AMS / MAA THE CARUS MATHEMATICAL MONOGRAPHS VOL 27

A PANORAMA OF
HARMONIC
ANALYSIS
Steven G. Krantz
A Panorama
of Harmonic Analysis
 Originally published by
The Mathematical Association of America, 1999.
ISBN: 978-1-4704-5112-7
LCCN: 99-62756

Copyright © 1999, held by the American Mathematical Society

Printed in the United States of America.
Reprinted by the American Mathematical Society, 2019
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 10.1090/car/027

AMS/MAA THE CARUS MATHEMATICAL MONOGRAPHS

VOL 27

A Panorama
of Harmonic Analysis

Stephen G. Krantz
 THE
CARUS MATHEMATICAL MONOGRAPHS

Published by
THE MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA

Committee on Publications
William Watkins, Chair

Carus Mathematical Monographs Editorial Board

Steven G. Krantz, Editor
Robert Burckel
John B. Conway
Giuliana P. Davidoff
Gerald B. Folland
Leonard Gillman
 The following Monographs have been published:

1. Calculus of Variations, by G. A. Bliss (out of print)

2. Analytic Functions of a Complex Variable, by D. R. Curtiss (out of print)
3. Mathematical Statistics, by H. L. Rietz (out of print)
4. Projective Geometry, by J. W. Young (out of print)
5. A History of Mathematics in America before 1900, by D. E. Smith and Jekuthiel
Ginsburg (out of print)
6. Fourier Series and Orthogonal Polynomials, by Dunham Jackson (out of print)
7. Vectors and Matrices, by C. C. MacDuffee (out of print)
8. Rings and Ideals, by N. H. McCoy (out of print)
9. The Theory of Algebraic Numbers, second edition, by Harry Pollard and Harold G.
Diamond
10. The Arithmetic Theory of Quadratic Forms, by B. W. Jones (out of print)
11. Irrational Numbers, by Ivan Niven
12. Statistical Independence in Probability, Analysis and Number Theory, by Mark Kac
13. A Primer of Real Functions, third edition, by Ralph P. Boas, Jr.
14. Combinatorial Mathematics, by Herbert J. Ryser
15. Noncommutative Rings, by I. N. Herstein (out of print)
16. Dedekind Sums, by Hans Rademacher and Emil Grosswald
17. The Schwarz Function and its Applications, by Philip J. Davis
18. Celestial Mechanics, by Harry Pollard
19. Field Theory and its Classical Problems, by Charles Robert Hadlock
20. The Generalized Riemann Integral, by Robert M. McLeod
21. From Error-Correcting Codes through Sphere Packings to Simple Groups,
by Thomas M. Thompson
22. Random Walks and Electric Networks, by Peter G. Doyle and J. Laurie Snell
23. Complex Analysis: The Geometric Viewpoint, by Steven G. Krantz
24. Knot Theory, by Charles Livingston
25. Algebra and Tiling: Homomorphisms in the Service of Geometry, by Sherman Stein
and Sándor Szabó
26. The Sensual (Quadratic) Form, by John H. Conway assisted by Francis Y. C. Fung
27. A Panorama of Harmonic Analysis, by Steven G. Krantz
 In homage to
Abram Samoilovitch Besicovitch (1891–1970),
an extraordinary geometric analyst.
Contents

Preface xiii
0 Overview of Measure Theory and Functional Analysis 1
0.1 Pre-Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
0.2 A Whirlwind Review of Measure Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
0.3 The Elements of Banach Space Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
0.4 Hilbert Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
0.5 Two Fundamental Principles of Functional Analysis . . . . 26

1 Fourier Series Basics 31

1.0 The Pre-History of Fourier Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.1 The Rudiments of Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.2 Summability of Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.3 A Quick Introduction to Summability Methods . . . . . . . . . 55
1.4 Key Properties of Summability Kernels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.5 Pointwise Convergence for Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1.6 Norm Convergence of Partial Sums and the Hilbert
Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2 The Fourier Transform 95
2.1 Basic Properties of the Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.2 Invariance and Symmetry Properties of the Fourier
Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
ix
x Contents

2.3 Convolution and Fourier Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

2.4 The Uncertainty Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3 Multiple Fourier Series 121
3.1 Various Methods of Partial Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.2 Examples of Different Types of Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.3 Fourier Multipliers and the Summation of Series . . . . . . . 130
3.4 Applications of the Fourier Multiplier Theorems to
Summation of Multiple Trigonometric Series . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.5 The Multiplier Problem for the Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4 Spherical Harmonics 171
4.1 A New Look at Fourier Analysis in the Plane . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.2 Further Results on Spherical Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5 Fractional Integrals, Singular Integrals, and
Hardy Spaces 199
5.1 Fractional Integrals and Other Elementary Operators . . . . 199
5.2 Prolegomena to Singular Integral Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.3 An Aside on Integral Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
5.4 A Look at Hardy Spaces in the Complex Plane . . . . . . . . . 209
5.5 The Real-Variable Theory of Hardy Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.6 The Maximal-Function Characterization of Hardy
Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5.7 The Atomic Theory of Hardy Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5.8 Ode to BMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6 Modern Theories of Integral Operators 235
6.1 Spaces of Homogeneous Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
6.2 Integral Operators on a Space of Homogeneous Type . . . 241
6.3 A New Look at Hardy Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
6.4 The T (1) Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
7 Wavelets 273
7.1 Localization in the Time and Space Variables . . . . . . . . . . 273
7.2 Building a Custom Fourier Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Contents xi

7.3 The Haar Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

7.4 Some Illustrative Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
7.5 Construction of a Wavelet Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
8 A Retrospective 313
8.1 Fourier Analysis: An Historical Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Appendices and Ancillary Material 315
Appendix I, The Existence of Testing Functions and
Their Density in L p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Appendix II, Schwartz Functions and the Fourier Transform . . 317
Appendix III, The Interpolation Theorems of Marcinkiewicz
and Riesz-Thorin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Appendix IV, Hausdorff Measure and Surface Measure . . . . . . . 320
Appendix V, Green’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Appendix VI, The Banach-Alaoglu Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Appendix VII, Expressing an Integral in Terms of the
Distribution Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Appendix VIII, The Stone-Weierstrass Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Appendix IX, Landau’s O and o Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Table of Notation 327
Bibliography 339

Index 347
Preface

The history of modern harmonic analysis dates back to eighteenth cen-

tury studies of the wave equation. Explicit solutions of the problem

∂ 2u ∂ 2u
− =0
∂x2 ∂t 2
u(x, 0) = sin j x or cos j x

were constructed by separation of variables. The question naturally

arose whether an arbitrary initial data function f (x) could be realized
as a superposition of functions sin j x and cos j x. And thus Fourier
analysis was born.
Indeed it was Fourier [FOU] who, in 1821, gave an explicit means
for calculating the coefficients a j and b j in a formal expansion
X X
f (x) ∼ a j cos j x + b j sin j x.
j j

The succeeding 150 years saw a blossoming of Fourier analysis into

a powerful set of tools in applied partial differential equations, math-
ematical physics, engineering, and pure mathematics. Fourier analy-
sis in the noncompact setting—the Fourier transform—was developed,
and the Poisson summation formula was used, to pass back and forth
between Fourier series and the Fourier transform.
xiii
xiv Preface

