Chapter 3'

CHAPTER-3
Interfacial Phenomena
Dinberu B.(Bpharm, Msc in Pharmacology)
1 Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

Objectives
2
After this lesson the students are expected to:
 Understand surface and interfacial tensions, adsorption

at liquid and solid interfaces
 Differentiate gas/liquid and liquid/liquid solutions and

solubility of different types of solids in liquids
 Understand the distribution law, and its applications
Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

Surface and Interfacial Phenomenon
3
 When two phases are in contact with each other, the

boundary b/n them is referred to as interface.
 If one of the two phases is a gas or vapor, the term

surface is generally used instead of interface.
 Interface is the boundary of separation of two phases.

Types of interfaces
4
 Different types of interfaces are encountered, depending on

whether the two adjacent phases are solid, liquid or gas.
 Surface
 Solid surfaces
◼ Solid-gas interface
 Liquid surface
◼ Liquid-gas interface

Types of interfaces…
5
 Interface
 Solid-liquid interface
 Solid-solid interface
 liquid-liquid interface
 Can we say gas-gas interface?

Types of interfaces…
6

Liquid interfaces
7
➢ When we have two phases immiscible with each other, the

boundary b/n two phases is known as an interface.
➢ The properties of the molecules forming the interface are

often sufficiently d/t from those in the bulk of each phase that
they are referred to as forming an interfacial phase.

Surface & interfacial tensions
8
Surface tension
 The molecules forming the interface behave differently from those in

the bulk of each phase.
 Forces of attraction generally exist b/n molecules in liquids and in

solids (also in gases though weak).
 Interfacial tension is interfacial region/boundary/interface b/n two

immiscible liquids or liquid-solid.

Surface & interfacial…
9
 Molecules in the bulk of the liquid are surrounded by other

molecules for which they have equal attraction.
 These forces tend to cancel each other and the net attraction
experienced by any point in the bulk will be zero.
 Molecules at the surface however do not have their

attraction forces properly balanced.
 They experience an inward force of attraction towards the

bulk of the liquid. Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology)
Sunday, February 12, 2023
10
 Interaction b/n gas molecules and b/n gas and liquid

are negligible compared to a much stronger interaction
b/n liquid molecules.
 The surface of a liquid therefore gets contracted and

molecules at the interface are pulled together.
 The force which has to be applied to counterbalance

exactly this inward pull is known as the surface tension
11

12
Interfacial tension
 Some tension is also present at the interfaces between
two condensed matters.

Why?
 Interaction within molecules of a liquid will differ from
interaction of molecules of two liquids.

13

14
Substance Surface tension (mN/m) Interfacial tension (against

water) (mN/m)
Mercury 476 428

Water 72.8 -
Glycerol 63 -
Benzene 29 35
Heptane 19.7 51.2
Ethyl ether 17 11
Measurement of surface and interfacial tension
15
 Methods available for the measurement of surface and interfacial

tension.
 Wilhelmy plate methods
 Ring method (du Nuoy tensiometer)
 Drop weight and drop volume methods
 Capillary rise method

Wilhelmy plate methods
16
 The apparatus consists of a thin mica, glass or platinum plate

attached to a suitable balance
 When used as a detachment method, the plate is immersed in the

liquid, and the liquid container is gradually lowered.
 Where WL is the reading on the balance prior to detachment, W

is the weight of the plate in air and L and T are the length and
the thickness of the plate, respectively
 requires the contact angle that the liquid makes with the plate to
be zero
17

Ring method
18
 Measures the force required to detach a platinum ring from a

surface or an interface
 where F is the detachment force and R1 and R2 are the inner

and outer radii of the ring
 Again, a zero contact angle of the liquid on the ring must be
assured or the equation will not hold
 This can be achieved by careful cleaning and flaming of the
platinum loop, or by the use of a silicone-treated ring for oils

