Psychology in the Schools, Vol. 50(4), 2013 C 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

View this article online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/pits DOI: 10.1002/pits.21680

PARENT ATTACHMENT AND EARLY ADOLESCENTS’ LIFE SATISFACTION:

THE MEDIATING EFFECT OF HOPE
XU JIANG, E. SCOTT HUEBNER, AND KIMBERLY J. HILLS
University of South Carolina

Research using an attachment theory framework has provided evidence that parent attachment is
one of the crucial determinants of psychological adjustment in adolescents, including global life
satisfaction (LS). This study investigated the interrelationships among parent attachment, hope,
and LS during early adolescence, including the mediation effect of hope in the relationship
between parent attachment and LS. A sample of 565 middle-school students in Grades 6 through
8 participated. Results showed statistically significant relationships among all three variables, and
hope partially mediated the relationship between parent attachment and LS. Implications of the
findings are discussed. C 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

In line with the positive psychology movement, researchers in psychology have paid increasing
attention to the importance of subjective well-being, such as global life satisfaction (LS). Such
research has challenged the mental health criterion used in traditional models, which mainly
focuses on the absence of psychopathology and distress. Specifically, the absence of illness appears
to be a necessary, but insufficient condition of mental health (McCullough & Snyder, 2000;
Seligman & Csikzentmihalyi, 2000). Measuring well-being variables, such as LS, in addition to
psychological distress variables, provides a more comprehensive and meaningful picture of overall
functioning (Suldo & Shaffer, 2008).
Global LS reflects a cognitive judgment of one’s satisfaction with his or her life as a whole
(Diener & Diener, 1995). Similar to research with adults, research with adolescents has revealed
that LS is integrally tied to a wide array of physical, mental, academic, emotional, and social
indicators of functioning, suggesting that LS is a key psychological strength (Suldo & Huebner,
2004). Several classes of variables have been identified as correlates of adolescents’ LS (Huebner,
2004), including demographic variables (e.g., age, and socioeconomic status), intrapersonal
variables (e.g., personality, character strengths), environmental variables (e.g., life events, school
climate, culture), and interpersonal variables (e.g., interactions with family, teachers, and peers). In
general, all of these variables serve as correlates of adolescents’ LS. However, research has shown
that demographic variables are at most modest predictors of youth global LS (Gilman & Huebner,
2003; Huebner & Gilman, 2004; Huebner, Suldo, Valois, Drane, & Zullig, 2004; Huebner, Valois,
Paxton, & Drane, 2005), whereas the intrapersonal variables, interpersonal relationship variables,
and environmental variables are stronger predictors of adolescents’ LS. However, the psychosocial
mechanisms that underlie many of these relationships have yet to be explicated. Studies of such
mechanisms should provide valuable guidance in “making changes” in youths’ lives.
As one central interpersonal relationship variable, the parent–child relationship has been found to
make a significant contribution to individual differences in adolescents’ LS (Ma & Huebner, 2008;
Suldo & Huebner, 2004). Among the intrapersonal variables, decades of research have demonstrated
the importance of motivational factors in adolescents’ academic and behavioral development
(Anderman & Maehr, 1994; Stipek, 2002). However, there has been a lack of research on cognitive–
motivational factors in adolescents’ LS. Examinations of cognitive–motivational factors as

Correspondence to: Scott Huebner, Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC
29208. E-mail: huebner@sc.edu

