Crop Sci 21 Practices 4 Stdent ADDL

Unit 1- Introduction
(Issues and Developments in Crop Production)

Cherry Pamunag
Charie Mae N. Pamunag
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 produce reaction paper on crop production issues at different agricultural

periods; and
 publish a blog on a webpage presenting different local and international
technological developments in crop production.
Content
Issues and Developments in Crop Production
Pre-Green Revolution Period
Prior to the Green Revolution, the production of rice in the Philippines

was basically typified by single-cropping per year during rainy season, where
farmers planted mainly traditional varieties. Farm management depended solely
on the experience of the farmer and traditional practices in the field of land
preparation (using carabao-drawn, moldboard plow), harvesting, threshing,
drying and milling. Fertilizers used were organic materials like guano, rice straw
and rice straw ash, horse manure, copra cake, dried lye or algae, etc. Field tasks
were carried out manually, but often through collective efforts with relatives and
neighbors in the so-called “bayanihan system” (Kilusang Magbubukid ng
Pilipinas, 2007).
Green Revolution Period
History of Green Revolution. The term “Green Revolution” was first

used by the former administrator of U.S. Agency for International Development
(USAID), William S. Gaud during his speech on March 8, 1968 where he used it
to refer the significant developments in the field of agriculture in the late 1960s.
On the other hand, the Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations
(FAO, 1996) defined Green Revolution as “productivity increase of major
cereals, rice, wheat and maize resulted from the incorporation of scientific
advances in plant breeding with technological packages that have allowed the
yield potential of the crops that has been realized more fully by farmers from
developing countries”.
The Green Revolution was initially started in Mexico as a research

technology transfer initiatives of the two private American foundations, the Ford
PRACTICES OF CROP PRODUCTION 2
Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation which was supported by the US

government. The project was led by Norman Borlaug and it saved more than a
billion of people in the world from starvation mainly brought by post World War II
crisis. With this, Norman Borlaug became a Nobel Peace Prize awardee in 1970
and was regarded as the “Father of the Green Revolution”.
Highlights of Developments during Green Revolution
In Mexico
Mexico has been called the 'birth place and burial ground
of the Green Revolution’. Being a neighboring country of USA,
Mexico became an experimental case of US’s technologies and
scientific expertise in agriculture and also became model for
agricultural development in the world (Wikipedia.com). Below are
some agricultural issues and developments in Mexico during
Green Revolution:
 Dry-land cultivation in its Northwest to solve problem on food

self-sufficiency through efficient use of irrigation facilities
 Disruption of hacienda system and redistribution of land to
peasants in some parts of the country
 Large-scale agricultural enterprises with access to credit
often from foreign investors
 Use of machinery for cultivation and harvest
 Founding and recognition of International Maize and Wheat
Improvement Center (CIMMYT) in 1943 as base
international agricultural research center and become
successful in increasing wheat production in the country
through development and use of new wheat varieties
 Development of more high yielding varieties of maize, beans
and wheat with disease resistivity, adaptability and ability to
utilize fertilizer
 Accessibility to adequate chemical fertilizers and pesticides
with favorable price
 Mexico has become the showcase for spreading Green
Movement to other areas in Latin America and beyond,
Africa and Asia
In Philippines
 In 1960, the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI),

known today as the worlds’ premier rice research and
training center was established in the Philippines. It was
founded by the Ford and Rockefeller foundations with
support from the Philippine government (cgiar.org.com).
 In 1962, IRRI breeder, Peter Jennings and his team did

rice cross of a dwarf variety from Taiwan called Dee-Geo-
woo-gen (DGWG) and a tall variety from Indonesia called
Peta (IRRI, 2016).
 In 1966, S.K. De Datta, an IRRI Agronomist have
demonstrated the significant yield potential of IR8-288-3
line from the cross of DGWG and Peta. IRRI further tested
IR8-288-3 widely and multiplies the seed as rapidly as
possible. The former President of the Philippines,
Ferdinand E. Marcos was so impressed with the potential
yield of the line. Even the Filipino press dubs it as “miracle
rice” (Figure 1). In the late part of the year, IRRI officially
released its first new developed rice variety resulted from
DGWG and Peta and it is called IR8.
 Immediately, IR8 had impacted many Asian countries and
even non-Asian country. IR8 is called Magyaw in Burma,
Padi Ria in Malaysia, Peta Baru 8 in Indonesia, Lua Honda
or Honda Rice in Vietnam, and Milagro Filipino in Mexico
(IRRI, 2016).
 The IR8 required the use of fertilizers and pesticides but
yields were significantly higher than the traditional
cultivars. In fact, the annual rice production of the
Philippines increased from 3.7 to 7.7 tons in two decades
and made the Philippines a rice exporter for the first time in
the 20th century (Wikipedia.com).
Figure 1. Former US President, Lyndon Johnston and Former President of the

Philippines, Ferdinand E. Marcos visited the field grown with IR8. Also
present in the photo are IRRI Director General Robert Chandler, Peter
Jennings and Hank Beachell, the IRRI breeders responsible for IR8
development.
Source: IRRI, 2016
In India
India had been at the brink of mass famine in 1961. During

the time, Norman Borlaug was invited to India by the Indian
agriculture minister, Dr. M.S. Swawinathan. The invitation lead to
collaborative agreement of the Ford Foundation and Indian
Government on importing wheat seeds from CIMMYT to the
country. Soon after, India adopted IR8 developed by IRRI. In
1968, S.K. De Datta- an Indian Agronomist published his findings
that IR8 rice yielded about 5 tons per hectare with no fertilizer, and
almost 10 tons per hectare under optimal conditions. This was 10
times the yield of traditional rice. Later in India, IR8 was developed
into Semi-dwarf IR36 and this was followed by more significant
yield increase in India’s rice productivity (Wikipedia.com). This
time, India is known as one of the most successful producer of
rice and recognized as the top volume exporter of rice in the
worldwide with 9.8 million metric tons in 2018/2019 as shown in

Figure 2 (Shahbandeh, 2020).
Figure 2. Major rice exporting countries in 2018-2019

Source: Statistica.com, 2020.
Establishment of Consultative Group on Agricultural Research
It is clear that Ford and Rockefeller Foundations could not meet

the funds required in all its research efforts to meet the global food
demand. So, in 1969, the Pearson Commission on International
Development urged the international community to undertake "intensive
international effort" to support "research specializing in food supplies and
tropical agriculture". In 1970, the Rockefeller Foundation proposed a
worldwide network of agricultural research centers under a permanent
secretariat. On May 19, 1971, the Consultative Group on Agricultural
Research (CGIAR) was established with the support of World Bank and
co-sponsored by Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), International
Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and United Nations
Development Program (UNDP). The CGIAR is a global partnership that
unites international organizations engaged in research about food
security (Wikipedia.com). Originally, CGIAR was supported by the four
research centers, namely:
 International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (known by its

Spanish acronym CIMMYT for Centro Internacional de
Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo) with headquarter in El Bataan,

Mexico;
 International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) located in Los Baños,
Laguna, Philippines;
 International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) located in Cali
Columbia;
 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Ibadan,
Nigeria.
Presently, there are 15 research centers around the world under CGIAR's
umbrella, namely;
1. Africa Rice Center

2. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)
3. International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry
Areas(ICARDA)
4. International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
(ICRISAT)
5. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
6. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
7. International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)
8. International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)
9. International Potato Center (CIP)
10. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
11. International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
12. The Alliance of Biodiversity International
13. International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT)
14. World Agroforestry (ICRAFT)
15. WorldFish
In Brazil
Brazil's inland cerrado region was regarded as unfit for farming

before the 1960s because soil was too acidic and poor in nutrients as
described by Norman Borlaug. Thus, huge quantities of lime (pulverised
chalk or limestone) were poured on the soil to reduce acidity. With this
effort to improve the soil condition, Brazil was able to increase its
soybean production and is recently known as the world's largest producer
of soybean.
In Africa
In 2005 the small African country of Malawi launched the

"Agricultural Input Subsidy Program" by which vouchers are given to
smallholder farmers to buy fertilizer and maize seeds. Within its first year
the program was reported to have had extreme success, producing the
largest maize harvest of the country's history. The program has advanced
yearly ever since.
Issues Emerge from Green Revolution
1. Crop Productivity
The Food and Agriculture Organization reported that the impact of
the green revolution was greatest in Asia with almost 90% of wheat fields
planted with modern varieties and high-yield rice planting increased from
12 to 67%. Production gains have been dramatic, with world cereal yields
rising from 1.4 tons per hectare in the early 1960s to 2.7 tons per hectare
in 1989-91 (Figure 3). Over the last 30 years, the volume of world
agricultural production has doubled, and world agricultural trade has
tripled.
2. Food Security and Nutrition
Moseley (2015) defines food security as enough food at all times

for a healthy and active life. While most of the literature points out that the
Green Revolution has saved major famines in some areas of the world,
whereas developed countries have seen a reduction in food poverty, food
quality problems have been posed. The Green Revolution practiced
monoculture of high yielding cereal crops, which is incomparable to
traditional agriculture, which produces several crops like vegetable,
legumes and pulses. This type of production system had led to
malnutrition due to micronutrient deficiencies such as iron and Vitamin A-
deficiency (VAD) from their diet. Sands et.al (2009) states that high yield-
cereal crops are high in carbohydrates but have low quality proteins, with
essential amino acid deficiencies, and lack balanced essential fatty acids,
vitamins, minerals and other quality factors.
Efforts have been made by organizations like CGIAR to address

micronutrient deficiency problems through crop biofortification. Crop
biofortification is a method of breeding for the introduction of micronutrient
traits into a crop. An example of genetically modified, biofortified crop is
'Golden Rice' which has been proposed in developing countries to
counter VAD (Figure 4). Other examples of biofortification of crops
include increasing iron in rice, zinc in wheat and beta-carotene in sweet
potatoes (Stone and Glover, 2016).
Figure 3. Comparison of Cereal Yields from 1960s to 1990s Across the

World as Influenced by Green revolution
Source: fao.org
Figure 4. GR2E Golden Rice currently under developed by IRRI

Source: IRRI, 2018
3. Economic Issues
The Green Revolution Agriculture required higher inputs, which

led to widespread establishment of rural credit institutions. As a result,
smaller farmers were drawn to debt and loss their farmland. On the other
hand, the increased mechanization of big farms largely driven by the
Green Revolution lost a huge source of employment from the rural
economy.
4. Social Issues
Women farmers and female-headed households are found to

have acquired less than their male counterparts. Technology transfer is
largely focused on male farmers, with few measures to address women's
technological needs or social conditions.
5. Environmental Issues
The excessive and inappropriate use of chemicals, inappropriate

irrigation practices and the intensive expansion of cultivation into areas
that could not sustain high levels of intensification, such as the sloping
lands during the Green Revolution resulted to several environmental
consequences as presented below:
a. Loss of Biodiversity
The spread of Green Revolution agriculture has affected both

agricultural biodiversity (and agrodiversity) and wild
biodiversity. The widespread adoption of only a few HYV rice
varieties has led to the depletion of traditional rice varieties
(Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas, 2007; Wikipedia.com,
2020). On the other hand, there are varying opinions about the
effect of the Green Revolution on wild biodiversity. One
hypothesis speculates that by increasing production per unit of
land area, agriculture will not need to expand into new,
uncultivated areas to feed a growing human population (Gollin,
2018; Wikipedia, 2020). To address problem on biodiversity,
seed banks such as Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research’s (CGIAR) International Plant Genetic
Resources Institute was then established.
b. Increase Greenhouse Gas Emission
According to a study published in 2013 in PNAS, in the

absence of improved crop germplasm associated with the
Green Revolution, greenhouse gas emissions would have
been 5.2–7.4 Gt higher than those observed in 1965–2004.
High yield agriculture has dramatic effects on the amount of
carbon cycling in the atmosphere. The way in which farms are
grown, in tandem with the seasonal carbon cycle of different
crops, could alter the carbon impact on global warming in the
atmosphere. Wheat, rice and soybean crops account for a
significant increase in carbon in the atmosphere over the last
50 years.
c. Dependance on Non-Renewable Resources
The high intensity agricultural production is highly reliant on

non-renewable resources. Agricultural machinery and
transport, as well as the production of pesticides and nitrates
all depend on fossil fuels. Nitrogen fertilizer is a direct fossil

fuel product processed primarily from natural gas.
d. Soil and water degradation
Two-thirds of the world’s ecosystems have been degraded as

a result of Green Revolution. Proof of soil microorganism
degradation and soil structure weakening as a result of heavy
use of fertilizers and pesticides was found in Green Revolution
farms through erosion, salinization and nutrient depletion
(Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas, 2007).
Post- Green Revolution Period
Sustainable Crop Production
The concept of sustainable agriculture arises from the negative

impact of the Green Revolution practices. So, what is sustainable crop
production?
Imadi et.al. (2016) define sustainable crop production as

agricultural production in such a way that does not impose any harm to
environment, biodiversity, and quality of agricultural crops.
Below are just some of the management practices in sustainable

crop production:
1. Practice of Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)

Integrated Nutrient Management refers to the maintenance
of soil fertility and of plant nutrient supply at an optimum level
for sustaining the desired productivity through optimization of
the benefits from all possible sources of organic, inorganic and
biological components in an integrated manner (ctc-n.org.com,
2020)
2. Employ Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Integrated Pest Management is a method of controlling pest
which include mechanical and biological controls while
minimizing use of chemical pesticides.
3. Use of traditional and high yielding varieties while conserving

and protecting the wild relatives
Technological Developments in Crop Production
Current farms and agricultural operations operate very differently

than they did a few decades ago, mostly due to technical developments,
including sensors, devices, machines and information technology.
Today's agriculture regularly uses advanced technologies such as
drones, temperature and humidity sensors, aerial photographs, and GPS

technology. Such advanced technologies and precision farming and
robotic systems allow businesses to be more profitable, efficient, safer
and more environmentally friendly (nifa.usda.gov).
Many countries have started carrying out particular advanced

technologies to improve their farming systems.
Like China known for its vast grassland and mountain landscapes,
has introduced technology into their agricultural production, especially
kiwifruits or kiwis. Particularly in Guizhou province, they established the
Agricultural Products Traceability Management System in Xiuwen county.
The device collects any kind of information related to the environment of
the kiwi plantation, from its climate to soil pH levels. This also tracks
whether or not kiwi fruit trees have a disease (Malasig, 2018).
Emerging Modern Technologies in Crop Production