The 1930s and 1940s were a relatively quiet time for Fourier anal-
ysis but, beginning in the 1950s, the focus of Fourier analysis became
singular integrals. To wit, it rapidly developed that, just as the Hilbert
transform is the heart of the matter in the study of Fourier series of one
variable, so singular integrals usually lie at the heart of any nontrivial
problem of several-variable linear harmonic analysis. The Calderón-
Zygmund theory of singular integrals blossomed into the Fefferman-
Stein-Weiss theory of Hardy spaces; Hardy spaces became the focus of
Fourier analysis.
In the 1980s, two seminal events served to refocus Fourier anal-
ysis. One was the David-Journé-Semmes T (1) theorem on the L 2
boundedness of (not necessarily translation-invariant) singular inte-
grals. Thus an entirely new perspective was gained on which types of
singular integrals could induce bounded operators. Calderón commu-
tators, Hankel operators, and other classical objects were easy pickings
using the powerful new tools provided by the T (1) theorem, and more
generally the T (b) theorem.
The other major event of the 1980s was the development of
wavelets by Yves Meyer in 1985. Like any good idea, wavelet the-
ory has caused us to “reinvent” Fourier analysis. Now we are no longer
bound to model every problem on sine waves and cosine waves. In-
stead, we can invent a Fourier analysis to suit any given problem. We
have powerful techniques for localizing the problem both in the space
variable and the phase variable. Signal processing, image compression,
and many other areas of applied mathematics have been revolutionized
because of wavelet theory.
The purpose of the present book is to give the uninitiated reader
an historical overview of the subject of Fourier analysis as we have
just described it. While this book is considerably more polished than
merely a set of lectures, it will use several devices of the lecture: to
prove a theorem by considering just an example; to explain an idea by
considering only a special case; to strive for clarity by not stating the
optimal form of a theorem.
We shall not attempt to explore the more modern theory of Fourier
analysis of locally compact abelian groups (i.e., the theory of group
Preface xv

characters), nor shall we consider the Fourier analysis of non-abelian

groups (i.e., the theory of group representations). Instead, we shall re-
strict attention to the classical Fourier analysis of Euclidean space.
Prerequisites are few. We begin with a quick and dirty treatment of
the needed measure theory and functional analysis. The rest of the book
uses only elementary ideas from undergraduate real analysis. When a
sophisticated idea is needed, it is quickly introduced in context.
It is hoped that the reader of this book will be imbued with a sense
of how the subject of Fourier analysis has developed and where it is
heading. He will gain a feeling for the techniques that are involved and
the applications of the ideas. Even those with primary interests in other
parts of mathematics should come away with a knowledge of which
parts of Fourier analysis may be useful in their discipline, and also
where to turn for future reading.
In this book we indulge in the custom, now quite common in har-
monic analysis and partial differential equations, of using the same let-
ters (often C or C 0 or K ) to denote different constants—even from line
to line in the same proof. The reader unfamiliar with this custom may
experience momentary discomfort, but will soon realize that the prac-
tice streamlines proofs and increases understanding.
It is a pleasure to thank the many friends and colleagues who
have read and commented on portions of various preliminary drafts
of this book. I mention particularly Lynn Apfel, Brian Blank, John Mc-
Carthy, Dylan Retsek, Richard Rochberg, Mitchell Taibleson, Guido
Weiss, and Steven Zemyan. J. Marshall Ash and Victor Shapiro gave
me expert help with the history and substance of the theory of multiple
Fourier series.
And now for some special thanks: Robert Burckel aimed his sharp
and critical eye at both my English and my mathematics; the result is
a greatly improved manuscript. Jim Walker contributed many incisive
remarks, particularly stemming from his expertise in wavelets; in ad-
dition, Walker provided figures (that were generated with his software
FAWAV) for Chapter 7. Gerald B. Folland kept me honest and, acting as
Chair of the Carus Committee, helped me to craft the mathematics and
xvi Preface

to ensure that this project came out as it should. The assistance provided
by these three scholars has been so extraordinary, and so extensive, that
I sometimes feel as though this manuscript has four authors.
Of course responsibility for the extant manuscript lies entirely
with me. I am always happy to receive reports of errors or suggestions
for improvement.

Steven G. Krantz
St. Louis, Missouri
Appendices and Ancillary Material

Appendix I
The Existence of Testing Functions and
Their Density in L p
Consider functions on R1 . The real function
( 2
e−1/x if x > 0
φ(x) =
0 if x ≤ 0

is infinitely differentiable (C ∞ ) on the real line (use l’Hôpital’s Rule).

As a result, the function

ψ(x) = φ(x + 1) · φ(−x + 1)

is C ∞ and is identically zero outside the set (−1, 1). We say that ψ
is a “C ∞ function with compact support.” The support of ψ—that is,
the closure of the set on which ψ is nonzero—is the interval [−1, 1].
Given any compact interval [a, b], it is clear that this construction may
be adapted to produce a C ∞ function whose support is precisely [a, b].
The C ∞ functions with compact support (usually denoted Cc∞ or
Cc∞ (R) for specificity) form a dense subset of L p (R), 1 ≤ p < ∞.
To see this, first note that the characteristic function of an interval I
may be approximated in L p norm by a Cc∞ function (see Figure 1). We

315
316 Appendices and Ancillary Material

Figure 1. Approximating a characteristic function by a Cc∞ function.

achieve that approximation by considering ψ (x) ≡  −1 ψ(x/) and

then letting u  = ψ ∗ χ I .
Next, we note that by construction the simple functions are dense
in L p . By the outer regularity of measure, any simple function in L p
may be approximated by a finite sum of characteristic functions of
intervals. Each characteristic function of an interval may be approxi-
mated in L p norm by a smooth “bump,” as in the last paragraph. That
completes a sketch of the proof.
Finally, we use this information to prove that, if 1 ≤ p < ∞ and
f ∈ L p , then

lim k f − τa f k L p = 0.
a→0

The assertion is plainly true if f is continuous and compactly supported

(i.e., f ∈ Cc ), hence uniformly continuous. For any L p function f , let
 > 0 and choose φ ∈ Cc such that k f − φk L p < . Then

k f − τa f k L p ≤ k f − φk L p + kφ − τa φk L p + kτa φ − τa f k L p
= k f − φk L p + kφ − τa φk L p + kτa (φ − f )k L p
Appendices and Ancillary Material 317

≤  + kφ − τa φk L p + kφ − f k L p
≤  + kφ − τa φk L p + .

The middle expression tends to zero because φ is uniformly continuous

(and has compact support). So the result is proved.
We conclude this Appendix by making several remarks. First, all
of the constructions presented so far work in higher dimensions, with
only small modifications. Second, on the circle group T, the trigono-
metric polynomials also form a useful dense set in L p , 1 ≤ p < ∞.
This can be seen by imitating the constructions already given, or by
using the Stone-Weierstrass theorem (Appendix VIII). Lastly, if (as in
the proof of Proposition 2.1.2), one has a differentiable f ∈ L 1 with
derivative ∂ f /∂ x j in L 1 , then slight modifications of our arguments in
this Appendix allow one to approximate such an f by Cc∞ functions φk
so that φk → f in the L 1 topology and ∂φk /∂ x j → ∂ f /∂ x j in the L 1
topology. Variants of this last remark will be used throughout the book.

Appendix II
Schwartz Functions and the Fourier Transform
A Schwartz function φ is an infinitely differentiable function such that,
for any multi-indices α and β, the expression

∂
ρα,β (φ) ≡ sup x α φ(x)
x ∂xβ

is finite. We let S denote the space of Schwartz functions, and topolo-

gize it using the semi-norms ρα,β . Because of the facts that d f 0 (ξ ) =
−iξ f (ξ ) and [ f ] (ξ ) = i x f (ξ ), it is easy to see that the Fourier trans-
b b 0 d
form takes Schwartz functions to Schwartz functions. So does the in-
verse Fourier transform. Since the Fourier transform is one-to-one, it
follows that b is a bicontinuous isomorphism of S to itself.
318 Appendices and Ancillary Material

Appendix III
The Interpolation Theorems of Marcinkiewicz
and Riesz-Thorin
The simplest example of an interpolation question is as follows. Sup-
pose that the linear operator T is bounded on L 1 and bounded on L 2 .
Does it follow that T is bounded on L p for 1 < p < 2? [The space
L p here is an instance of what is sometimes called an “intermediate
space” between L 1 and L 2 .] Note that this question is similar to (but
not precisely the same as) one that we faced when considering the L p
boundedness of Calderón-Zygmund singular integral operators. Here
we record (special) versions of the Riesz-Thorin Theorem (epitomizing
the complex method of interpolation) and the Marcinkiewicz Interpo-
lation Theorem (epitomizing the real method of interpolation) that are
adequate for the applications in the present book.