19

Drop weight and drop volume methods
20
 If the volume or weight of a drop as it is detached from a tip of

known radius is determined, the surface or interfacial tension can be
calculated.
 where m is the mass of the drop, V is the volume of the drop, p is the
density of the liquid, r is the radius of the tip, g is the acceleration
due to gravity and ɸ is a correction factor (v/r3)
 At the point of break of the drop, up ward force equal to down
ward force(mg=2πrY)

Capillary rise method
21
 Used a little in pharmaceutical research

 It is considered to be the most accurate
 If a capillary tube is placed in a liquid, provided the angle of
contact that the liquid makes with the capillary tube is less than
90°, the liquid will rise in the tube to a certain height.
 Where pL - pV is the density d/ce b/n the liquid and its vapor, rt is
the radius of the capillary tube
 g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is the height of the liquid
in the capillary tube.
Factors affecting surface tension
22
1. The surface tension decrease with increase temperature.
Temperature increase-> KE of liquid also increase, intermolecular force

decrease, decrease inward force, decrease surface tension.
2. The surface energy may altered by the addition of solutes
 that migrate to the surface and modify the molecular forces there.
 Surface energy: quantifies the disruption of the intermolecular bonds that

occurs when a surface is created. It is also called(surface free energy or
interfacial free energy)-work per unit area done by the force to create SA.
 The contracted surface thus represents a minimum free energy state and any
attempt to expand the surface must involve an increase in the free energy

Factors affecting surface tension…
23
3. Molecules at the surface of liquid substance do not experience

the same force.
4. Hence the surface layer contract.
 The contraction of the surface is spontaneous; that is, it is
accompanied by a decrease in free energy.
-b/c there is a decrease in surface area(SA)
-Cohesive force b/n molecule causes the surface of a liquid to
contract to the smallest possible SA.
SA of liquid: the amount of liquid that exposed to the air,
touching the air.

Factors affecting surface tension…
24
 If one increases the surface (i.e., brings molecules from

the bulk of the phase to the surface), work (W) should
be done against the forces in the surface.
 The surface free energy is a measure of this work.

 It is the minimum amount of work required to bring the
molecules to the surface from the interior to expand the
surface by unit area. W is the work done
∆A = surface area
y = Interfacial tension
Spreading
25
 If a small quantity of an immiscible liquid is placed on the surface of

another liquid, it will either spread as a film on the surface of the
other liquid or remain as a drop or lens.
 Each of the two applies generally depends on the achievement of a

state of minimum free energy.
 The ability of one liquid to spread over another can be assessed in

terms of spreading coefficient.
 Its value should be either positive or zero for spreading to occur
Spreading…
26
Spreading coefficient((Wa – Wc)

 In general spreading of a liquid on the surface of another occurs
when the work of adhesion b/n the two liquids exceeds the work of
cohesion b/n the molecules of each liquid.
◼ Adhesional forces are forces which act b/n molecules of d/t
phases while cohesional forces are those which act b/n molecules
of the same phase.
◼ Cohesional forces tend to keep the phase separated while
Adhesional forces tend to increase the affinity of two phases.
◼ If Adhesional forces are strong, miscibility takes place.
Spreading…
27
 The work of cohesion (Wc) may be considered as the surface free

energy increase produced by separating a column of pure liquid
into two halves.
 The free energy increase on increasing the surface area is given by:
WC =  L A +  L A WC =  L (A + A)

Spreading…
28
1 cm2 L L
L
L L
If the column of liquid has a cross sectional area of 1 cm2, the

equation becomes: based on the formula; W =  (A + A)
C L
WC =  L (1 + 1) WC = 2 L

Spreading…
29
 The work of adhesion (Wa) may be considered as the

free energy increase produced by separating a column
of two immiscible liquids at the interface into two sections.
1cm2
L
L L
LS
S S
S
Spreading…
30
❑ When the surfaces of liquids L and S are separated from each

other, they have their own surface tensions, L and S.
 When the two surfaces come into contact with each other to form an
interface, an attractive force between molecules of L and S
appears.
 The work of adhesion is given by:
Wa =  L A +  S A −  LS A