(Adapted from ayokasystem.com)
1. Soil and Water Sensors
These sensors can detect moisture and nitrogen levels, and the farm can
use this information to determine when to water and fertilize rather than
rely on a predetermined schedule. It also helps the farm be more
environmentally friendly by conserving water, limiting erosion and
reducing fertilizer levels in local rivers and lakes.
2. Weather Tracking
Farmers can access online weather services onboard and handheld farm
technology but also via mobile apps that run on just about any consumer
smartphone. This technology can give farmers enough advanced notice
of frost, hail and other weather that they can take precautions to protect
the crops or at least mitigate losses to a significant degree.
3. Satellite Imaging
Satellite Imaging allowed for real-time crop imagery. The images can be
in resolutions of 5-meter-pixels and even greater. Crop imagery lets a
farmer examine crops as if he or she were standing there without actually
standing there. Even reviewing images on a weekly basis can save a
farm a considerable amount of time and money. Additionally, this
technology can be integrated with crop, soil and water sensors so that the
farmers can receive notifications along with appropriate satellite images
when danger thresholds are met.
4. Pervasive Automation
Pervasive Automation refers to any technology that reduces operator

workload. Examples include autonomous vehicles controlled by robotics
or remotely through terminals and hyper precision, such as RTK
navigation systems that make seeding and fertilization routes as optimal
as possible. Most farming equipment already adopts the ISOBUS
standard, and that puts on the precipice of a farming reality where balers,
combines, tractors and other farming equipment communicate and even
operate in a plug-and-play manner.
5. Minichromosomal Technology
A minichromosome is a small structure within a cell that includes very

little genetic material but can, in layman’s terms, hold a lot of information.
Using minichromosomes, agricultural geneticists can add dozens and
perhaps even hundreds of traits to a plant. These traits can be quite
complex, such as drought tolerance and nitrogen use.
6. RFID Technology
These sensors provide information that can be associated with farming

yields. It may seem like science fiction, but we’re living in a world where a
bag of potatoes can have a barcode that you can scan with your
smartphone in order to access information about the soil that yielded
them. A future where farms can market themselves and have loyal
consumers track their yields for purchase is not far-fetched.
7. Vertical Farming
Vertical farming a component of urban agriculture is the practice of

producing food in vertically stacked layers. This offers many advantages.
Perhaps the most obvious is the ability to grow within urban environments
and thus have fresher foods available faster and at lower costs. However,
vertical farming won’t be limited to just urban environments like initially
expected. Farmers in all areas can use it to make better use of available
land and to grow crops that wouldn’t normally be viable in those locations.
There are various types of vertical faming but the most known systems
are the following:
a. Hydrophonic. This system involves growing plants in nutrient

solutions that are free of soil.
b. Aerophonic. It is one of the techniques of the soilless culture

where the plant grows in the air with the assistance of artificial
support instead of soil or substrate culture (Lakhiar et.al.,
2018).
c. Aquaponics. An aquaponic system takes the hydroponic

system one step further, combining plants and fish in the same
ecosystem.
d. Building-based vertical farms. These are often housed in

abandoned buildings in cities, such as Chicago’s “The Plant”
vertical farm that was constructed in an old pork-packing plant.
e. Shipping-container vertical farms. These vertical farms use 40-

foot shipping containers, normally in service carrying goods
around the world.
Some of the Modern Technologies Used in the Philippines
(Adapted from the Report of interaksyon.com, 2018)
Intelligent Farming Equipment- Intelligent Farming Equipment

has helped farmers improve their farm productivity. Some examples of
this equipment are the following:
a. WR-801 Multi-function Hand Tractor
This equipment can perform the work of 10 people at once. The

machine can be used for weeding, double-row tilling for
fertilization, rotavation and furrowing for corn fields and vegetable
plots.
b. Solar-Powered Irrigation System
Last May 2018, the Philippines has installed what could be called
the "first and greatest" solar-powered irrigation system. Piñol said
it could irrigate up to 500 000 hectares.
c. Drones
Across three Benguet cities, Japanese-made drones have been

used to spray fertilizer on mountain-sloped vegetable farms. It was
intended to reduce farm hours in the field.
d. Farmers Guide Map
The Government has also created a website specifically designed

to help farmers plan their crops called Farmers Guide Map. It
helps farmers identify suitable crops to be planted on their land. It
also gives data on climate and soil adaptability.
e. Web Applications
 Rice Crop Manager app. It is a web-based platform that

provides crop management recommendations to farmers
on the basis of their own farm conditions.
 AgriDOC app. It allows farmers to keep track of their
activities and monitor farm inputs, improve their farm tasks
and direct farm management.
 KROPS app. The app allows farmers to market their own
products at their own prices and help potential buyers find
farm product sources within their own region.
 Smarter Pest Identification Technology (SPId Tech). It
is a mobile application that can identify agricultural pests in
the field using image scanning (dost.gov.ph).
 Maize Nutrient Expert. It is a system that
provides comprehensive corn farm analysis.
Assessment
Multiple Choice
Directions: Read the following questions and write the letter of the correct answer on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. The following are crop production practices during Pre-Green Revolution Period
except:
a. Field tasks are done manually
b. Practice of one cropping season per year
c. Use of organic materials in fertilizing crops
d. Farm management ideas are offered by institutions
e. Use of traditional crop varieties
2. The person who coined the term “Green Revolution”
a. Peter Jennings
b. Norman Borlaug
c. William S. Gaud
d. S.K. de Atta
e. None of the above
3. The following describes Green Revolution practices except:
a. Depends rain for growing crops
b. Mechanization of farm activities
c. Use of high yielding varieties of crops
d. Multiple cropping in a year
e. Use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
4. The first hybrid rice variety released by IRRI
a. Peta b. IR8 c. Dee-Geo-woo-gen d. Indian rice e. Golden rice
5. The latest largest rice exporting country in the world
a. Philippines b. India c. India d. Vietnam e. Thailand
6. The Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo or CIMMYT is an
international research center for corn and wheat located in
a. El Bataan, Mexico
b. Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines

c. Ibadan, Nigeria
d. Cali, Columbia
e. Lima, Peru
7. It unites the international organizations engaged in research about food security
a. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
b. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
c. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
d. International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT)
e. Consultative Group on Agricultural Research (CGIAR)
8. The following are some true issues during Green Revolution except
a. Increase crop productivity
b. Reduction of food insecurity
c. Women are highly accessible to technology transfer
d. Smaller farmers were drawn to debt and loss their farmland
e. Negative environmental issues due to inappropriate production practices
9. Which of the following best describes modern agriculture
a. Requires more human forces to do the farm activities
b. Production management is the same during Pre-Green Revolution period
c. Production management is almost the same during Green Revolution
period
d. Use of advanced technologies and precision farming and robotic systems
e. Human is no longer involve in crop production
10. Which of the statement best describes Integrated Pest Management
a. Application of chemical pesticides only
b. Application of chemical and organic pesticides only
c. Practice of cultural, physical, biological and chemical methods of
controlling pest
d. Statement a and b
e. Statement b and c
11. It is a technology where agricultural geneticists can add dozens and perhaps
even hundreds of traits to a plant
a. Biofortification
b. RFID Technology
c. Minichromosomal Technology
d. Pervasive Automation
e. Vertical Farming
12. It is one of the techniques of the soilless culture where the plant grows in the air
with the assistance of artificial support instead of soil or substrate culture
a. Conventional Farming
b. Vertical Farming
c. Hydrophonics
d. Aquaphonics
e. Aerophonics
13. The equipment that has been used to spray fertilizer on mountain-sloped
vegetable farms across three Benguet cities.
a. Knapsack sprayer d. Foggers
b. Hand sprayer e. Drones
c. Portable power sprayer
14. It is a web application that allows farmers to keep track of their activities and
monitor farm inputs, improve their farm tasks and direct farm management
a. Maize Nutrient Expert d. AgriDoc
b. KNOPS e. Rice Crop Manager
c. SPld Tech
15. A technology integrated to equipment like baler, combine, tractor to lessen the
work of operators.
a. RFID Technology d. Implements
b. Pervasive Automation e. Tracker
c. Satellite Imaging
Unit 2- Crop Production, Agriculture and Trade
Learning Outcomes
 produce a written report on the latest performance of crop production in

Philippine Agriculture; and
 sketch graphic overview on the market flow of the top three leading
Philippine and international agricultural crop commodity exports and
imports.
Content
Agriculture Sector and International Trade
Agriculture is a vital sector for the continuation of humanity, as it is a source of food and
other basic human needs. It is the foundation for the growth of the food and non-food
industries as it supplies raw materials for production. Agriculture also accounts for a
significant part of national income. However, agriculture produce varies from country to
country mainly because of geographical difference that indirectly affects production.
International trade therefore plays an important role in this condition as it facilitates the
exchange of goods and services between countries. McMinimy et.al. (2015) as cited by
Gombkoto, 2017 recorded and revealed the following scenario of the current
international trade:
The goods in the international trade is categorize into three and the
following are its corresponding value as of 2015:
1. Agricultural products- 10.2% or 1.5 trillion USD
2. Fuels and mining products- 15.8% 0r 2.4 trillion USD
3. Manufacturers -74.0% or 11.4 trillion USD
The following are regions of the world where the 2015 agricultural exports
is largely transacted:
1. Europe- 75.9%
2. Asia- 58.6%
3. Middle East – 47.9%
There is major participation of developed countries in international
agricultural trade (Table 1 and 2).
Agriculture is the largest share of export of many developing countries.
Developing countries tend to export more agricultural goods than they
import, which is the opposite of developed countries.
The most important export and import products are fruits and vegetable,
meat and meat preparations and cereals.
The United States (US) has the largest agricultural sectors in the world
(its top exported products arrange in decreasing value include soybean, maize,
nuts, wheat, and feed crops).
The European Union (EU) is one of the most open economies in the
world with 60 countries as trading partners, while China has 36 and the United
States has 24.
The US and the EU are each other’s largest trading partners, accounting
for more than 30 % of global trade.
European Union mainly exports processed products to US such as wine,
whisky and cheese.
United States in contrast exports bulk products and animal feed to EU.
Both the US and the EU have set tariffs for agricultural imports, but the
EU is much higher for all products.
The EU bans trade in GMO products, while the US does not have such
restrictions.
Table 1. Leading exporter countries of agricultural and food
products in 2015.
Source: Gombkoto, 2017; data taken from WTO
Table 2. Leading importer countries of agricultural and

food products in 2015.
Source: Gombkoto, 2017; data taken from WTO

Philippine Agriculture and Crop Production Situation
The Philippine Statistics Authority (2019) revealed the following records of

2018 Philippine Agriculture:
Philippine Agriculture, Crop Production and Economy
Agriculture remained the least contributor to the Gross Domestic Product

of the country (Table 3). At current prices, Gross Value Added (GVA) in
agriculture and fisheries excluding forestry was valued at PhP 1, 615.26 billion in
2018. This contributed 9.3% of GDP and held a decreasing share relative to its
9.7% contribution in 2017.
Table 3. Philippine Economic Share by Sector in 2017 and 2018

GDP by GVA at current prices
Sectors Distribution (%) (million pesos)
2017 2018 2017 2018
1. Agriculture, Hunting,
9.7 9.3 1,527,571 1,617,910
Forestry and Fishing
a. Agriculture and
9.6 9.3 1,525,149 1,615,260
Fishing
b. Forestry 0.0 0.0 2,422 2,650
2. Industry Sector 30.4 30.7 4,810,842 5,358,045
3. Service Sector 59.9 60.0 9,469,183 10,540,248
Gross Domestic Product 100.0 100.0 15,807,596 17,426,202
Source: Philippine Statistics Authority, 2019
Among agricultural subsectors, agricultural crop has the highest GDP

share of 55.1% in 2018 (Table 4). At current prices, the Gross Value Added
(GVA) of agricultural crops amounted to PhP 889.35 billion in 2018, up from PhP
856.53 billion in 2017.
From the country's main crop commodities, the top five commodities with
the highest GDP share were rice (palay), banana, corn, coconut and mango
(arranged at a declining percentage and value). Of the 55.1% of GDP of
agricultural crops, 22.9% came from palay with a value of PhP 369.27 billion. It
can also be seen in Table 4 that the only crops growing its GVA in 2018 were
rice, maize, pineapple, coffee and other crops.
Out of the three island groups in the country, Luzon had the largest share
of Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry and Fishing (AHFF) GDP of 48%, with a value of
PhP 760.84 billion at current prices in 2018. It was followed by Mindanao with a
share of 35.1% equivalent to PhP 578.19 billion value, while Visayas had the
lowest share of 17.2% only with a value of PhP 278.92 billion (Table 5). It was
also noted that the top three regions who gave the largest AHFF share were:
Central Luzon (14.4%), Northern Mindanao (9.6%) and Western Visayas (9.2%).
Table 4. Philippine Gross Domestic Product by Subsector in 2017 and 2018

GDP by GVA at current prices
Subsectors Distribution (%) (million pesos)
2017 2018 2017 2018
Agricultural Crops 56.2 55.1 856,635 889,350
Palay 22.0 22.9 335,279 369,272
Corn 5.4 5.9 82,324 94,996
Coconut including copra 6.9 5.0 104,553 80,621
Sugarcane 1.9 1.7 29,735 27,282

Banana 7.9 8.0 120,425 129,462
Mango 2.3 2.0 35,762 32,608
Pineapple 1.5 1.6 23,540 25,964
Coffee 0.4 0.3 5,526 5,320
Cassava 1.5 1.3 22,504 20,200
Rubber 0.7 0.6 10,575 9,408
Other Crops 5.7 5.8 86,412 94,217
Livestock 13.6 14.2 208,109 229,564
Poultry 9.8 9.9 149,036 160,385
Fishing 12.9 13.3 197,197 214,869
Agricultural activities and 7.5 7.5 114,171 121,089
services
Agriculture and Fisheries 100.0 100.0 1,525,149 1,615,259
Table 5. Philippine Gross Domestic Product by Region in 2017 and 2018