340
 Attachment, Life Satisfaction, and Hope 341

mechanisms that account for the linkages between parent–child relationships and adolescents’ LS
have been even rarer. In this regard, the current study will examine hope as a possible cognitive–
motivational pathway from one particular interpersonal relationship, parental attachment, to
adolescent LS.
Attachment theory is the most visible and empirically grounded conceptual framework in the
fields of social and emotional development (Cassidy & Shaver, 2008). According to Bowlby
(1969/1982, 1973, 1980), attachment theory suggests that individuals are biologically predisposed to
form selective bonds with special and proximate caring figures in their environment. From the early
experiences between an infant and a caregiver, the infant begins to adopt the caregiver’s behavioral
patterns into his or her own behavioral system. This process involves cognitive components; specif-
ically, mental representations of the attachment figure, the self, and the environment that Bowlby
referred to as “internal working models” (Bowlby, 1973, p. 203). Securely attached infants are more
likely to develop generally positive internal working models (Bowlby, 1988).
As children progress into adolescence, attachment theory posits that the experiences of care and
support provided by caregivers (typically parents) continue to help adolescents develop adaptive
systems of cognition, affect, and behavior. These systems of cognition, affect, and behavior are
hypothesized to be inextricably linked to internal working models that youngsters construct based on
the attachment experiences. These internal working models provide them with the means by which to
evaluate the availability of the attachment figure as a source of comfort, security, and ultimately to
formulate judgments pertaining to their own self-worth and deservedness of attachment relations
(Cook, 2000; Duchesne & Larose, 2007; Sroufe & Waters, 1977). Accordingly, adolescents who have
experienced one or more consistently loving and supportive caregivers and have a positive sense of
self-worth will likely have a secure attachment style that enables them to maintain a sense of efficacy
in relationships. When developmental challenges emerge for individuals with positive self-worth, they
are less likely to be vulnerable to situational attacks on their self-worth (Kenny & Rice, 1995). In the
same way, because others are perceived as trustworthy and responsive, individuals will be better able
to establish supportive relationships with others (Berlin, Cassidy, & Appleyard, 2008; Kenny & Rice,
1995) and other positive outcomes. For instance, research has shown that adolescents’ secure
attachment to their parents is statistically significantly related to higher academic success (Bell, Allen,
Hauser, & O’Conner, 1996; Cutrona, Cole, Colangelo, Assouline, & Russell, 1994), interpersonal
functioning (Berlin et al., 2008; Black & McCartney, 1997; Carr, 2009), and higher LS (Armsden &
Greenberg, 1987; Ma & Huebner, 2008; Nickerson & Nagle, 2004), as well as a lower likelihood of
delinquency (Higgins, Jennings, & Mahoney, 2010) and lower psychological distress (Bradford &
Lyddon, 1994).
According to attachment theory, internal working models characterize specific
cogni-tive/affective/behavioral constellations, or attachment styles, which correspond to specific
patterns of parental behavior. These models allow individuals to anticipate the future and make plans,
thereby operating most efficiently (Bowlby, 1969/1982). Based on the theory, learning occurs and is
cognitively stored through direct interaction with parents. By forming internal models through
interactions with others, these learning experiences may serve as guides for future reactions and have
an indirect effect on children’s behaviors and mental health. In accordance with attachment theory and
empirical studies of both adolescents and young adults, it is plausible that attachment levels may
directly and indirectly impact LS through mediating (e.g., cognitive) variables. For example, research
has shown the mediating effect of self-efficacy between parental attachment and LS in both
adolescents (Lent, 2004) and adult samples (Wright & Perrone, 2010) and hope in an adult sample
(Shorey, Snyder, Yang & Lewin, 2003). However, the examination of hope in adolescent samples has
been neglected. Thus, in this study, the relatively new, but important, cognitive–motivational construct
of hope is

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342 Jiang, Huebner, and Hills

examined in the attachment context using an adolescent sample. To provide a theoretical

foundation for the formulation of the hypotheses, literature relating to hope was reviewed, as
discussed in the next section.