Spreading….
31
 This attractive force partially compensates for the excess energy of

the molecules present at the surface of L and S and consequently
reduces the surface tension of two liquids.
 Assume the column of the liquid has a cross sectional area of 1 cm2,
then the equation becomes:
Wa =  L +  S −  LS

Spreading…
32
 The spreading coefficient (S) is the d/ce b/n the work of adhesion
and the work of cohesion (Wa – Wc).
 This implies that if the work of adhesion is more than the work of
cohesion, spreading will occur.
Wa − Wc =  L +  S −  LS − 2 L S =  S − ( LS +  L )
 Where,
 S refers to the surface tension of the sublayer liquid
 L refers to the surface tension of the spreading liquid
 LS refers to the interfacial tension between the two layers.

Spreading…
33
 Spreading occurs when the surface tension of the sublayer is

greater than the sum of the surface tension of the spreading liquid
and the interfacial tension b/n the sublayer and the spreading
liquid. S =  S − ( LS +  L )
 If S is negative, i.e., when L + LS is larger than S, the spreading
liquid forms a globule or a floating lens and spreading will not
take place.

Spreading…
34
Liquid Spreading Coefficients (S) (dynes/cm)

Benzene 8.8
Hexane 3.4
Octane 0.2
Toluene 6.8
Ethanol 50.4
Acetone 42.4
Oleic acid 24.6
Chloroform 13.0
Hexadecane -9.3
Liquid paraffin -13.4
Pharmaceutical applications interfaces
35
❑ The preparation of emulsions and suspensions, involves interactions

at the liquid/liquid and liquid/solid interfaces, respectively.
❑ the selection of a granulating agent(alcohol, acacia, tragacanth) to

form agglomerates, based on the measurement of spreading
coefficients and other surface properties,
❑ Similarly, film coating requires the spread of liquid over a tablet

surface.
❑ The successful dissolution of a tablet or capsule necessitates penetration of the
liquid into the pores of Dinberu
the dosage form
B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023
Pharmaceutical applications spereding
coefficent
36

Applications of spreading coefficient in pharmacy
37
➢ Surfactants added to topical products to improve spreading:
➢ For a lotion with mineral oil base to spread freely and evenly on
the skin, its polarity and
➢ hence its spreading coefficient should be increased by the addition of
the proper SAA(wetting and dispersing agents, emulsifiers, lubricant)

Quiz 1.
38
 Which one is example of solid surface?

A. solid-solid interface B. solid-liquid interface C.
solid-gas interface
❑ Which one is example of interface?
A. gas-gas interface B. liquid-gas interface C. liquid-
liquid interface
❑ Which one of the following method of measuring
surface tension relatively the most accurate?
A. Wilhelmy plate methods B. Ring method C. Drop
weight methods D. Capillary rise method

Adsorption at liquid interfaces
39
Adsorption at Liquid Surfaces
 Certain solute molecules and ions, when dispersed in a liquid

get partitioned in favor of the surface or the interface and
this phenomenon is termed positive adsorption.
 Some other solute molecules or ions such as glucose and Nacl

are partitioned in favor of the bulk liquid and this termed as
negative adsorption.
Adsorption at liquid interfaces…
40
 Solutes or molecules that are preferentially adsorbed at

the surface or interface of liquids reduce the surface or
interfacial tension termed as:
surface active agents or surfactants.

Surface-active agents
41
 Surface-active compounds are characterized by having two distinct

regions in their chemical structure; these are termed hydrophilic
‘water-liking’) and hydrophobic (‘water-hating’) regions.
 Amphiphiles

Classification of Surfactants
42
 They are classified by their hydrophilic groups into:
➢ Anionic
➢ Cationic
➢ Non-ionic
➢ Amphoteric

Classification of Surfactants…
43
Anionic surfactants
 These are surfactants in which the hydrophilic portion of the
molecule carries a negative charge.
 Not suitable for internal use
-unpleasant taste and
-irritant action on the intestinal mucosa.
Eg. Alkyl sulfate, Alkyl benzene sulfonate

44

45
Cationic surfactants
 These are surfactants in which the cation is the surface-active

component.
 Incompatible with anionic surfactants.

 eg. Quaternary ammonium compounds such as cetrimide, benzalkonium
chloride and benzethonium chloride.