Regions GDP by GVA at current prices
Distribution (%) (million pesos)
2017 2018 2017 2018
Philippines 100.0 100.0 1,527,571 1,617,910
Luzon 46.5 47.0 709,715 760,837

NCR 0.7 0.7 11,2017 11,020
CAR 1.5 1.6 23,532 26,216
Ilocos Region 6.4 6.5 97,121 105,183
Cagayan Valley 6.4 6.3 97,307 101,236
Central Luzon 13.9 14.4 212,440 233,411
CALABARZON 8.9 8.4 135,670 136,411
MIMAROPA 3.9 4.2 59,094 67,433
Bicol Region 4.8 4.9 73,344 79,974
Visayas 16.9 17.2 257,630 278,915
Western Visayas 8.9 9.2 136,366 149,473
Central Visayas 4.4 4.5 66,895 73,176
Eastern Visayas 3.6 3.5 54,369 56,266
Mindanao 36.7 35.7 650,225 578,158
Zamboanga Peninsula 4.3 4.1 65,467 66,971
Northern Mindanao 9.9 9.6 150,845 156,024
Davao Region 7.9 7.5 120,550 121,048
SOCCSARGEN 7.4 7.5 113,397 121,076
Caraga 2.4 2.3 37,263 37,261
ARMM 4.8 4.7 72,702 75,778
Philippine Agricultural Exports and Imports
Philippine Exports
The data from the Philippine Statistics Authority (2019) shows that
the total exports earnings for Philippine agricultural products in 2018 were
PhP 322.16 billion and this accounted for 8.83% of overall Philippine
exports.
The top 5 exported crops in terms of volume of production, value

and percentage share were banana, pineapple, sugarcane, mango and
tobacco (Table 6).
Philippines also exported rice and corn. The exports of 308.9

metric tons of rice amounted to PhP 29.71 million, while exports of 333.8
metric tons of maize amounted to PhP 52.05 million. Both rice and corn
each contributed less than 0.1% to the overall value of agricultural
exports.
Table 6. Volume, value and percentage share of selected commodities in

total agricultural exports in 2017 and 2018.

Among the top 5 exported crop commodities of the country, fresh

banana had the largest share of volume and value of 3.13 million metric
tons amounted to PhP 72.78 billion in 2018. Meanwhile, an Indian report
on banana revealed that Philippines ranks second next to Ecuador as the
largest exporting country of banana globally (Figure 5). The report also
claimed that India is the largest producer of bananas in the world, but
could not compete well on the global market because other exporting
countries, especially the Philippines, could easily produce large quantities
of bananas at cheaper rates. FAO (2020) further reported that the
Philippines is the largest banana exporter in Asia accounting for roughly
90% of Asia's total volume. The two major markets for bananas from the
Philippines were China and Japan. At the other side, Table 7 shows the
regional banana markets and their corresponding consumption of
bananas. It can be gleaned from the table that the biggest banana
consumer was the United Kingdom with 17.1 kilograms per capita per
year, while Japan was the largest banana consumer in Asia with 7.4
kilograms per capita per year.
Figure 5. Major banana exporting countries and their corresponding

percentage share.
Source: agriexchange.apeda.gov.in
Table 7. Banana consumption per capita per year in kilogram

among major banana importing countries.
Source: agriexchange.apeda.gov.in
Philippine Imports
In 2018, the country's agricultural import expenditure totaled Php

742.60 billion, which was 25.26% higher than the record for 2017(Table
8). The import value of agricultural products comprised 12.50% of the
total import expenditures. Some of the main agricultural commodities
imported into the country are rice, corn, tobacco, mongo beans, onion ,
garlic, coffee and cocoa beans..
For imports of rice in 2018, the Philippines spent PhP 45.79 billion
on imports of 2.01 million metric tons, accounting for 6.175 of the total
value of agricultural imports.
For corn imports, the country expended Php 15.72 billion for 1.02
million metric tons, accounting for 2.12% of the total value of agricultural
imports. Same with rice, this import value is more than 100% higher than
the 2017 record.
In the case of tobacco, the Philippines spent PhP 5.43 billion on

imports of 20,289 metric tons in 2018. This value shared 0.73% of the
total expenditure on agricultural imports.
In addition, data from the Philippine Statistics Office (2019)

indicate that there was no record of importation of cassava, tomato,
cabbage and pineapple in 2018.
Table 8. Volume, value and percentage share of selected commodities in

total agricultural exports in 2017 and 2018.
Philippine Domestic Trade Situation of Agricultural Products
Volume of Domestic Trade in the Philippines
The Philippine Statistics Authority (2019) report shows that the

total domestic trade volume in the country in 2018 was 25.78 million tons,
which is 10.20 per cent higher compared in 2017 record. Out of this 2018
total volume of products, 6.39 million tons comes from food and live
animals section and registered with the highest volume among the
commodity sections (Figure 6). On the other hand, the Northern
Mindanao shared the highest volume of traded commodities of 6.32
million tons among the country's regions.
Figure 6. The volume of Philippine trade by commodity sections.

Source: Philippine Statistics Authority (2019)
Value of Domestic Trade in the Philippines
Similarly to the volume of domestic trade, the value of domestic

trade has also increased. Domestic trade reached 859.57 billion pesos in
2018, with a 12.30 per cent rise from 765.38 billion pesos in domestic
trade in 2017. However, the food and live animals section registered only
the top 2 of the commodity sections with domestic trade value of 208.31
billion pesos or 24.2% share (Figure 7). The highest value was recorded
from machinery and transport equipment section with 276.05billion pesos
or 32.10% share of the total trade value (Philippine Statistics Authority,
2019).
Figure 7. The value of Philippine trade by commodity sections.

Source: Philippine Statistics Authority (2019)
Assessment
Multiple Choice
Directions: Read the following questions and write the letter of the correct answer on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. Which country has the largest agricultural sectors in the international market?
a. Philippines b. Ecuador c. India d. United States e. China
2. In what region of the world does the largest transaction of agricultural exports
happened?
a. Middle East b. Asia c. Europe d. Africa e. Central America
3. The top 5 crops with highest GDP share in the Philippines
a. Banana, pineapple, coconut, tobacco and mango
b. Banana, pineapple, sugarcane, mango and tobacco
c. Rice, banana, corn, coconut and mango
d. Rice, corn, tobacco, mongo and garlic
e. Rice, corn, tobacco, mongo and mango
4. How much is the share of agricultural products in the international market
a. 1.02% b. 10.2% c. 12.0% d. 12.3% e. 9.3%
5. Which country has the largest share of banana exports in Asian Market?
6. How much is the share of agriculture and fisheries in the GDP of the country
a. 1.02% b. 10.2% c. 12.0% d. 12.3% e. 9.3%
7. Which country is the largest producer of banana?
8. The agricultural subsector in the Philippines with highest GDP share
a. Fishing b. Agricultural Crops c. Livestock d. Industry e. Service
9. Which country has the largest share of banana exports in the international
market?
10. The top 5 exported crops in the Philippines
a. Banana, pineapple, coconut, tobacco and mango
b. Banana, pineapple, sugarcane, mango and tobacco
c. Rice, banana, corn, coconut and mango
d. Rice, corn, tobacco, mongo and garlic
e. Rice, corn, tobacco, mongo and mango
True or False
Directions. Write TRUE if the statement is correct, write FALSE if otherwise. Put your
answer on a separate sheet of paper. You may also view, answer and submit this test at
Google Classroom on Crop Sci 21- Practices of Crop Production.
1. Agriculture is the largest share of export of many developing countries.