Theorem (Riesz-Thorin): Let 1 ≤ p0 < p1 ≤ ∞. Let T be a linear

operator on L p0 ∩ L p1 such that

kT f k L p0 ≤ C0 · k f k L p0

and

kT f k L p1 ≤ C1 · k f k L p1 .

If 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 and
1 1 1−t t
= = + ,
p pt p0 p1
then we have

kT f k L p ≤ C01−t · C1t · k f k L p .

Recall that, for 1 ≤ p < ∞, we say that a measurable function f

is weak-type p if there is a constant C > 0 such that, for every λ > 0,
C
m{x : | f (x)| > λ} ≤ .
λp
Appendices and Ancillary Material 319

We say that f is weak-type ∞ if it is just L ∞ . A linear operator T is

said to be of weak-type ( p, p) if there is a constant C > 0 such that,
for each f ∈ L p and each λ > 0,
p
k f kL p
m{x : |T f (x)| > λ} ≤ C · .
λp
An operator is weak-type ∞ if it is simply bounded on L ∞ in the clas-
sical sense. An operator is said to be strong-type ( p, p) (or, more gen-
erally, ( p, q)) if it is bounded from L p to L p (or from L p to L q ) in the
classical sense discussed in Chapter 0.
Now we have

Theorem (Marcinkiewicz): Let 1 ≤ p0 < p1 ≤ ∞. If T is a (sub-)

linear operator on L p0 ∩ L p1 such that T is of weak-type ( p0 , p0 ) and
also of weak-type ( p1 , p1 ), then for every p0 < p < p1 we have

kT f k L p ≤ C p · k f k L p .

Here the constant C p depends on p and, in general, will blow up as

either p → p0+ or p → p1− .

These interpolation theorems have been generalized in a number

of respects. If T is a (sub-)linear operator that maps L p0 to L q0 and L p1
to L q1 (either weakly or strongly), and if p0 < p1 , p0 ≤ q0 , p1 ≤ q1 ,
then T maps L pt to L qt strongly, where

1 1 1
= (1 − t) · +t ·
pt p0 p1

and
1 1 1
= (1 − t) · +t · .
qt q0 q1

We shall occasionally use this more general version of Marcinkiewicz

interpolation.
320 Appendices and Ancillary Material

Appendix IV
Hausdorff Measure and Surface Measure
If  ⊆ R N has C 1 boundary, then we use the symbol dσ to denote
(N − 1)-dimensional area measure on ∂. This concept is funda-
mental; we discuss, but do not prove, the equivalence of several def-
initions for dσ. A thorough consideration of geometric measures on
lower-dimensional sets may be found in the two masterpieces [FE1]
and [WHI].
First we consider a version of a construction due to Hausdorff. Let
S ⊆ R N and δ > 0. Let U = {Uα }α∈A be an open covering of S. Call
U a δ-admissible covering if each Uα is an open Euclidean N -ball of
radius 0 < rα < δ. If 0 ≤ k ∈ Z, let Mk be the usual k-dimensional
Lebesgue measure of the unit ball in Rk (e.g., M1 = 2, M2 = π, M3 =
4π/3, etc.). Define
(
Hδk (S) Mk rαk : U = {Uα }α∈A
X
= inf
α∈A
is a δ-admissible cover of S} .

Clearly, Hδk (S) ≤ Hδk0 (S) if 0 < δ 0 < δ. Therefore limδ→0 Hδk (S)
exists in the extended real number system. The limit is called the k-
dimensional Hausdorff measure of S and is denoted by Hk (S). The
function Hk is an outer measure.

Exercises for the Reader

IV.1. If I ⊆ R N is a line segment, then H1 (I ) is the usual Euclidean
length of I. Also, H0 (I ) = ∞ and Hk (I ) = 0 for all k > 1.
IV.2. If S ⊆ R N is Borel, then H N (S) = L N (S), where L N is
Lebesgue N -dimensional measure.
IV.3. If S ⊆ R N is a discrete set, then H0 (S) is the number of elements
of S.
Appendices and Ancillary Material 321

IV.4. Define Mα = 0(1/2)α / 0(1 + α/2), and α > 0 (note that this is
consistent with the preceding definition of Mk ). Then define H α
for any α > 0 by using the Hausdorff construction. Let S be a
subset of R N . Set α0 = sup{α > 0 : Hα (S) = ∞}. Also com-
pute α1 = inf{α > 0 : Hα (S) = 0}. Then α0 ≤ α1 . This number
is called the Hausdorff dimension of S. What is the Hausdorff
dimension of the Cantor ternary set? What is the Hausdorff di-
mension of a regularly imbedded, k-dimensional, C 1 manifold
in R N ? In fact (see [FOL, p. 325], [FE1]), any rectifiable set
S ⊆ R N has the property that α0 = α1 .

The measure H N −1 gives one reasonable definition of dσ on ∂

when  ⊆ R N has C 1 boundary. Now let us give another. If S ⊆ R N
is closed and x ∈ R N , let dist (x, S) = inf{|x − s| : s ∈ S}. Then
dist (x, S) is finite, and there is a (not necessarily unique) s0 ∈ S with
|s0 − s| = dist (x, S). (Exercise: Prove these assertions.) Suppose that
M ⊆ R N is a regularly imbedded C 1 manifold of dimension k < N
(see [HIR]). Let E ⊆ M be compact and, for  > 0, set E  = {x ∈
R N : dist (x, E) < }. Define

L N (E  )
σk (E) = lim sup ,
→0+ M N −k  N −k

where L N is Lebesgue volume measure on R N . It can, in fact, be shown

that “limsup” may be replaced by “lim.” The resulting set-function σk
is an outer measure. It can be proved that Hk (E) = σk (E). The mea-
sure σk may be extended to more general subsets of M by the usual
exhaustion procedures.
Our third definition of area measure is as follows. Let M ⊆ R N
be a regularly imbedded C 1 submanifold of dimension k < N . Let
p ∈ M, and let (ψ, U ) be a coordinate chart for M ⊆ R N , as in the
definition of “regularly imbedded submanifold.” We use the notation
JR G to denote the Jacobian matrix of the mapping G.
322 Appendices and Ancillary Material

When E ⊆ U ∩ M is compact, define

Z
m k (E) = volhJR ψ −1 (x)e1 , . . . , JR ψ −1 (x)ek idLk (x).
ψ(E)

Here e j is the j th unit coordinate vector, and the integrand is simply

the k-dimensional volume of the k-parallelipiped determined by the
vectors JR ψ −1 (x)e j , j = 1, . . . , k. We know from calculus [SPI] that
this gives a definition of surface area on compact sets E ⊆ U ∩ M
that coincides with the preceding definitions. The new definition may
be extended to all of M with a partition of unity, and to more general
sets E by inner regularity.
Finally, we mention that a k-dimensional, C 1 manifold M may be
given (locally) in parametrized form. That is, for P ∈ M there is a
neighborhood P ∈ U P ⊆ R N and we are given functions φ1 , . . . , φ N
defined on an open set W P ⊆ Rk such that the mapping

8 = (φ1 , . . . , φ N ) : W P → U P ∩ M

is C 1 , one-to-one, and onto, and the Jacobian of this mapping has rank
k at each point of W P . In this circumstance, we define
Z
τk (U P ∩ M) = |Mx | dLk (x),
x∈W P

where Mx is defined to be the standard k-dimensional volume of the

image of the unit cube in Rk under the linear mapping JR 8(x). [The
object Mx can be defined rather naturally using the language of differ-
ential forms—see [SPI]. The definition we have given has some intu-
itive appeal.]

On a k-dimensional regularly imbedded C 1 submanifold of R N , we

have

Hk = σk = m k = τk .
Appendices and Ancillary Material 323

Appendix V
Green’s Theorem
Here we record the standard form of Green’s theorem that is used
in harmonic analysis. A derivation of this particular formula from
Stokes’s theorem appears in [KRA4, Section 1.3]; that reference also
contains applications to the theory of harmonic functions. See also
[BAK], [KRP].