46

47
Amphoteric Surfactants
 Amphoteric surfactants can behave either as anionic or cationic

molecules, depending upon the pH.
 This surfactant can be in the anionic, cationic, or zwitter-ionic state

depending on the pH value of the solution it is in.

48
Non-ionic Surfactants
 Have a water-soluble hydrophilic region.
 They are not electrolytes
 Have some non-dissociative hydrophilic group.
 Compatibility with both anionic and cationic surfactants.
 Resistance to pH change and effects of electrolytes.
 Lower irritancy as compared to other surfactants.
 The largest group of surface active agents that is useful
pharmaceutically.

49
 Example
 Sorbitan monopalmitate (Spans)
 Polyethylene glycol sorbitan fatty acid esters (Tweens)

Hydrophilic-Lipophilic Balance (HLB) system
HLB Systems
50
 Surfactants with more polar groups are predominantly hydrophilic

while those with more non-polar groups are predominantly lipophilic.
 The balance between these two groups can be given by means of
➢ Hydrophilic-Lipophilic Balance (HLB) system
❖ An arbitrary scale of values assigned to d/t surfactants based

on their nature.

HLB Systems…
51
 In HLB system, each surfactant is assigned a number b/n 1 and 20

representing the relative proportions of lipophilic and hydrophilic
parts of the molecule.
 The higher the HLB value, the more hydrophilic the agent is.
 Depending on their HLB values, the surfactants have d/t uses.

HLB Systems…
52
 Surfactants with HLB values of:
➢ b/n 3 and 6 are lipophilic and form w/o emulsions
➢ 8 to 18 indicate predominantly hydrophilic characteristics and

the formation of o/w emulsions.

HLB Systems…
53
HLB value Agent
1-3 anti-foaming agents(simethicone)
3-8 w/o emulsifying agents
8-16 o/w emulsifying agents
16-19 solubilizing agents
7-9 wetting and spreading agent

HLB Systems…
54

Determination of HLB value of surfactants
55
 There are several empirical expressions to calculate the HLB values

based on the chemical structures present.
 The HLB of a number of polyhydric alcohols and fatty acid esters

such as glyceryl monostearate, can be calculated by using the
formula: HLB = 20(1 - S/A)
where
S is the saponification number of the ester
A is the acid number of the fatty acid.
 S no: indicate how much KOH is needed to saponify 1g of fat


Dinberu
Acid no: is a measure of the B(B. pharm,of
amount Msccarboxylic
in Pharmacology)
acidSunday,
groupFebruary 12, 2023 copd
in a chemical
Determination of HLB…
56
 But the saponification number for many substances like bees-wax

and wool-fat derivatives cannot be easily estimated.
 In such cases, the following relation is used:
HLB = (E + P)/5
 where E is the percent by weight of oxythelene chains and P is the
percent by weight of polyhydric alcohol groups in the molecules.
 Obviously, when the molecule consist only of oxyethylene groups,

equation becomes: HLB = E/5
57
Example
 A typical nonionic emulsifier (e.g. Laureth-4) contains an ethylene
oxide groups or polyhydric alcohol hydrophilic portions with a fatty
alcohol hydrophobic portion.
➢ Molecular weight of ethoxylate portion = 176
➢ Molecular weight of lauryl alcohol = 186
 Calculate the HLB value of the nonionic surfactant?