2. Philippines is already rice- sufficient because it no longer imports rice from other
countries.
3. The most important export and import products in the international trade are fruits
and vegetable, meat and meat preparations and cereals.
4. Philippines continue to import corn from other countries in 2018.
5. Among the three island groups of the Philippines, Visayas had the largest share
Gross Domestic Product of Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry and Fishing.
6. In terms of highest domestic trade value in the Philippines, the food and live
animal section ranks first among the commodity sections.
7. There is a record in 2018 that Philippines import tomato, cabbage and pineapple
from other countries
8. Central Luzon is the region who gave the largest Agriculture, Hunting, Fishing
and Forestry share in 2018.
9. The US and the EU are each other’s largest trading partners, accounting for
more than 30 % of global trade.
10. European Union trade does not have product restrictions.
Unit 3- Classification of Crops
Learning Outcomes

1. Classify different crops according to its characteristics.
Conten
Crop
When plants of the same kind are grown and cultivated at one place on a large
scale, it is called crop.
Example: crop of wheat grown in a field.
Kharif crop – the crop which are sown in the rainy season. Example: Rice,
Maize, Groundnut, etc.
Rabi crops – the crops grown in the winter season. (Examples: Wheat, pea,
mustard, etc)
Importance of classifying the crops
 To get acquainted with crops

 To understand the requirement of soil & water for different crops
 To know adaptability of crops
 To know the growing habit of crops
 To understand climatic requirement of different crops
 To know the economic produce of the crop plant & its use
 To know the growing season of the crop

 Overall to know the actual condition required to the cultivation of plant
Ways of classification of crops
Classification is done to generalize similar crop plants as a class for attaining

better understanding of them. Field crops are classified in the following ways:
 According to range of cultivation

1. Garden crops: They are grown on a small scale in gardens. e.g., onion,
brinjal, etc.
2. Plantation crops: They are grown on a large scale in estates and perennial
in nature. e.g., tea, coffee, cacao, rubber etc.
3. Field crops: They are grown on a vast scale under field condition. They are
mostly seasonal such as rice, wheat, cotton etc.
 According to the place of origin
1. Native crops: They are grown within the geographical limits of their origin,
e.g., rice, barely, black gram, green gram, mustard, castor, sugarcane and
cotton, grown in India, are native to India.
2. Exotic or Introduced crops: They are introduced from other countries,
such as tobacco, potato, jute, maize, apple, etc.
 According to botany of the crop plants (Botanical/taxonomic classification)

According to systematic botany, plants are classified as order, family etc.
Similarly crop plants are grouped into families as:
1. Poaceae (Graminae): Cereals, millets and grasses
2. Papilionaceae (Legumes):Pulses, legume fodders, vegetables, groundnut,
berseem, green manures etc.
3. Cruciferae: Mustard, Indian rape seed, radish cabbage, cauliflower etc.
4. Cucurbitaceae: All gourds, cucumber, pumpkin etc.
5. Malvaceae: Cotton, lady’s finger, roselle etc.
6. Solanaceae: Potato, tomato, tobacco, chillies, brinjal
7. Tiliaceae: Jute
8. Asteraceae (Compositae): Sunflower, safflower, niger
9. Chenopodiaceae: Spinach, sugar beet
10. Pedeliaceae: Sesame
11. Euphorbiaceae: Castor, tapioca
12. Convolvulaceae: Sweet potato
13. Umbelliferae: Coriander, cumin, carrot, anise
14. Liliaceae: Onion, garlic
15.
16. Zingiberaceae: Ginger, turmeric
 According to plant products come to commercial field (Commercial

classification)
Based on the plant products which come into the commercial field are grouped
as:
1. Food crops: Rice, wheat, green gram, soybean, groundnut, etc.

2. Food crops/Forage crops: All fodders, oats, sorghum, maize, napier grass,
stylo, Lucerne etc.
3. Industrial/Commercial crops: Cotton, sugarcane, sugar beet, tobacco, jute,
etc.
4. Food adjuvant: Turmeric, garlic, cumin, etc.
 According to use of crop plants and their products

(Economic/Agrarian/Agricultural/Agronomical classification)
This classification is based on use of crop plants and their products. This is an
important classification as for as agronomy is concerned.
i. Cereals
 They are cultivated grasses grown for their edible starchy grains (one seeded
fruit– caryopsis).
 Their larger grains are used as staple food e.g. rice, wheat, maize, barley, etc.
 The word cereal was derived from the word ceres, which denotes a goddess
who was believed as the giver of grains by Romans.
ii. Millets
 Small grained cereals, which form the staple food in drier regions of the
developing countries, are called millets. e.g. major- sorghum, pearl millet or
cumbu and finger millet or ragi. Minor- fox-tail millet, little millet, common
millet, barnyard millet and kodomillet
iii. Oil seeds: They yield seeds rich in fatty acids, are used to extract vegetable
oils.e.g. groundnut or peanut, sesame or gingelly, sunflower, castor,
linseed or flax, niger, safflower, mustard and cotton.
iv. Pulses: Seeds of leguminous plants used as food. They produce dal rich in
protein.
e.g., red gram, black gram, green gram, cowpea, Bengal gram, horse
gram, dew gram, soybean, peas or garden pea and garden-bean.
v. Feed/Forage: It refers to vegetative matter, fresh or preserved, utilized as feed
for animals. It includes hay, silage, pasturage and fodder. e.g., bajra napier
grass, guinea grass, fodder-sorghum, fodder-maize, lucerne, desmanthus, etc.
vi. Fibre crops: Plants are grown for their fibre yield. There are different kinds of
fibre. They are: seed fibre–cotton, (ii) stem fibre-jute, mesta, (iii) leaf fibre–
agave, pineapple.
vii. Sugar and starch crops: They are grown for production of sugar and starch.
e.g., sugarcane, sugar beet, potato, sweet potato, tapioca and asparagus.
viii. Spices and condiments: Crop plants or their products are used to flavour,
taste, and add colour to the fresh or preserved food. e.g., ginger, garlic,
fenugreek, cumin, turmeric, chillies, onion, coriander, anise and asafetida.
ix. Drug crops/medicinal plants: They are used for preparation of medicines.
e.g., tobacco, mint etc.
x. Narcotics, fumitories and masticatories: Plants/products are used for
stimulating, numbing, drowsing or relishing effects. e.g., tobacco, ganja, opium
poppy.
xi. Beverages: Products of crops are used for preparation of mild, agreeable and
stimulating drinking. e.g., tea, coffee, cocoa.
 According to season/Seasonal classification

Crops are grouped under the seasons in which their major field duration
falls.
i. Kharif or South-west monsoon season crops: Crops are grown during