Theorem: Let  ⊆ R N be a domain with C 2 boundary. Let dσ denote

area ((N − 1)-dimensional Hausdorff) measure on ∂—see Appendix
IV. Let ν be the unit outward normal vector field on ∂. Then, for any
functions u, v ∈ C 2 (),
¯ we have

∂v ∂v
Z   Z
u −v dσ = (u1v − v1u) d V.
∂ ∂ν ∂ν 

Appendix VI
The Banach-Alaoglu Theorem
Let X be a Banach space and X ∗ its dual. Assume for the moment that
X is separable. For φ j , φ elements of X ∗ , we say that φ j → φ in the
weak-∗ topology if, for each x ∈ X , φ j (x) → φ(x). Thus weak-∗ con-
vergence is pointwise convergence for linear functionals. It induces the
weakest topology on X ∗ under which the point evaluation functionals
are continuous.

Theorem: Assume that the Banach space X is separable. Let {φ j } be

a bounded sequence in X ∗ . Then there is a subsequence {φ jk } that con-
verges in the weak-∗ topology.

Informally, we often cite the Banach-Alaoglu theorem by saying

that “the unit ball in the dual of a Banach space is weak-∗ compact.”
324 Appendices and Ancillary Material

Note that the unit sphere in the dual of a (infinite-dimensional) Banach

space is never weak-∗ compact (e.g., take an orthonormal sequence in
Hilbert space).
In case the Banach space X is not separable, then we cannot spec-
ify the weak-∗ topology using sequences; we must instead specify a
sub-basis for the topology. See [RUD3] for the details.

Appendix VII
Expressing an Integral in Terms of the
Distribution Function
Let f be a measurable function on R N . For α > 0 we set

µ f (α) = m{x ∈ R N : | f (x)| > α}.

Then µ f is the distribution function of f . Integrals of the form

φ(| f |) d V may be expressed in terms of integrals of µ f (α). For
R
RN
example,
Z Z ∞
| f (x)| p d x = µ f (α) pα p−1 dα.
RN 0

For a proof, test the assertion on f the characteristic function of an

interval, and then use standard approximation arguments.

Appendix VIII
The Stone-Weierstrass Theorem
Let X be a compact metric space. Let C(X ) be the algebra of con-
tinuous functions on X equipped with the supremum norm. Let A ⊆
C(X ) be an algebra of continuous functions that contains the con-
stant function 1. [Here an algebra is a vector space with a notion
of multiplication—see [LAN].] The Stone-Weierstrass theorem gives
conditions under which A is dense in C(X ).
Appendices and Ancillary Material 325

Theorem: Assume that, for every x, y ∈ X with x 6 = y, there is an

f ∈ A such that f (x) 6 = f (y) (we say that A separates points). [In
case the functions in A are complex-valued, f ∈ A whenever f ∈ A.]
Then A is dense in C(X ).

Appendix IX
Landau’s O and o Notation
Sometimes a good piece of notation is as important as a theorem. Lan-
dau’s notation illustrates this point.
Let f be a function defined on a neighborhood in R N of a point
P. We say that f is O(1) near P if

| f (x)| ≤ C,

for some constant C, in that neighborhood of P. Now let g be another

function defined on the same neighborhood of P. Writing this last in-
equality somewhat pedantically as

| f (x)| ≤ C · 1,

we are led to define f to be O(g) near P if

f (x) ≤ C · g(x) ,

for some constant C, in that neighborhood of P.

If instead, for any  > 0, there is a δ > 0 such that

f (x) ≤  · g(x)

when 0 < |x − P| < δ, then we say that f = o(g) at P.

We will see ample illustration of the Landau notation in our study
of Fourier analysis.
Table of Notation

Section Notation Meaning

0.2 R real numbers
0.2 (a, b), [a, b)(a, b], [a, b] intervals
0.2 χS characteristic function
0.2 s(x) simple function
0.2 RN Euclidean space
0.2 f (x) d x Lebesgue integral
R

0.2 f+ positive part of function

0.2 f− negative part of function
0.2 LMCT Lebesgue monotone
convergence theorem
0.2 LDCT Lebesgue dominated
convergence theorem
0.2 FL Fatou’s lemma
0.2 fx , f y slice functions
0.2 Lp Lebesgue space
0.2, 0.3 T circle group
0.2 A a σ -algebra

327
328 Table of Notation

Section Notation Meaning

0.2 δ0 Dirac measure
0.2 µ a measure
0.3 X a Banach space
0.3 k k a norm
0.3 k k p , k kL p L p norm
0.3 k k∞ , k k L ∞ essential sup norm
p
0.3 L loc local L p space
0.3 k kX Banach space norm
0.3 L:X →Y linear mapping of spaces
0.3 k kop operator norm
0.3 X∗ dual space of X
0.3 L∗ adjoint of L
0.4 h·, ·i inner product
0.4 k k Hilbert space norm
0.4 H Hilbert space
0.4 ⊥ perpendicular or orthogonal
0.4 7→ maps to
0.4 K⊥ set of vectors perpendicular
to (annihilator of) K
0.4 A+B linear sum of spaces
0.4 `2 little Lebesgue space
0.5 FAPI Functional Analysis
Principle I
0.5 FAPII Functional Analysis
Principle II
1.1 ∂t u partial derivative in t
1.1 ∂x u partial derivative in x
Table of Notation 329

Section Notation Meaning

1.1 f (k) k th derivative
1.1 S unit circle in the complex
plane
1.1 τg translation by g
1.1 C∗ the multiplicative group
C \ {0}
1.1 f ( j)
b j th Fourier coefficient
∞
1.1 Sf ∼ f ( j)ei jt formal Fourier expansion
P
b
j=−∞
1.1, App I Cck , Cc∞ compactly supported,
smooth functions
1.2 SN f partial sum of Fourier series
1.2 D N (s) Dirichlet kernel
1.2 f ∗g convolution of functions
1.2, App IX O(t) Landau’s notation
1.3 f (x+) right limit of f at x
1.3 f (x−) left limit of f at x
1.3 3 sequence of scalars
1.3 M3 multiplier operator induced
by 3
1.3 σN f Cesàro mean of f
1.3 KN Fejér kernel
1.3 Pr Poisson kernel for the disc
1.3 Pr f Abel sum of f
1.4 {k N } a family of kernels
1.4 A≈B A is comparable in size to B
1.5 Mf Hardy-Littlewood maximal
function
330 Table of Notation

Section Notation Meaning

1.5 P∗ f maximal Poisson integral
of f
1.6 d( f, g) metric induced by L 2
topology
1.6, App VIII C(T) set of continuous functions
on T
1.6 sgn x signum function
1.6 P.V. d x Cauchy principal value
R

1.6 Hf Hilbert transform of f

1.6 H
ef modified Hilbert transform
of f
1.6 Jf complexified Hilbert
transform of f
1.6 ej the j th exponential function
1.6 f ∗K convolution of a function
with a kernel
2.1 t ·ξ inner product on Euclidean
space
2.1 f (ξ )
b Fourier transform
2.1 ( )b Fourier transform
2.1  much greater than
2.1 C0 continuous functions that
vanish at ∞
2.2 O(N ) orthogonal group on R N
2.2 ρ a rotation
2.2 αδ , αδ dilation operators
2.2 τa translation operator
2.2 f
e odd reflection of f
Table of Notation 331

Section Notation Meaning

2.3 G Gaussian summability
kernels
2.3 ǧ(x) inverse Fourier transform
2.3 F Fourier transform
2.4 z complex variable
2.4 Var f variance of f
2.4 [A, B] commutator of A and B
3.1 SN f
e alternative method of
partial summation
3.1 T2 torus group
3.1 |( j, k)| modulus of an index
sph
3.1 SR f spherical partial sum
sq
3.1 SM square partial sum
3.1 rect
S(m,n) rectangular partial sum
poly,P
3.1 SR polygonal partial sum
3.3 B(0, 1) unit ball in Euclidean space
3.3 MB multiplier operator for the
ball
3.3 Mm multiplier operator induced
by m
3.3 QN fundamental region in T N
2 /2
3.3 η(x) (2π )−N /2 e−|x|
2 /2
3.3 η√ (x) (2π )−N /2  N /2 e−|x|
3.3 3 fundamental lattice in R N
3.3 Sf
e periodized multiplier
operator induced by S
3.4 Q unit cube in R N
332 Table of Notation