HOPE, PARENTAL ATTACHMENT , AND ADOLESCENTS ’ LS

According to hope theory (Snyder, Cheavens & Sympson, 1997), hope incorporates three
components: goals thinking, agency thinking, and pathways thinking. First, goals can be short-or
long term, and they may vary significantly with respect to their importance and probability of
attainment (Snyder, 2000). Second, pathways represent a person’s perceived cognitive ability to
generate workable routes to goals (Snyder, Rand, & Sigmon, 2002). Last, agency is the
motivational component that ensures a person will be able to begin and sustain the effort necessary
to follow a particular pathway.
Based on attachment theory, individuals who are more securely attached have a greater ability
to effectively explore their environment (Bowlby, 1973). Within the attachment context, attachment
to the caregiver is crucial for learning goal-directed thought, because a person’s pathways and
agency thinking are learned over the course of infancy, childhood, and later (Snyder, Hoza et al.,
1997; Snyder et al., 2002). Support from caregivers reflecting love and respect may provide the
necessary attachment whereby the child exercises his or her goal-directed thinking and actions
(Rieger, 1993). Although hope can be dispositional in nature, it is thought that changes in levels of
hope can occur over time through sustained interventions or changes in the environment. For
instance, parents can model or directly teach their children how to think, as well as how to relate
with other people and their environments (Baumrind, 1967). To sum up, a high quality of
attachment with parents should foster hope in children. However, weak bonding or insecure
attachment with parents should undermine hope in children.
Hope relates to positive outcomes in various aspects of humans’ lives. For instance, research
has shown that higher hope is positively correlated with social competence (Barnum, Snyder,
Rapoff, Mani, & Thompson, 1998), enjoyment in interpersonal interactions (Snyder, Cheavens et
al., 1997), and interest in the goal pursuits of others (Snyder, Cheavens et al., 1997). Research on
character strengths has shown that hope, along with some other strengths (e.g., zest, gratitude), is
consistently and robustly associated with LS in young adults (Park, Peterson, & Seligman, 2004).
Of the few studies that have examined hope among adolescents, the results showed that both
measures of pathways and agency were significantly positively correlated with global LS, personal
adjustment, and grade point average, but negatively correlated with indicators of psychological
distress, and school maladjustment (Gilman, Dooley & Florell, 2006). Furthermore, Valle, Huebner
and Suldo (2004) found that hope was positively correlated with adolescents’ global LS and
inversely correlated with internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Finally, Valle, Huebner and
Suldo (2006) demonstrated hope’s functional role as a moderator of the relationship between
stressful life events and adolescent global LS.
Based on recent studies on the quality of interpersonal relationships, attachment relationships may
serve as possible determinants of both youth and adult LS. In light of the integration of attachment
theory, hope theory, and the characteristics of adolescents’ development, it appears that individuals’
hopeful thinking first develops from their families of origin and then is reinforced through learning
experiences. Early adolescents have the cognitive capacity to internalize the outcomes of parental
interactions so as to set their own goal-pursuits and assess the quality of their lives. The quality of
attachment could also serve as a key source of hopeful thinking, which in turn may influence an
individual’s cognitive evaluation of his or her life. Thus, individual differences in levels of hope may
act as a mechanism that accounts for the relationship between parental attachment and

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 Attachment, Life Satisfaction, and Hope 343

LS. The model is conceptualized with attachment directly affecting LS and hope partially
mediating the relationship between parent attachment and adolescents’ LS.
There is a lack of research on how attachment influences adolescents’ individual differences in
LS. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether parental attachment relates to LS through
the cognitive–motivational mediating pathway of hope. Thus, the hypotheses were (1) parental
attachment is significantly and positively related to adolescents’ LS, (2) hope is also significantly
and positively related to adolescents’ LS, and (3) hope partially mediates the relationship between
parental attachment and LS.

METHOD
Participants
Data were collected as part of a larger study of early adolescents’ well-being and are reported in
previous publications (cf. Ma & Huebner, 2008). Letters describing the study and requesting
permission were sent to parents of all regular education students ( N = 1,201) from five middle
schools in two school districts in a small southeastern U.S. city. Students with parental consent were
also required to provide student assent. The rate of students returning parent permission forms varied
from 34% to 36% per school. The final sample size was 565 students. See the demographic variables
in Table 1.

Table 1
Descriptive Statistics of the Sample

Demographic Variable n %

Grade
6th 200
7th 280
8th 185
Gender
Male 224
Female 341
SES
Free or Reduced Lunch 50.6
Race
White 43.2
Black 44.1
Asian 3.0
Hispanic 1.2
Native American 2.1
Other 6.4
Family Composition
Both Parents 49.2
Mother Only 23.0
Father Only 1.9
Mother and SF 16.1
Father and SM 1.8
Other Adults 8.0

Note. SES = socioeconomic status; SF = stepfather; SM = stepmother.

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344 Jiang, Huebner, and Hills

Procedures
Research assistants in groups of 2 to 4 administered measures to participants in groups of 20
to 75. Before participation, the assent forms were presented, and students were informed that their
participation was voluntary and that they could discontinue at any time. The assistants ensured that
students followed the directions. No student refused participation or discontinued. Sessions were
conducted in the school cafeterias or libraries, where extraneous factors (e.g., noise levels) were
controlled.