June–July to September-October, which require a warm wet weather during
their major period of growth and shorter day length for flowering. e.g., rice,
maize, castor and groundnut.
ii. Rabi crops/post monsoon crops: Crops are grown during October-
November to January-February, require cold dry weather for their major
growth period and longer day length for flowering. e.g., wheat, mustard,
barley, oats, potato, Bengal gram, berseem, cabbage and cauliflower.
iii. Zaid or summer crops: Crops are grown during February-
March to May-June which requires warm dry weather for growth and longer
day-length for flowering. e.g., black gram, green gram, sesame, cowpea etc.
This classification is not a universal one. It only indicates the period when a
particular crop is raised. e.g., kharif rice, kharif maize, rabi maize, summer pulse etc.
 According to life cycle of crop plants/According to ontogeny

It is a classification based on the life cycle of a plant.
i. Annual crops
 Crop plants that complete life cycle within a season or year.
 They produce seed and die within the season. e.g., wheat, rice, maize,
mustard.
ii. Biennial crops
 Plants that have life span of two consecutive seasons or years.
 First year/Season these plants have purely vegetative growth usually
confined to rosette of leaves.
 The tap root is often fleshy and serves as a food storage organ.
 During the second year/season, they produce flower stocks from the
crown and after producing seeds the plants die. e.g., sugar beet, beet
root, cabbage, radish, carrot, etc.
iii. Perennial crops
 They live for three or more years.
 They may be seed bearing or non-seed bearing. e.g., sugarcane,
napier grass.
 In general perennial crops occupy land for more than 30 months.
 According to cultural requirement/According to cultural requirement of

crops
i. According to suitability of toposequence

a. Crops grown on upland: They are grown on upland levelled elevated
land with drain all around or unbunded levelled land with drains or drops.
Crops that cannot tolerant water stagnation come under this group. e.g.,
red gram, groundnut, maize, sorghum, cotton, sesame, napier etc. Crops
that require sufficient soil moisture but cannot tolerate water stagnation.
e.g., potato, sugarcane, upland rice, ragi, wheat, black gram, Bengal gram.
b. Crops grown on lowland: They are grown on lowlands provided with
dykes or bunds all around to stagnate water. Crops that require abundant
supply of water and can withstand prolonged water logged conditions. e.g.,
rice, daintier, paragrass and jute.
ii. According to source of water

a. Irrigated crops: The crop cultivation primarily depends upon the irrigation
water for a part/entire growth period of the crop. All crops irrespective
seasons are possible to be raised in this category.
b. Rainfed crops: The crop cultivation entirely depends upon the rainfall
received. Crop varieties depend upon the season and the rainfall pattern.
iii. According to moisture availability in the soil

a. Wet lands: The soil moisture is allowed to occupy both macro and
microspores. Anaerobic field condition prevails here. Crops suitable are
those crops, which tolerate water stagnation. e.g., green manures like
sesbania group, grasses etc.
b. Dry lands: The soil moisture is allowed only on to microspores. Macro
pores are filled with air. Magnitude of soil moisture varies according to the
crop. Crops like maize, highly sensitive to excess moisture and drought,
crops tolerant to drought and temporary stagnation, sorghum are
cultivated in this type of field condition.
iv. According to the suitability of the textural groups of soils
a. Crops suitable to sandy to sandy loam (light) soils: Sorghum, bajra,
green gram, sunflower, potato, onion, carrot etc.
b. Crops suitable to silty loam (medium) soils: Jute, sugarcane, maize,
cotton, mustard, tobacco, Bengal gram, red gram, cowpea, etc.
c. Crop suitable to clay loam (heavy) soils: Rice, wheat, barley, linseed,
lentil, para grass, guinea grass, marvel grass etc.
v. According to tolerance to problem soils

a. Tolerant to acidic soils: Wet rice, potato, mustard, etc.
b. Tolerant to saline soils: Chillies, cucurbits, wheat, sorghum, bajra, cluster
beans, barley etc.
c. Tolerant to alkali/sodic soils: Barley, cotton, Bengal gram, berseem,

sunflower, maize, etc.
d. Tolerant to waterlogged soils: Wet rice, daincha, para grass, napier grass,
guinea grass, etc.
e. Crops tolerant to soil erosion: Marvel grass, groundnut, black gram, rice
bean, moth bean, and horse gram, etc.
vi. According to tillage requirement
a. Arable crops: They require preparatory tillage. e.g., potato, tobacco, rice,
maize.
b. Non-arable crops: They may not require preparatory cultivation/tillage. e.g.,
para grass.
vii. According to the depth of root system
a. Shallow rooted crops: Rice, potato, and onion
b. Moderately deep rooted: Wheat, groundnut, castor and tobacco
c. Deep rooted: Maize, cotton, and sorghum
d. Very deep rooted: Sugarcane, safflower, lucerne, and red gram
viii. According to the tolerance to hazardous weather
condition
a. Frost tolerant: Sugar beet, beet root.
b. Cold tolerant: Potato, cabbage, and mustard.
c. Drought tolerant: Bajra, jowar, barley, safflower, castor.
ix. According to method of sowing/planting
a. Direct seeded crop: Where the seeds are sown directly either dry or
sprouted.
e.g. upland rice, wheat, jowar, bajra, groundnut etc.
b. Planted crops: Where plant parts are planted directly. e.g., sugarcane,
potato, sweet potato, napier, guinea grass.
c. Transplanted crops: Where seedlings are raised in the nursery, pulled out
and planted in the field. e.g. rice, ragi, bajra, tobacco, bellary onion, brinjal.
x. According to inter-tillage requirement specially earthing up
a. Intertilled crops: Potato, sweet potato, groundnut, maize, sugarcane, and
turmeric.
b. Non-intertilled crops: Fodder sorghum, deenanath grass, para grass etc.
xi. According to length of field duration of crops
a. Very short duration crops (up to 75 days): pulses

b. Short duration crops (75-100 days): sunflower, cauliflower, upland rice
c. Medium duration crops (100-125 days): wheat, jowar, bajra, groundnut,
sesame, jute, etc.
d. Long duration crops (125–150 days) : mustard, tobacco, cotton
e. Very long duration crops (> 150 days): sugarcane, red gram, castor, etc.
xii. According to the method of harvesting

a. Reaping: rice, wheat,
b. Uprooting by pulling: Bengal gram, black gram, lentil, rapeseed
c. Uprooting by digging: potato, sweet potato, groundnut, carrot
d. Picking: cotton, vegetables, brinjal, bhindi, chillies
e. Priming: tobacco
f. Cutting: berseem, napier, amaranthus
g. Grazing: para grass, kolukkattai grass, and stylo.
xiii. According to post harvest requirement
a. Curing: tobacco, mustard
b. Stripping: jute, sun hemp
c. Shelling: groundnut
d. Ginning: cotton
e. Seasoning: turmeric, chillies
f. Grading and sorting: potato, rice, wheat, fibre crops etc.
xiv. Based on crops growing soil condition
a. Psammophytes (Sandy soil): castor
b. Lithophytes (Rock surface): ferns
c. Chasmophytes (Rock crack): potato
d. Acedophytes (Acid soil): potato
e. Basophytes (Alkali soil): Rice
f. Calciphytes (Basic soil): asparagus
g. Halophytes (Saline soil): sugar beet, alfalfa
xv. Based on climatic condition
a. Tropical crop: coconut, sugarcane
b. Sub-tropical crop: rice, cotton
c. Temperate crop: wheat, barley
d. Polar crop: all pines, pasture grasses
 According to important uses
i. Catch crops/contingent crops