Section Notation Meaning

3.4 QR dilate of unit cube
3.4 Hφ Hilbert transform of φ
3.4 Ev half space determined by
vector v
3.5 4ABC triangle with vertices
A, B, C
3.5 T A0 triangular sprouts
3.5 T jk` sprouted triangles
3.5 6k unit sphere in Rk
3.5 Tj half space multiplier
operator
3.5 R
e adjunct rectangles to R
3.5 R
e subadjunct rectangles to R
3.5 |E| Lebesgue measure of the
set E
4.1 fr (eiθ ) circular slice of f
4.1 F j,r j th Fourier coefficient of fr
4.1 Hk spherical harmonics of
degree k
4.1 ρφ rotation through angle φ
4.1 α = (α1 , . . . , α N ) multi-index
4.1 |α| modulus of a multi-index
4.1 xα multi-index product
notation
∂α
4.1 ∂xα multi-index derivative
notation
4.1 α! multi-index factorial
notation
Table of Notation 333

Section Notation Meaning

4.1 δαβ Kronecker delta
4.1 Pk space of homogeneous
polynomials of degree k
4.1 dk dimension of Pk
4.1 P(D) differential polynomial
4.1 hP, Qi inner product on homo-
geneous polynomials
4.1 4 Laplace operator
4.1 ker φk kernel of φk
4.1 im φk image of φk
4.1 Ak space of solid spherical
harmonics of degree k
4.1 Y (k) a spherical harmonic of
degree k
4.1 ∂/∂ν unit outward normal
derivative
4.1 σ, dσ rotationally invariant
surface measure
4.1 ak dimension of the space Hk
4.2 e x0 point evaluation functional
(k)
4.2 Zx0 zonal harmonic
4.2 P(x, t 0 ) Poisson kernel for the ball
4.2 Pkλ (t) Gegenbauer polynomial
4.2 Jk k th Bessel function
5.1 D2 j (2 j)th -order differentiation
operator
5.1 k2 j kernel associated to D2 j
334 Table of Notation

Section Notation Meaning

5.1 I2 j (2 j)th -order integration
operator
5.1 Iβ β th -order fractional
integration operator
5.2 K (x) Calderón-Zygmund kernel
5.2 (x)/|x| N Calderón-Zygmund kernel
5.2 TK Calderón-Zygmund
singular integral operator
5.2 (x) numerator of Calderón-
Zygmund kernel
5.2, 5.8 BMO functions of bounded mean
oscillation
5.4 D unit disc in the complex
plane
5.4 H p (D) p th -order Hardy space
on D
5.4 H ∞ (D) space of bounded
holomorphic functions
5.4 f∗ boundary limit function
of f
5.4 h p (D) p th -power integrable
harmonic functions on D
5.4 h∞ (D) bounded harmonic
functions on D
5.4 Ba (z) Blaschke factor
5.4 B(z) Blaschke product
5.4 BK partial Blaschke product
5.4 B∗ boundary function of a
Blaschke product B
Table of Notation 335

Section Notation Meaning

5.5 v conjugate harmonic
function to the harmonic
function u
5.5 φ
e boundary function for v
5.5 k(t) = cot(t/2)
e Hilbert transform kernel on
disc
5.5 1
HRe real-variable Hardy space
of order 1
5.5 K j (x) j th Riesz kernel
5.5 Rj j th Riesz transform
5.5 k kH 1 real-variable Hardy space
Re
norm
5.5 Py (x) Poisson kernel for the
upper half-space
5.6 Mf Hardy-Littlewood maximal
operator
5.6 f∗ maximal operator associ-
ated to the kernel φ0
5.7 a(t) atom
p
5.7 HRe real-variable Hardy space
of order p
5.7 k k∗ B M O norm
5.7 Q cube in R N
6.1 ρ(x, y) quasi-metric
6.1 B(x, r ) ball determined by a
quasi-metric
6.1 (X, ρ, µ) space of homogeneous type
6.1 C1 , C2 constants for space of
homogeneous type
336 Table of Notation

Section Notation Meaning

6.1 ρ(z, w) nonisotropic distance on
the unit ball of Cn
6.1 Mx presentation of the
Heisenberg group
6.2 Rα (x) kernel of fractional integral
operator
6.2 Ey , Ex partial distribution
functions
6.2 M f (x) Hardy-Littlewood maximal
function
6.2 M ∗ f (x) modified Hardy-Littlewood
maximal function
6.2 B(o j , r j ) Whitney decomposition
S
O= j
6.2 δO distance to the complement
of O
6.2 f =g+ hj Calderón-Zygmund
P
j
decomposition
6.2 Tk integral operator induced
by k
6.2 KN truncated kernel
6.3 a(x) atom
6.3 1
HRe real-variable or atomic
Hardy space
6.3 T (1) theorem on L 2 -boundedness of
integral operators
6.3 Tt transpose of the operator T
6.3 T (b) theorem generalization of the T (1)
theorem
Table of Notation 337

Section Notation Meaning

6.3 λ( j) coefficients in the Cotlar-
Knapp-Stein theorem
6.3 φ x, translate and dilate of φ
7.3 MRA Multi-Resolution Analysis
7.3 φ wavelet scaling function
7.3 ψ wavelet
7.3 Vj subspaces in an MRA
decomposition
7.3 Wj wavelet subspaces
7.3 MRA1 scaling axiom for an MRA
7.3 MRA2 inclusion axiom for an
MRA
7.3 MRA3 density axiom for an MRA
7.3 MRA4 maximality axiom for an
MRA
7.3 MRA5 basis axiom for an MRA
7.4 fN approximation to the Dirac
delta
7.4 eN (t)
D sin N t/π t
7.5 m(ξ ) low-pass filter
App II ρα,β Schwartz semi-norms
App II S the Schwartz space
App IV Hδk approximate Hausdorff
measure
App IV Hk Hausdorff measure
App IV α0 , α1 lower and upper Hausdorff
dimensions
App IV E -thickening of the set E
338 Table of Notation

Section Notation Meaning

App IV σk k-dimensional measure
defined by thickening
App IV mk k-dimensional measure
defined by pullback
App IV τk k-dimensional measure by
parametrization
App VI weak-∗ topology pointwise topology on a
dual space
App VII µf distribution function of f
App VIII C(X ) algebra of continuous
functions on X
App VIII A subalgebra of C(X )
App IX O, o Landau’s notation
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[SMI] K. T. Smith, A generalization of an inequality of Hardy and Littlewood,
Can. Jour. Math. 8(1956), 157–170.
[SPI] M. Spivak, Calculus on Manifolds, Benjamin, New York, 1965.
[STE1] E. M. Stein, Singular Integrals and Differentiability Properties of
Functions, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1970.
[STE2] E. M. Stein, Harmonic Analysis: Real-Variable Methods, Orthogo-
nality and Oscillatory Integrals, Princeton University Press, Princeton,
1993.
[STE3] E. M. Stein, Harmonic analysis on R N , in Studies in Harmonic Anal-
ysis, J. M. Ash ed., Math. Assn. of America, Washington, D.C., 1976,
pp. 97–135.
[STG1] E. M. Stein and G. Weiss, Introduction to Fourier Analysis on Eu-
clidean Spaces, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1971.
[STG2] E. M. Stein and G. Weiss, On the theory of harmonic functions of
several variables, Acta Math. 103(1960), 25–62.
[STR1] R. Strichartz, A Guide to Distribution Theory and Fourier Transforms,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 1993.
[STR2] R. Strichartz, Para-differential operators—another step forward for
the method of Fourier, Notices of the A.M.S. 29(1982), 402–406.
[STR3] R. Strichartz, How to make wavelets, Am. Math. Monthly 100(1993),
539–556.
[TAW] M. Taibleson and G. Weiss, The molecular characterization of certain
Hardy spaces, Representation Theorems for Hardy Spaces, pp. 67–149,
Astérisque 77, Soc. Math. France, Paris, 1980.
[TEV] N. Tevzadze, On the convergence of double Fourier series of quadratic
summable functions, Soobšč. Akad. Nauk. Gruzin. SSR. 5(1970), 277–
279.
[UCH] Uchiyama, A maximal function characterization of H p on the space
of homogeneous type, Trans. AMS 262(1980), 579–592.
[WAL] J. S. Walker, Fourier analysis and wavelet analysis, Notices of the
AMS 44(1997), 658–670.
Bibliography 345