Measures
The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA; Armsden & Greenberg, 1987) was utilized
to measure attachments to parents. The comprehensive version consists of 75 items, with 25 items in
the first section assessing the student’s attachment to his or her mother (or mother figure), 25 items in
the second section asking the same questions concerning the student’s father (or father figure), and
another 25 items in the third section assessing the student’s attachment to his or her peers. The
abbreviated version of the IPPA, consisting of 12 items for mother attachment and 12 items for father
attachment, was used for this study. These items were chosen on the basis of their factor loadings and
item-total correlations (M. T. Greenberg, personal communication, October 14, 2004). Students
responded to each item using a 5-point response format, in which 1 = almost never or never true, 2 =
not very often true, 3 = sometimes true, 4 = often true, and 5 = almost always or always true. The
parent attachment score was the mean of the 24 items on both the mother and father attachment scales
(with some items reverse scored).
The abbreviated scale has been used in prior research (Elmore & Huebner, 2010; Laible,
Carlo, & Roesch, 2004; Ma & Huebner, 2008), and the research supports its reliability and validity
(Laible, Carlo, & Raffaelli, 2000). Internal consistency reliabilities have been reported as 0.82 for
combined parent attachment (Williams & McGee, 1991). In the current study, the internal
consistency of the abbreviated scale was 0.88. Validity has been supported by high correlations
with the Family Self-Concept subscale (0.78) of the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (Fitts, 1965)
and the Family Environment Scale (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987).
The Children’s Hope Scale (CHS; Snyder, Hoza et al., 1997) was created to measure goal-
related hopeful thinking and motivation in children and adolescents aged 8 to 16. The measure
contains six items, with three items reflecting agency thinking (e.g., “I think the things I have done
in the past will help me in the future.”) and three items representing pathway thinking (e.g., “I can
think of many ways to get the things in life that are most important to me”; Snyder, Cheavens, &
Michael, 1999). Each item involves choosing a response ranging from 1 (none of the time) to 6 (all
of the time).
Research on the CHS suggested acceptable reliability and validity for research. Alphas have
ranged from 0.72 to 0.86 (Snyder, 2002; Valle et al., 2004), and test–retest reliability coefficients
have ranged from 0.71 (1-month interval) to 0.73 (2-week interval; Snyder, Hoza et al., 1997). The
alpha coefficient in this study was 0.77. Evidence for the construct validity of the CHS has also
been provided. For example, Valle et al. (2004) found support for the correlated two-factor model.
They also found significant positive correlations with LS and perceived social support and
significant negative correlations with externalizing behaviors and internalizing behaviors.
The Brief Multidimensional Students’ Life Satisfaction Scale (BMSLSS; Seligson, Huebner, &
Valois, 2003) consists of six items, which are summed to create a total overall LS score (Seligson et
al., 2003). Participants were asked to select from a seven-response-option Terrible–Delighted scale (1
= terrible, 2 = unhappy, 3 = mostly dissatisfied, 4 = mixed [about equally satisfied and
dissatisfied], 5 = mostly satisfied, 6 = pleased, 7 = delighted).

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 Attachment, Life Satisfaction, and Hope 345

Table 2
Descriptive Statistics of Parental Attachment, Hope, and Life Satisfaction

Variables Mean SD Range Skew Kurtosis

Parent Attachment 3.77 0.72 1 to 5 –0.63 0.33

Hope 4.37 0.88 1 to 6 –0.41 –0.44
Life Satisfaction 5.70 1.06 1 to 7 –1.12 1.21

Note. N = 565

The validity of the BMSLSS with adolescents has been examined in previous studies through
exploratory and confirmatory factor analytic procedures. The results revealed acceptable internal
consistency reliability, criterion-related validity, and construct validity for the BMSLSS Total
score for research purposes (Seligson et al., 2003). The internal consistency of the abbreviated
scale was 0.84 in the current study. Convergent validity has been observed between BMSLSS
scores and alternative measures of LS, such as the Students’ Life Satisfaction Scale (Huebner,
1991). Negative correlations have been found between the BMSLSS and some mental health
indicators (e.g., depression and anxiety; Zullig, Valois, Huebner, & Drane, 2005).