➢ Wt. % Hydrophile = (176/(176+186)) x 100 = 48.6%
➢ HLB = 48.6/5 = 9.7

58
 It is not easy to match the required HLB value of the oil or the oil
mixture with that of a single surfactant to form the most stable
emulsion.
 The appropriate combination of surfactants (usually a binary

system) should be chosen. => most stable emulsion
 The HLB value of the binary mixture of surfactants A (HLBA) and B

(HLBB ) is calculated by:
Where fA is the weight fraction
of surfactant A in the mixture.
59
Example
 If a mixture of 20% paraffin wax (HLB =10) and 80% aromatic mineral
oil (HLB = 13) is to be emulsified then, how much will be the HLB number
of the mixed emulsifying agent? Ans: 12.4
 Where fA is the weight fraction of surfactant A in the mixture.

Pharmaceutical Application of surfactants
60
A. As solubilising agents
 As solubilising agent for a number of poorly soluble drugs such as oil soluble
vitamins, volatile oils, phenobarbitone, sulphonamide, etc.
 Oil-soluble vitamins such as Vitamin A
- unpleasant to take in the form of fish liver oil

◼ Are easily palatable when administered in the form of oil in water
emulsions(O/W) or as solubilized in water.
 Preparation of aqueous injections of the water-insoluble vitamins A, D, E, K.
 Solubilization of steroids in water for ophthalmic use.

Pharmaceutical Application…
61
B. As wetting agents
 Hydrophobic powders tend to aggregate and agglomerate when added to water.
 Dispersions containing such hydrophobic powders are often difficult to prepare

since the powders form large floccules or float on the surface.
 This problem is generally overcome by the use of SAA which get

adsorbed at the solid/liquid interface and
 increase the affinity of the hydrophobic powder for water while

reducing the attractive forces b/n particles of the solid.

62
 Wetting means the contact angle b/n a liquid and a solid is zero or
close to zero so that the liquid spreads easily over the solid.

63
 Contact angles characterize how easily liquids spread on a given

solid surface.
 Which is defined as the angle formed b/n the tangent drawn from
the drop at the three-phase interface and the solid surface over
which it spreads.

64
 If the contact angle b/n a solid and a liquid is 0°, signifying

complete wetting,
 If it approach 180°, at which wetting is insignificant.

65
C. As emulsifying agents
 These act by reducing the interfacial tension b/n the oil phase
and water phase by forming a stable interfacial film b/n the
two.

Adsorption at solid interfaces
66
 If a solid comes into contact with a gas or a liquid, there is an

accumulation of the gas or the liquid at the interface rather than in
the bulk of the solid.
 The term adsorption is used to describe this process of accumulation
at an interface.
➢ takes place on surface of solids having high surface free energy.
➢ Adsorption takes place to reduce this free energy.

Adsorption at solid interfaces…
67
 There are two main types of adsorption:
➢ Physical or van der Waals' adsorption, and

➢ Chemical or chemosorption
 In physical adsorption the molecules are held on the surface by van
der Waals' forces which are very weak.
➢ Heat of adsorption = about 20kJ/mol
 It is rapid and easily reversed either
 by raising the temperature or lowering the pressure.
 Multilayer adsorption is possible
68

69
 In chemosorption the molecules of the adsorbate are held by

chemical bonds.
 It is characterized by higher heat of adsorption (about 80 kJ per

mole of adsorbate).
 It is rarely reversible.
 The thickness of the adsorbed layer is generally one molecule.

70
Comparison between physisorption and chemisorption

S. No. Physical adsorption Chemical adsorption
1 Caused by intermolecular van der Caused by chemical bond formation
Waals' forces
2 It is not specific It is highly specific
3 It is reversible It is irreversible
4 Heat of adsorption is low (20-40 kJ/mol) High heat of adsorption (80-240 kJ/mol)
5 Low temperature is favourable Increases with high temperature
6 Results multilayer adsorption Results unimolecular layer
71
Solid/vapour systems
 Although adsorption in solid/liquid systems is of more interesting
pharmaceutically
 the interpretation of results is often achieved using equations developed for
solid/vapour systems
➢ If a gas or vapour is brought into contact with a solid, some of it will

become attached to the surface.
➢ This reduces the imbalance of attractive forces and hence the
surface free energy
Adsorption isotherms
72
 When a gas comes in contact with a solid surface,

