be contacted at: sshyun@hanyang.ac.kr
Appendix Green hotels
and green
restaurants
Pro-environmental attitude Ajzen (1991); Perugini and
For me, purchasing a green hotel/restaurant product would be “Bad” (1)/“Good” (7) Bagozzi (2001)
For me, purchasing a green hotel/restaurant product would be “Foolish” (1)/“Wise” (7)
For me, purchasing a green hotel/restaurant product would be “Unpleasant” (1)/
“Pleasant” (7)
For me, purchasing a green hotel/restaurant product would be “Unattractive” (1)/ 1603
“Attractive” (7)
Descriptive social norm (“Strongly disagree” [1]/“Strongly agree” [7]) Cialdini et al. (1990); Han and
Many people who are important to me choose a green hotel/restaurant that contributes Hyun (2018)
to least to pollution when there is a choice
Most people whose opinion I value prefer a green hotel/restaurant instead of a
conventional hotel/restaurant
Most people who are important to me purchase a green hotel/restaurant product that is
less harmful for the environment when there is a choice
Injunctive social norm (“Strongly disagree” [1]/“Strongly agree” [7]) Cialdini et al. (1990); Han and
Most people who are important to me think I should purchase a green hotel/restaurant Hyun (2018)
product
Most people who are important to me would want me to purchase a green hotel/
restaurant product
Most people whose opinions I value would prefer that I purchase a green hotel/
restaurant product
Pro-environmental image (“Strongly disagree” [1]/“Strongly agree” [7]) Lee et al. (2010); Han et al.
Overall, I have a good image of purchasing a green hotel/restaurant product (2019)
My overall image about making a green hotel/restraint choice instead of a conventional
hotel/restaurant product is positive
Overall, the image of purchasing a green hotel/restaurant product is favorable
Environmental awareness (“Strongly disagree” [1]/“Strongly agree” [7]) Bamberg and Schmidt
The hospitality industry causes pollution, climate change, and exhaustion of natural (2003); Han (2015)
resources
The hospitality industry generates the environmental impacts on the neighboring areas
and wider environment
The hospitality industry causes environmental deteriorations (e.g., solid/food waste,
excessive use of energy/water)
Perceived benefits (“Strongly disagree” [1]/“Strongly agree” [7]) Han et al. (2010)
Consuming a green hotel/restaurant product would enable me to eat fresh and healthy
foods
Consuming a green hotel/restaurant product would enable me to stay in a healthy
environment (e.g., fresh air, natural odor, living plants and green atmospherics)
Feeling of guilt (“Not at all” [1]/“Very much” [7]) Image that you are consuming a hotel/ Onwezen et al. (2013)
restaurant product that generates a negative impact on the environment. How would you
feel?
Guilty
Remorseful
Sorry
Moral norm (“Strongly disagree” [1]/“Strongly agree” [7]) Onwezen et al. (2013)
I feel morally obliged to visit a green hotel/restaurant instead of a conventional hotel/
restaurant
I feel personally obliged to purchase a green hotel/restaurant product
I feel a moral obligation to take the eco-problems caused by hotels/restaurants into
account when making hotel/restaurant choices
Pro-environmental consumption intention (“Strongly disagree” [1]/“Strongly agree” [7]) Ajzen (1991); Perugini and
I am willing to purchase a green hotel/restaurant product in the future Bagozzi (2001)
I plan to purchase a green hotel/restaurant product in the future
I will expend my efforts on consuming a green hotel/restaurant product instead of a Table AI.
conventional hotel/restaurant product in the future Measurement items