RESULTS
Preliminary Analyses
Prior to addressing the major research questions, analyses were conducted to determine whether
the various samples from different schools could be combined into one sample. One-way analyses of
variance revealed no significant differences across any of the criteria and predictor variables as a
function of school placement. Thus, the samples were combined for subsequent analyses. To assess
univariate normality, skewness and kurtosis were calculated. According to criteria set forth by Lomax
(2001), skewness and kurtosis for all scores were within acceptable limits (see Table 2).

Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics are included in Table 2. For each variable, a higher score indicates increased
levels of the construct. The mean level of hope (M = 4.37, range = 1–6) was slightly lower than that
found in previous studies (e.g., M = 4.82, Valle, Huebner, & Suldo, 2004; M = 4.81 at Time 1 and M
= 4.74 at Time 2, Valle et al., 2006). The means on the parent attachment (M = 3.77, range 1–5) and
LS measures (M = 5.70, range 1–7) were similar to those reported by Ma and Huebner (2008) and
Saha, Huebner, Suldo, & Valois (2010).

Correlation Analyses
Pearson correlations are presented in Table 3. All variables were significantly interrelated.
Using Cohen’s (1988) criteria, parent attachment showed medium correlations to hope (r =
0.376, p < .01) and LS (r = 0.553, p < .01), indicating that adolescents who perceived more
secure attachment with parents reported higher levels of hope and global LS.

Demographic Relationships
To examine differences in target variables in relation to grade, gender, race, family composition,
and socioeconomic background, five one-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were conducted for
each target variable. When significant main effects were detected in demographic variables with
Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10.1002/pits
346 Jiang, Huebner, and Hills

Table 3
Intercorrelations Among Predictor and Criterion Variables
Variables 1 2

1 . P a r e n t A t t a c h m e n t –
2 . Hope
0.376** –
3 . Life Satisfaction
0.553** 0.484**

Note.: N = 565.
**p < .01.

multiple groups, follow-up analyses were conducted using Tukey’s honestly significant difference
(HSD) test. The results are summarized in the following sections.

Demographic Differences in Parent Attachment, Hope, and LS

Five one-way between-group ANOVAs revealed significant main effects of grade, F(2, 562)
= 17.26, p < .01, on parent attachment, indicating a gradual decline in parent attachment from
sixth to eighth grade. Specifically, sixth graders reported higher levels of parent attachment (M =
3.98) than did seventh graders (M = 3.76), and seventh graders reported higher levels of parent
attachment than did eighth graders (M = 3.57). A main effect of ethnicity was found at α = .05
level, F(5,559) = 2.84; however, Tukey HSD tests showed no significant difference between any
ethnic group. Although mean differences existed, insufficient sample sizes of some ethnic groups
(e.g., Hispanic, Native American, and Asian) may have limited the interpretation of this finding.
Family composition showed a main effect on the level of adolescents’ hope, F(5,559) = 2.81,
p < .05. However, Tukey HSD tests failed to show significant differences between family com-
position groups, and insufficient sample sizes in the family configuration groups prohibit adequate
interpretation of the nonsignificant mean difference. Other demographic differences in hope were
not detected.
Five one-way between-group ANOVA revealed main effects of grade, F(2, 562) = 4.45, p <
.05, and gender, F(1,563) = 5.63, p < .05 on adolescents’ LS. To be specific, sixth graders (M =
5.85) reported significantly higher levels of LS than did eighth graders (M = 5.53). The difference
between sixth and seventh graders (M = 5.70) and the difference between seventh and eighth
graders were not significant, but there was a trend in which LS decreased as grade level increased.
With regard to gender, girls (M = 5.78) reported significantly higher levels of LS than did boys
(M = 5.57).

Multiple Regression Analyses

Mediation analyses were conducted according to procedures suggested by Baron and Kenny
(1986). On the first step, hope was regressed on parent attachment to confirm that parent attach -
ment would indeed predict the mediator variable. On the second step, LS was regressed on parent
attachment to confirm that parent attachment would predict the criterion. On the third step, LS was
regressed on parent attachment and on hope to test (1) the mediator’s prediction of the criterion,
and (2) whether the predictive power of the predictor on the criterion decreased after including the
mediator in the regression equation. Significant demographic variables were accounted for in all
analyses (e.g., grade, gender, and family composition). A summary of the regression analyses is
presented in Table 4.