[WAT] G. N. Watson, A Treatise on the Theory of Bessel Functions, Cam-

bridge University Press, Cambridge, 1922.
[WHI] H. Whitney, Geometric Integration Theory, Princeton University
Press, Princeton, 1957.
[WIC] M. V. Wickerhauser, Adapted Wavelet Analysis from Theory to Soft-
ware, A. K. Peters, Wellesley, 1994.
[WIE] N. Wiener, The Fourier Integral and Certain of its Applications, Dover,
New York, 1958.
[ZYG] A. Zygmund, Trigonometric Series, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1959.
Index

Abel summation, 58 space, 14

absolutely continuous measure, 13 spaces, examples of, 15
abstract measure theory, 12 -Steinhaus theorem, 17
adjoint of a bounded linear operator, subspace, 16
20 basis axiom for an MRA, 285
almost Bernoulli
diagonalizable operator, 309 dream, 47
everywhere, 5 solution of wave equation, 33
annihilator of S, 23 Besicovitch, A., 148
atomic Bessel
decomposition of a Hardy space functions, 197
function, 229 inequality, 25, 79
theory of Hardy spaces, 227 Blaschke
atoms factor, 214
definition of, 227 factorization, 214, 217
and functions of bounded mean product, 214
oscillation, pairing of, 233 product, boundary limit function of,
on a space of homogeneous type, 218
263 product, convergence of, 216
on a space of homogeneous type BMO functions
for small p, 266 and L p , 233
of type (1, ∞), 263 as a substitute for L ∞ , 234
axioms boundary
of Mallat for an MRA, 285 behavior of harmonic functions,
for a Multi-Resolution Analysis, 213
285 limits of Hardy space functions,
210
Baire category theorem, 66 bounded
Banach domain, boundary of, 237
-Alaoglu theorem, 211, 323 linear functional, 17

347
348
bounded mean oscillation
equivalent definitions of, 230
function of, 208, 230
norm for, 231
boundedness
of the Hardy-Littlewood maximal
operator on L p , 73
of the square multiplier,
independent of scale, 141
Brelot potential theory, 235
calculus of operators, 208
Calderón, A., xiv, 144, 203, 208, 231
commutators, 272
Caldéron-Zygmund
decomposition, 255
kernels, 208
kernels, truncated, 257
lemma, 253
operators acting on B M O, 233
operators acting on H 1 , 264
operators and the T (1) theorem,
272
theorem, 207
theorem for a space of
homogeneous type, 256, 257
canonical factorization, 217
Cantor middle thirds set, 3
Carathéodory’s construction, 320
Carleson, L., 92
Carleson-Hunt theorem, 56, 71, 92
Cauchy
integral formula, 210
kernel, imaginary part of, 220
principal value, 86, 206
-Riemann equations, generalized,
223, 224
-Schwarz-Bunjakowski inequality,
9 convergence
-Schwarz inequality, 9, 22
Cesáro summation, 57
character group
of R N , 95
of T, 46
characteristic function, 5
Index
characters
of the circle group, 43, 44
of the circle group as a complete
orthonormal system, 78
of a group, 96
of a locally compact abelian group,
44
of R N , 96
Chebyshev’s inequality, 11
circle group (T), 12, 43
and the unit circle in the plane, 43
closure
axiom for an MRA, 285
of measurable functions under sup,
inf, lim sup, lim inf, 5
of measurable sets under
complementation, 3
of measurable sets under countable
intersection, 3
of measurable sets under countable
union, 3
coefficient region, 125
commutation with translations, 43
complete orthonormal system in L 2 ,
181
complex
normal direction, 240
tangential direction, 240
unit ball, boundary of as a space of
homogeneous type, 239
conjugate
exponent, 9
index, 8
Poisson kernel, 221
system of harmonic functions, 224
construction of a wavelet, 306
continuous wavelets, construction of,
303
failure of for continuous functions,
66
of Fourier series in L p norm, 77
in L 2 of Fourier series, 78
convolution
and Fourier transform, 103
Index 349

of functions on R N , 12 directionally limited metric space,

on T, 12 251
Cordoba, A., 170 Dirichlet
cosine wave, approximation of, 290 and convergence of series, 34
Cotlar, M., 267 kernel, 51
Cotlar-Knapp-Stein theorem, 258, L 1 norm of, 62, 77
267, 269 problem on the ball, 187
countable distribution
additivity, 3 function, 324
subadditivity, 3 theory, 267
counting argument, 174 doubling property, 236, 237
covering lemma for a noncompact set, dual
248 of a Banach space, 18
critical indices for homogeneous of H 1 and B M O, 231, 232, 233
functionals, 205 of L ∞ , 19
cubes in R N , 230 of the Lebesgue spaces, 19

d’Alembert solution of vibrating electrocardiogram software, 273

string, 32 equivalence classes of measurable
Daubechies, I. functions, 5
construction of a wavelet basis, 297 Euclidean space
wavelets and Fourier analysis, 304 as a space of homogeneous type,
wavelets, combinatorial 237
construction of, 302 nonisotropic, 237
David, G., 266, 271 exponential map, 238
David-Journé theorem, 271
decay of Fourier coefficients and failure
smoothness, 49 of boundary limits in L 1 , 212
decomposition of the Dirichlet kernels to form a
of a function on all of space, 171 standard family, 77
of L 2 into V j ’s and W j ’s, 283 Fatou’s lemma (FL), 7
dense subspace, 20 FAWAV, 293
density axiom for an MRA, 285 Fefferman’s counterexample
derivative final calculation in, 166
Fourier transform of, 96 logic of, 170
and the Fourier transform, 199 Fefferman, C., 71, 118, 148
differentiation, fractional, 199 Fefferman, R., 170
dilations, 99 Fefferman-Stein
Fourier transform and, 99 decomposition, 232
dimensional analysis, 202 theorem, 264
Dirac delta mass Fejér
Fourier series expansion of, 278 kernels as a standard family, 63
Fourier transform of, 277 summation, 60
spectral analysis of, 277 summation, kernel of, 57
direct sum decomposition of L 2 , 173 summation method, formula for, 57
350
Fejér (continued)
summation method, multiplier for,
58
theorem, 55
fiber-optic communication, 276
finite volume of balls, 237
Folland, G. B., 196, 276
Folland-Stein fractional integration
theorem, 242
Fourier analysis
and complex variables, 171
custom, 274
designer, 275
of the Dirac mass, 286
in Euclidean space, 95
on locally compact abelian groups,
44
a new look, 171
Fourier, Joseph, 34
coefficients, 46
coefficients of a smooth function,
size of, 48
deriviation of the formula for
coefficients, 38
expansion, formal, 47
integral operators, 209
integrals, quadratic theory, 79
inversion formula, 108, 110, 111
multiplier, 56
multiplier for L 1 , 132
multiplier for L 2 , 131
multiplier for L p , 131
multiplier, periodization of, 134
multipliers and convolution kernels,
84
multipliers and summation of
Fourier series, 133
multipliers and summation of
multiple Fourier series, 137,
139, 140
multipliers as L ∞ functions, 133
multipliers, self-duality of, 132
series, 39
series, convergence at a point of
differentiability, 52
Index
series, convergence of, 50
series, mathematical theory, 34
series, norm convergence from
modern point of view, 87
series, partial sum of, 50
series, summability of, 47
solution of the heat equation, 35, 37
transform, 95, 317
transform, action on L p , 116
transform and conjugation, 101
transform and convolution, 103
transform and homogeneity, 103
transform and odd reflection, 101
transform of characteristic function
of rectangle, 162
transform, derivative of, 97
transform, eigenfunctions of, 116
transform, eigenvalues of, 115
transform, invariance under group
actions, 95
transform, invariant spaces of, 173,
197
transform, inverse of, 104
transform on L 1 , 96
transform on L 2 , 115
transform, mapping properties of,
116
transform, nonsurjectivity of, 113
transform, quadratic theory, 114
transform, sup norm estimate, 96
transform, surjectivity of, 112
transform, uniform continuity of,
98
transform, univalence of, 112
transform, weak, 103
Treatise on the Theory of Heat, 35
fractional integral
integrals, mapping properties of,
203
operator, 201, 242
fractional integration, 201
on a space of homogeneous type,
245
theorem of Riesz, 202
frequency modulation, 276
Index 351