➢ molecules of the gas get adsorbed to the surface in quantities
that are a function of their partial pressure in the bulk
 The amount of gas adsorbed is often plotted against the equilibrium
pressure of the gas at constant temperature
 Such a plot is referred to as adsorption isotherm (isotherm refers to a plot
at constant temperature)

Type I Isotherms
73
➢ It exhibits a rapid rise in adsorption up to a limiting value.

➢ referred to as Langmuir-type isotherms
➢ are due to the adsorption being restricted to a monolayer
➢ At low pressure the amount of gas adsorbed is proportional to the
pressure and at higher pressures the adsorption becomes less
➢ levels off to a constant value indicating that all the available sites have
been filled up

Type II isotherms
74
➢ It represent multilayer physical adsorption on non-porous materials

Types III and V isotherms
75
➢ They occur when the adsorption in the first layer is weak.

➢ They are rare.

Type IV isotherm
76
➢ It is considered to be due to condensation of vapour in fine

capillaries within a porous solid.

Isotherm equations
77
 Many equations have been suggested to explain the

relationship b/n the amount of adsorption and the
pressure of gas.
 Among the most frequently used isotherm equations:
➢ Langmuir adsorption isotherm
➢ Freundlich

Adsorption isotherms…
78
Langmuir adsorption isotherm

 assumes that only monolayer coverage is possible
 it is only applicable to type I isotherms.
 the amount of gas or vapour adsorbed, x, by a given mass, m, of the

adsorbent at constant temperature.
 equilibrium pressures p, (the pressure attained after adsorption has taken
place) to yield an adsorption isotherm
 a is constant
 b : amount of gas required to produce a monolayer over the whole surface of
the absorbent
 plotting pmlx against p give a straight line with a slope l/b and intercept 1/ab

79
1. Freundlich Adsorption isotherm

 It is given by:
 X/Y= amount of gas adsorbed
 Where,
➢ X is the mass of gas adsorbed
➢ m is the mass of adsorbent
➢ K and n are constants that depends on temperature and nature

of adsorbent and adsorbate
➢ P is the equilibrium gas pressure
➢ Y is the mass of gas adsorbed per unit weight of adsorbent
80
 A plot of x/m (or y) against p, the equilibrium pressure, yields a

curve as shown below
x/m 1
log y = log k + log p
n
Pressure

81
 Adsorption isotherm for a gas on a solid obtained by plotting log

x/m against log pressure.
The logarithmic form of Log x/m

Freundlich equation is:
A plot of log y against
log p yields a straight
line Log pressure
Slope = 1/n
Y intercept= log k
Solid/liquid systems
82
 Adsorption of a solute in solution on to a solid
 Such type of adsorption of solute molecules from its solution is more

complicated
➢ since there may be competition of the solute and the solvent

molecules for the solid/liquid interface.
 Thus adsorption on solids is a function of the relative adsorption of

the solute and the solvent.

Solid/liquid systems…
83
 However, at low concentration of solutions, the adsorption of solute

molecules onto solids is somewhat similar to that of gas adsorption
onto solids.
 Langmuir adsorption isotherm equation with slight modifications

can be used to describe the adsorption pattern.
 In this case the vapor pressure term is used for solid/gas

adsorption is replaced by solute concentration.

Factors affecting adsorption from solution
84
 Solute Concentration
 There is an increase in the amount of adsorption with an

increase in the concentration of solute at equilibrium until it
reaches a limiting value.
 Temperature
 Adsorption is generally exothermic, and hence an increase in

temperature leads to a decrease in adsorption.