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 Following regression analyses, the Sobel test (Preacher & Hayes, 2004; Sobel, 1982) was
conducted to determine whether a significant reduction occurred in the relationship between parental
 Attachment, Life Satisfaction, and Hope 347

Table 4
Regression Analyses to Test the Mediating Effect of Adolescents’ Hope on the Relationship Between Parent
Attachment and Adolescent Life Satisfaction

Criterion Variables Grade Gender Family Composition Parent Attachment Hope

Hope 0.028 0.082* –0.076 0.379**

Life Satisfaction
Step1 0.006 0.105** 0.000 0.555**
Step2 –0.003 0.078* 0.024 0.435** 0.317**

Note. N = 565. Beta weights are

provided. *p < .05. **p < .01.

attachment and LS once hope was entered into the model. As shown in Table 4, a partial
mediation effect of hope was found. When hope was included in the model, the predictive power
of parental attachment on LS was significantly reduced from = 0.555 to = 0.435, according to
Sobel test calculations (z = 6.261).
Another way to test the mediated effect for significance is to assess whether zero is included
in the confidence interval. If zero is outside the confidence interval, then the mediated effect is
statistically significant. Because the mediated effect does not always have a normal distribution,
more accurate confidence limits for the mediated effect are obtained with methods for asymmetric
confidence limits (MacKinnon, 2004). Following this rationale, the Prodclin program, which
assesses asymmetric confidence limits for a single mediator model, was used. The resulting values
for the lower and upper critical limits were 0.085 and 0.160, which excluded zero in this interval,
further demonstrating that the mediated effect was statistically significant. Figure 1 displays a
visual representation of the mediation effect of hope on the relationship between parent attachment
and LS.

D ISCUSSION
This study explored the interrelationships among parent attachment, hope, and LS in early
adolescents. Hope was conceptualized as a cognitive–motivational mediator between parent attach-
ment and adolescents’ LS. The results indicated some demographic differences across grade/age and
gender. Specifically, as students’ grade level increased (e.g., from sixth grade to seventh grade), their
reports of parent attachment and LS decreased. Consistent with the developmental theory, which
asserts that adolescents increasingly pursue more autonomy and fewer interactions with parents as

Hope

.379** .317**

Parent Attachment Life Satisfaction

.555** (.435**)

FIGURE 1. Model of the meditational role of hope in the relationship between parent attachment and life satisfaction.
The number in parentheses is the reduced coefficient when the mediator (hope) is present. ** p < .01.

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348 Jiang, Huebner, and Hills