Frobenius theorem, 238 wavelet subspaces, 284

Fubini’s theorem, 8 Hahn-Banach theorem, 18
function Han, Y. S., 263
spaces, 14 Hardy, G. H., 209
what is, 33 Hardy spaces, 221
Functional Analysis atoms for small p, 228
Principle I, 27 on the disc, 210
Principle I and norm convergence, function, boundary limit of, 219
28 H p for p < 1, 224
Principle I, proof of, 28 Hardy-Littlewood maximal
Principle II, 27 function, 213, 225, 246
Principle II and pointwise maximal function definition, 226
convergence, 28 measurability of, 71
Principle II, proof of, 29 and the Riesz transforms, 263
functions real variable theory, 231
of bounded mean oscillation, 229 unboundedness on L 1 , 74
calculus-style, 55 weak-type estimate for, 72
with values in the extended reals, 5 harmonic analysis, axiomatic theory
for, 235
gamma function, 197 harmonic conjugate, 219
Gauss-Weierstrass boundary limit of, 220
kernel, 106 Hausdorff
kernel, Fourier transform of, 107 measure, 320
summation, 108 space, 241
Gaussian heat equation, 36
Fourier transform of, 104, 105 derivation of, 35
integral, 105 heated rod, 35
kernel, 104 Heisenberg
Gegenbauer polynomial, 194 group, 240
geometric sets as models for uncertainty principle, 117
summation regions, 133 Hermite polynomials, 116
gradient of a harmonic function, Hermitian inner product
characterization of, 223 on homogeneous polynomials, 175
Green’s theorem, 179, 323 positive-definite, 21
groups that act on Euclidean space, 99 Hilbert space, 22
element, Fourier representation of,
Haar 26
basis, shortcomings of, 300 examples of, 23
expansion vs. Fourier expansion of isomorphism with `2 , 26
a cosine wave, 293 operators, summing, 268
series expansion of the Dirac delta separable, 25
mass, 286 summability, 26
series expansion of a truncated Hilbert subspace, 23
cosine wave, 291 Hilbert transform, 81, 203, 207, 221
wavelet basis, 279 boundedness of, 28
352 Index

Hilbert transform (continued) injectivity of L and dense range of

boundedness using the Cotlar- L ∗ , 20
Knapp-Stein theorem, 269 inner product space, 21
complexified version, 91 examples of, 21
interpretation in terms of analytic real, 95
functions, 91, 92 inner regularity, 4, 73
interpretation in terms of harmonic integrable functions, 7, 15
conjugates, 92 integral
kernel of, 86 of a complex-valued function, 6
on L 2 , 82 in terms of distribution function,
on L p , 82 324
matrix of, 311 Lebesgue, 7
modified, 88, 89 of a measurable function, 6
as a multiplier operator, 81 of a non-negative measurable
and norm convergence of Fourier function, 6
series, 87 Riemann, 7
and partial sums, 81 of a simple function, 6
significance of, 81 interpolation,
as a singular integral, 203 complex method of, 318
unboundedness on L 1 and L ∞ , 89 real method of, 318
homogeneity interval, 2
and the Calderón-Zygmund inverse Fourier transform, 104, 111,
theorem, 256 131
of functions and distributions, 102 iterated integrals, 8
of a singular integral kernel, 203
homogeneous Jensen’s
of degree β, 102 formula, 215
distributions, 205 inequality, 9, 215
polynomial, decomposition of, John, F., 229
176 John-Nirenberg inequality, 231,
polynomials, space of, 174 233
homomorphisms from the circle Journé, J.-L., 266, 267, 272
group into the unit circle, 44
Hunt, R., 92 Kakeya, S., 148
theorem, 92 needle problem, Besicovitch
hyperbolic distance, 311 solution of, 151
Hölder’s inequality, 9, 16 Kohn, J. J., 209
Hörmander Kohn/Nirenberg calculus, 209
hypoellipticity condition, 238 Kolmogorov, A., 92
example, 93
image compression, 277
inclusion axiom for an MRA, 285 L 1 is not a dual, 19
indicator function, 5 L 2 as a Hilbert space, 23
infinite-dimensional spaces, 14 L p spaces, 8, 15
infinite products, 216 Lagrange interpolation, 34
Index
Landau’s notation, 325
Laplacian, 223
Lebesgue
differentiation theorem, 11, 249,
250
dominated convergence theorem
(LDCT), 7
integration on R N , 13
measure, 2
monotone theorem (LMCT), 7
points, 11
spaces, 15
spaces, infinite dimensionality of,
16
spaces, local, 15
Lebesgue-Tonelli measure, 2
length, 2
Lewy unsolvable operator, 241
linear
functional, 17
functional, null space of, 25
operator, bounded, 16
operator, continuity of, 17
localization
in the space variable, 276
in the time/phase variable, 276
low-pass filter, 304
Lusin conjecture, 92
Macias, R., 263
Mallat, S., 279
Marcinkiewicz, S
interpolation theorem, 73, 318
multiplier theorem, 59
martingale theory, 230
maximal function
associated to a family of operators,
27
modeled on a smooth test function,
226
maximality axiom for an MRA,
285
maximal Poisson operator,
majorization by Hardy-
Littlewood operator, 75
353
mean-value zero condition, 203
and Hörmander condition, 260
for atoms, justification, 228
higher order, 228
measurability, 3
measurable
function, 5
set, 2
measure
of an interval, 3
of a set, 2
with weight φ, 13
medicine, 276
Meyer’s lemma, 160
Minkowski, H.
inequality, 9, 15
integral inequality, 10, 16
modified
Hardy-Littlewood operator,
weak-type estimate for, 249
Hilbert transform, 88
molecules, 229
moment conditions for wavelets,
301
Morera’s theorem, 204
Moser, J., 230
MRA, 279
multi-index notation, 174
Multi-Resolution Analysis, 276
multivariable versus one-variable
Fourier analysis, 122
multiplier
associated with the Fejér
summation method, 58
operator for the ball, 131
operators on L 2 , 80
for partial summation, 80
for Poisson summation, 58
problem for ball, counterexample
to, 168
problem for the half-space, 144
problem for the square and
summation of multiple Fourier
series, 143
problem for the square/cube, 143
354
multiplier (continued)
theorem for the cube and
summation of multiple Fourier
series, 140
music recording, 276
nearest element in a subspace, 25
Nirenberg, L., 209, 229
non-existence of C ∞ , compactly
supported wavelets, 297
nonisotropic
balls, 239
dilations, 241
norm
associated to an inner product, 22
convergence and FAPI, 69
convergence and Fejér means, 70
convergence and standard families
of kernels, 69
convergence, application of duality
to, 90
convergence, failure in L 1 and L ∞ ,
89
convergence of Fourier series, 69
convergence in L 2 , 81
convergence in L p , 84
convergence of partial sums of
Fourier series, 76
limits of Poisson integrals, 212
on a finite-dimensional vector
space, uniqueness of, 14
on a vector space, 13, 22
summability, failure of in L 1 and
L ∞ , 91
summation of multiple Fourier
series, 140
normed linear space,
finite-dimensional, 13
open mapping principle, 17
operator norm, 17
optics, 276
Orlicz spaces, 266
orthogonal
group, 189
Index
matrix, 99
projection on a subspace, 25
orthogonality, 23
of the sine functions, 38
of trigonometric basis functions, 38
orthonormal basis, 25
complete, 25
countable, 25
for L 2 , 78
oscilloscope analysis, 279
outer
measure, 2
regularity, 4
outward normal, unit, 179
p th -power integrable functions, 7
para-accretive functions, 272
parallelogram law, 24
parallels orthogonal to a vector, 190
paraproducts, 272
Parseval’s formula, 79
partial differential equations, 272
partial sum of Fourier series, closed
formula for, 51
partial summation, 60
alternative method, 122
and Fourier multipliers, 130
numerical examples of, 126
in several variables, 122
partial sums
alternative definitions for, 121
and the Hilbert transform, 121
Peter-Weyl theorem, 79
physical principles governing heat, 35
Plancherel formula, 114
polarized form, 115
Poincaré metric, 311
point evaluation functional, 183
point mass at the origin, 13
pointwise convergence
of Borel measures, 212
failure in L 1 , 93
of Fejér summation, 76
of Fourier series at a point of
differentiability, 52
Index
of the Poisson sums of Fourier
series, 76
for the standard summability
methods, 71
Poisson integral formula, 210
and spherical harmonics, 182
Poisson kernel, 59, 221
for the ball, 186
on the ball and spherical
harmonics, 187
majorization by the
Hardy-Littlewood operator, 74
as a standard family, 63
in terms of spherical harmonics,
181, 187
Poisson
maximal operator, weak-type
estimate for, 75
summation, 58, 60
summation, kernel of, 59
summation of several variables,
133, 134
polarized Plancherel formula, 102
polygonal summation for multiple
Fourier series, 147
positivity of the Fejér and Poisson
kernels, 63
probability theory, 230
product measurable functions, 8
projection in a Hilbert space, 24
properties of measurable sets, 4
pseudodifferential operators, calculus
of, 208
quadratic theory of Fourier series, 79
quantum mechanics, 240
quasi-metric, 236
quasi-triangle inequality, 236, 246
radial
boundary limits on the disc, 214
function, Fourier transform of, 197,
198
radio recording, 276
real line, 2
355
real-variable Hardy space, 222, 223
recovering a continuous function
using a summability method, 66
rectangular convergence
restricted, 123
unrestricted, 124
rectangular summability, unrestricted,
124
reflexive space, 19
regular Borel measure, 236
regularity of Lebesgue measure, 4
relationship of V j to W j , 284
representation theory, 174
reproducing property of the zonal
harmonics, 184
restricted
rectangular convergence, 147
rectangularly convergent but
spherically divergent, 129
rectangularly convergent but
unrestrictedly rectangularly
divergent, 129
rectangular summability, 124
restriction to unit sphere of harmonic
polynomials, 173
Riemann-Lebesgue lemma, 48, 97
intuitive view, 98
Riesz
fractional integration theorem, 245
fractional integration theorem,
modern interpretation, 245
operators, 242
representation theorem, 24
theorem on L p boundedness of the
Hilbert transform, 87
theory of homogeneous functionals,
204
transforms, 222
transforms, canonical nature of,
222
transforms, kernels of, 222
Riesz-Fischer theorem, 79
Riesz-Thorin interpolation theorem,
116, 318
rotation group, action of, 171
356 Index