Factors affecting adsorption…
85
 Surface area of the adsorbent

 reduction of the particle size of the adsorbent will result in an
increase in the surface area and hence an increase in the
adsorption
 Adsorbed impurities
 Adsorbed impurities such as gases or moisture on the surface of
solid adsorbent decreases the efficiency of adsorbents
 heating at high temperature (at 110oC for 1h) removes these
impurities to activate the adsorbent and efficiency is increased

Factors affecting adsorption…
86
 pH of the medium
➢ Depending upon whether the ionized or unionized species are
more strongly adsorbed, the adsorption would increase or
decrease with a change in pH.

Pharmaceutical applications of adsorption
87
 Desiccants and Drying agents
➢ Traces of water from organic liquids can be removed by shaking

with an adsorbent such as alumina or silica gel.
➢ Silica gel contained in small packets are used to provide a dry

atmosphere inside the containers of pharmaceutical solid
products to protect them from high humidity which may
adversely affect the product.
➢ Are hygroscopic substance used to sustain dryness

Medical & pharmaceutical applications…
88
 Adsorption Chromatography
➢ This is a separation technique based upon the affinity of solutes
to the adsorbent molecules.
➢ solute with greater affinity for the adsorbent is strongly bound
➢ solute that has less affinity and which elutes first from the column

89
 Adsorption of poisons/toxins
➢ Activated charcoal: tablets or capsules or powder
✓ Digoxin, TCA, theophyline ,strong acid and base drugs
 Taste masking
 Haemoperfusion
➢ Carbon haemoperfusion is a method of treating cases of severe
drug overdoses.

90
 Drug formulation
➢ Adsorption of surfactants and polymers in the stabilization of

suspensions.
➢ Improvement of the dissolution rate of poorly water-soluble

drugs by adsorption of small amounts of surfactant on to the
drug surface.

91
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CHAPTER-3

1 Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

After this lesson the students are expected to:

 Understand surface and interfacial tensions, adsorption

 Differentiate gas/liquid and liquid/liquid solutions and

 Understand the distribution law, and its applications

Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

 When two phases are in contact with each other, the

 If one of the two phases is a gas or vapor, the term

 Interface is the boundary of separation of two phases.

Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

 Different types of interfaces are encountered, depending on

Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

 Can we say gas-gas interface?

Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

➢ When we have two phases immiscible with each other, the

➢ The properties of the molecules forming the interface are

Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

 The molecules forming the interface behave differently from those in

 Forces of attraction generally exist b/n molecules in liquids and in

 Interfacial tension is interfacial region/boundary/interface b/n two

Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

 Molecules in the bulk of the liquid are surrounded by other

 Molecules at the surface however do not have their

 They experience an inward force of attraction towards the

 Interaction b/n gas molecules and b/n gas and liquid

 The surface of a liquid therefore gets contracted and

 The force which has to be applied to counterbalance

Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

two condensed matters.

interaction of molecules of two liquids.

Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

Substance Surface tension (mN/m) Interfacial tension (against

Mercury 476 428

 Methods available for the measurement of surface and interfacial

 Wilhelmy plate methods

 Ring method (du Nuoy tensiometer)

 Drop weight and drop volume methods

 Capillary rise method

Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

 The apparatus consists of a thin mica, glass or platinum plate

 When used as a detachment method, the plate is immersed in the

 Where WL is the reading on the balance prior to detachment, W

Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

 Measures the force required to detach a platinum ring from a

 where F is the detachment force and R1 and R2 are the inner

Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

 If the volume or weight of a drop as it is detached from a tip of

Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

 Used a little in pharmaceutical research

Temperature increase-> KE of liquid also increase, intermolecular force

2. The surface energy may altered by the addition of solutes

 Surface energy: quantifies the disruption of the intermolecular bonds that

Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

3. Molecules at the surface of liquid substance do not experience

Dinberu B(B. pharm, Msc in Pharmacology) Sunday, February 12, 2023

 If one increases the surface (i.e., brings molecules from

 The surface free energy is a measure of this work.

 If a small quantity of an immiscible liquid is placed on the surface of

 Each of the two applies generally depends on the achievement of a

Chapter 3'

Chapter 3'