they progress through adolescence, results of the present study demonstrated a decline in parent at-
tachment as students progressed in age/grade level. The present finding also demonstrated that global
LS tends to decline slightly with the onset and progression of adolescence, consistent with evidence
from research conducted with samples in the United States (e.g., Suldo & Huebner, 2004), Britain
(Bradshaw, Rees, Keug, & Goswami, 2010), Germany (Goldbeck, Schmitz, Besier, Herschback, &
Henrich, 2007), Israel (Ullman & Tatar, 2001), South Korea (Park, 2005), and China (Chang,
McBride-Chang, Stewart, & Au, 2003; Leung, McBride-Chang, & Lai, 2004). Similar to previous
studies (Ma & Huebner, 2008; Nickerson & Nagle, 2004), the results of this study also indicated that
females reported higher LS than males. Overall, main effects of race on parental attachment and of
family composition on hope were found; however, significant differences between groups were not
found, probably due to small sample sizes. Given the limitations of the sample (see the Limitations
section), the results of all of the demographic analyses should be interpreted cautiously. Further
studies with nationally representative samples are clearly needed.
Correlational analyses were conducted to examine the relationships among parent attachment,
hope, and LS. First, the findings revealed the hypothesized significant positive association between
parent attachment and adolescents’ LS (c.f., Armsden & Greenberg, 1987; Greenberg, Siegel, &
Leitch, 1983; Ma & Huebner, 2008; Nickerson & Nagle, 2004). Second, the findings supported the
hypothesized positive relationship between parent attachment and the character strength of hope,
suggesting that interactions with parents during adolescence are important in shaping one’s goal-
oriented thinking and motivation. Third, the findings also demonstrated a positive correlation
between hopeful thinking and global LS, consistent with previous findings of linkages between
hope and LS (Valle et al., 2006). Finally, consistent with the integrated theoretical framework and
aforementioned empirical studies, the subsequent tests of mediation supported the hypothesis of
hope as a partial cognitive–motivational mediator between parent attachment and adolescents’ LS.
In other words, how satisfied adolescents feel about their overall lives is not only directly
influenced by their levels of attachment to their parents, but also indirectly through their levels of
hopeful thinking and motivation.
The results of this study provide a unique contribution to the literature by demonstrating the
crucial role of hope in the relationship between parent attachment and adolescents’ LS. Specifically,
the results elucidate one cognitive–motivational pathway (i.e., hope) that may serve as a key
mechanism that accounts for the linkage between parent attachment and LS in adolescents. Taken
together, the findings suggest important clinical implications of effective parenting practices and
school programming at individual, classroom and schoolwide levels. Although adolescents may
spend increasingly less time with their parents (Larson & Verma, 1999), psychologists and other
school staff should communicate to parents their continued influence on their adolescent’s well-
being. Thus, these results provide support for continued efforts to promote healthy family
relationships in adolescence. It will be helpful for parents to know their important role in building
character strengths in youth as well.
Research has revealed the positive results of elevating students’ LS and the value of well-
designed school programs to increase children’s overall subjective well-being (Marvin, Cooper,
Hoffman, & Powell, 2002; Suldo, Huebner, Savage, & Thalji, 2011). The results from this study
further suggest that prevention and intervention programs should address adolescents’ perceived
attachment with parents, for example, by getting parents more involved in the assessment and inter-
vention process, providing parent training programs to teach parents communication skills with their
children, and organizing activities for adolescents and families to enhance mutual understanding.
Finally, the results are also important in light of the previous finding that hope may also serve as a
moderator of the relationship between stressful life experiences and adolescents’ global LS. For
example, Valle et al. (2006) found that adolescents who have a higher level of hope tend to

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 Attachment, Life Satisfaction, and Hope 349

be more resilient when confronted with adverse life events. To develop hopeful thinking, teachers
and school administration personnel should realize the importance of this cognitive–motivational
strength and implement effective methods to help students build this strength. Specifically, teachers
can model and encourage goal setting and various pathway strategies in regular classroom
activities, and school psychologists or counselors can implement specific strategies in individual
and group interventions. In addition, results of this study suggest a link between parent attachment
and hope; therefore, it would also be valuable to involve parents in prevention/intervention
programs by adding the component of teaching parents how to enhance hopeful thinking through
attachment relationship, social learning, and direct modeling or teaching. Marques, Lopez, and
Pais-Ribeiro (2011) provide a good example of a school-based intervention program for adolescents
targeting hope. Further, more detailed suggestions for improving hope can be found in Lopez, Rose,
Robinson, Marques, and Paris-Ribeiro (2009).

Limitations
Although this study has contributed to understanding the pathways to early adolescents’ LS, by
indicating a mechanism (hope) to account for the link between parent attachment and adolescents’ LS,
a number of limitations need to be highlighted. First, the sample, although somewhat diverse, was
from one region of the United States, thus possibly restricting external validity. Future research should
incorporate more diverse samples. Second, the cross-sectional nature of this study provides limited
inferences regarding the directionality of the relationships. Future studies should be conducted using
longitudinal and experimental designs to further address these research questions. Third, this study
utilized a mono-method approach (i.e., self-report measures); future studies should use multi-trait,
multi-method approaches to increase confidence in the measurements of key variables. Finally, this
study involved a restricted age range. Studies with different age groups should be undertaken. Given
that adolescence is marked by rapid changes in many aspects, including transformations in parental
relationships (Cassidy & Shaver, 2008; Kobak & Duemmler, 1994; Pearson, Cohn, Cowan, & Cowan,
1994), it seems necessary to investigate whether the obtained interrelationships are similar from
childhood through adolescence.

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