rotationally invariant surface measure, smooth wavelets, construction of, 306

178 Sobolev
rotations, 99 imbedding theorem, 224
and the Fourier transform, 99 spaces, 266
solid spherical harmonics, 177
σ -algebra, 3, 12 action of the Fourier transform on,
scaling axiom for an MRA, 285 198
scaling function φ, 279 space of homogeneous type, 229, 236,
Schauder basis, 308 239
Schur’s lemma, 67, 244 examples, 237
and functional analysis principle I, spaces, nonlocally convex, 16
68 special orthogonal matrix, 99
Schwartz spectral analysis, 276
functions, 317 spherical harmonics, 174, 177, 178
kernel theorem, 84, 200 density in L 2 , 178
Segovia, C., 263 expansion, 177
self-duality of Fourier multipliers, 132 solid, 178
semicontinuous, lower, 246 surface, 178
semi-norms on the Schwartz space, spherical summation, 122, 147
317 spherically convergent but square
Semmes, S., 267, 272 divergent, 127
separable, 25 spikes in audio recordings, 279
set-function, 12 sprouting of triangles, 152
sets of measure zero, 3, 4 square convergent
several complex variables, 272 but restrictedly rectangularly
signal divergent, 128
compression, 277 but spherically divergent, 128
processing, 277 square summation
simple function, 5 of multiple Fourier series, 146
sines and cosines, inadequacy of, 274 pathologies of, 147
singular integral standard
acting on atoms, 264 families and convergence of Fourier
boundedness on L 2 , 267 series, 65
kernel, 203 family of summability kernels, 63
L p boundedness of, 207 kernel, 270
on Lipschitz curves, 272 Stein, E. M., 231
on a space of homogeneous type, Stein-Weiss definition of Hardy
257 spaces, 223
on spaces of homogeneous type, Stieltjes integral, 10
L p estimates, 260 Stone-Weierstrass theorem, 78, 317,
operator, 203 324
size of Fourier coefficients, norm strong-type estimate, 28
estimate of, 47 strongly singular integrals, 205
Sjölin, P., 92 subharmonicity and Hardy spaces,
theorem, 92 210
Index
subspaces V j in an MRA
decomposition, 281
summability kernels,
majorization by the Hardy-
Littlewood maximal operator,
74
properties of, 62
summability methods
for Fourier series, 56
summary of, 59
summation of Fourier series at a
Lebesgue point, 139
support of a function, 315
surface measure, 178
via parametrization, 322
via pullback, 321
via thickening, 321
surjectivity, failure of for Fourier
transform, 98
symmetries of Euclidean space,
235
T (1) theorem, 271, 272
T (b) theorem, 272
Taibleson, M., 92
telecommunications, 276
television recording, 276
testing functions, 315
density in L p , 316
Toeplitz, O., 209
torus group, 122
translation-invariant operators, 101,
200, 275
and kernels, 101
translations, 99, 100
Fourier transform and, 100
triangle inequality for an inner
product space, 22
trigonometric polynomials, 46
Uchiyama, A., 263
uncertainty principle, 117
qualitative version, 117
quantitative version, 118
and wavelets, 120
357
unconditional basis, 297, 307, 308
constructed with wavelets, 307
uniform boundedness principle, 17
unit ball in complex space, 239
unit disc, 210
unrestrictedly rectangularly
convergent but spherically
divergent, 129
vanishing moments and oscillation,
301
variance, 119
vector space, 13
vibrating string, 31
Walker, J., 105, 276, 289, 293
wave equation, 32
derivation of, 39
wavelets, 114
and almost diagonalizable
operators, 309
basis, 284
as flexible units of harmonic
analysis, 275
function ψ, 280
weak-type
bound for an operator, 72
function, 318
inequality, 28
weak-∗ convergence, 324
weakly bounded operator, 270
weight, 13
Weiss, G., 148
Whitney decomposition of an open
set, 252
Wiener covering lemma, 71, 246
zeros of a Hardy space function, 215,
216
zonal harmonics, 183, 195
explicit formula for, 189
in terms of Gegenbauer
polynomials, 195, 196
Zygmund, A., xiv, 144, 203, 208, 231
lemma, 159
AMS / MAA THE CARUS MATHEMATICAL MONOGRAPHS

A PANORAMA OF HARMONIC ANALYSIS

STEVEN G. KRANTZ

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CAR/27