 These crops are cultivated to catch the forth-coming season.
 It replaces the main crop that has failed due to biotic or climatic or
management hazards.
 Generally, they are of very short duration, quick growing, harvestable or
usable at any time of their field duration and adaptable to the season, soil
and management practices. They provide feed, check weed growth,
conserve soil, utilized added fertilizer and moisture. e.g., green gram, black
gram, cowpea, onion, coriander and bajra.
ii. Restorative crops
 These crops, which provide a good yield along with enrichment or restoration
of soil fertility or amelioration of the soils.
 They fix atmospheric nitrogen in root nodules, shed their leaves during
ripening and thus restore soil conditions. E.g., legumes.
iii. Exhaustive crops
 These crop plants, which on growing leave the field exhausted because of a
more aggressive nature. e.g., gingelly, brinjal, linseed, sunflower etc.
iv. Paira crops/residual crops

 These crop plants which are sown a few days or weeks before the harvest of
the standing mature crops to utilize the residual moisture, without
preparatory tillage.
 The standing crop and the later sown (paira) crop become simultaneous
(forming a pair) for a short period. For e.g., rice fallow pulses black gram,
lathyrus, lentil etc.
 Paira crops in succession may constitute relay cropping.
v. Smother crops
 These crop plants which are able to smother or suppress the weed growth
by providing suffocation (curtailing movement of air) and obscuration (of
the incidental radiation) through their dense foliage developed due to quick
growing ability with heavy tillering or branching, planophyllic or procumbent
or trailing habits. e.g., barley, mustard, cowpea, etc.
vi. Cover crops

 These crop plants, which are able to protect the soil surface from erosion
(wind, water or both) through their ground covering foliage and or root
mats. e.g., groundnut, black gram, marvel grass, sweet potato
vii. Nurse crops

 A companion crop nourishes the main crop by way of nitrogen fixation and or
adding the organic matter into the soil. e.g., cowpea intercropped with
cereals
viii. Guard/barrier crops

 These crop plants help to protect another crop from trespassing or restrict
the speed of wind and thus prevent crop damage.
 Main crop in the centre surrounded by hardy or thorny crop. e.g., mesta
around sugarcane; sorghum around cotton; safflower around gram
ix. Trap crops
 These crop plants are grown to trap soil borne harmful parasitic weeds. For
e.g., orabanche and striga are trapped by solanaceous and sorghum crops,
respectively.
 Nematodes are trapped by solanaceous crops (on uprooting crop plants,
nematodes are removed from the soil).
 Castor in cotton, groundnut act as crop for army worm pest.
x. Augmenting crops
 These sub crops are sown to supplement the yield of the main crop. e.g.,
mustard or cabbage with berseem to augment the forage yield of berseem.
xi. Alley crops

 These arable crops are grown in „alleys‟ formed by trees or shrubs,
established mainly to hasten soil fertility restoration, enhance soil
productivity and reduce soil erosion.
They are generally of non-trailing with shade tolerance capacity. For e.g.,
growing pulses in between the rows of casuarina.
Post-
Modification
Direction: Read and understand the following statements. Write TRUE if the
statement is correct and FALSE if the statement is incorrect. Write your answer on the
space provided.
1. The main purpose of classifying plants is to ensure that the right plants are
correctly named, grouped and identified. _______
2. Plant Classification is the arrangement of plants into groups and categories for
a clear understanding, proper study and effective organization. _______
3. To get acquainted with crops, classifying them is important. _______
4. Field crops are grown on a large scale in estates and perennial in nature.
_______
5. Kharif crops are grown in the winter. _______
6. Cereals are cultivated grasses grown for their starchy grains. _______
7. Annual crops complete its life cycle within a season or year. _______
Definition of terms
Direction: Define the following terms briefly based on your own understanding.
1. Cover crops
2. Perennial crops
3. Rainfed crops
4. Garden crops
5. Plantation
Learning Activities
General directions: Use letter size paper for writing your answer or write in your activity
notebook.
Unit 1
Activity 1. Reflection Paper Writing on Issues in Crop Production

Directions: Point out some issues on crop production at the different agricultural periods
and give your insights regarding these issues.
Activity 2. Photo Collection on Technological Developments in Crop Production

and Publishing
Directions: Collect at least ten varieties of pictures on the technologies used in crop
production. Paste these pictures on letter size paper/activity notebook. Add short
description of each technology and its contribution in increasing crop productivity. Be
sure that you include local and international technologies. You can have a narration thru
video recording based on the collected data/information and send to my email or place in
a flashdrive.
Unit 2
Activity 1. Production of Write Report on the Latest Performance of Crop

Production in Philippine Agriculture.
Directions: Based from the given picture below on the performance of Philippine
Agriculture, produce a write report by discussing the latest situation and contribution of
agricultural crop production in the country. Use letter size paper in writing your report. A
rubric for rating is provided in this module for your guide.
Activity 2. Sketching graphic overview on the market flow of the leading Philippine
and International export and import agricultural crop commodities
Directions: Carefully identify the top three leading agricultural crop commodity exports
and imports in the Philippines and internationally. Once identified, trace the main
producing countries and markets for these commodities. In carrying out this activity,
sketch the information previously collected using a letter size paper.
Activity 3. What would you like to do? Please share your thoughts on the
following questions. Write your answers in your activity notebook.
1. Did you understand the role of each actor in the agri-food chain?
2. Do you feel connected or disconnected from the food chain and where your food
is produced?
3. What influences your food choices?
Unit 3
Activity 1 – Do It
Direction: Fill-in the table below based on what you have seen in your farm/area.
Picture or Common Scientific Ways of Purpose/Uses

Drawing of a Name Name Classification
Crop
Rubrics in Essay Writing

Unacceptable
PARAMETERS Exceptional (3) Acceptable (2) Marginal (1)
(0)
Information is Information is Work is hard to Sequence of
Organization presented in a presented in a follow as there information is
& Style logical, logical manner, is very little difficult to
interesting way, which is easily continuity. follow. No
which is easy to followed. apparent
follow. structure or
continuity.
Purpose is Purpose of Purpose of Purpose of
clearly stated work is clearly work is stated, work is not
and explains stated assists but does not clearly stated.
the structure of the structure of assist in
work. work. following work.
Demonstration At ease with Uncomfortable No grasp of
of full content and with content. information.
knowledge of able to Only basic Clearly no
the subject with elaborate and concepts are knowledge of
Content & explanations explain to some demonstrated subject matter.
Knowledge and degree. and interpreted. No questions
elaboration. are answered.
No
interpretation
made.
Format is Format is Mostly Work is
Format & consistent generally consistent illegible, format
Aesthetics throughout consistent format. changes
including including throughout, e.g.
heading styles heading styles font type, size
and captions. and captions. etc.
Figures and Figures and Figures and Figures and
tables are tables are tables are tables are
presented neatly done legible, but not sloppy and fail
logically and and provide convincing. to provide
reinforce the intended intended
text. information. information.
Spelling & Negligible Minor Several Numerous
Grammar misspellings misspellings spelling and spelling and
and/or and/or grammatical grammatical
grammatical grammatical errors. errors.
errors. errors.
Reference Minor Inadequate list No referencing
section inadequacies in of references or system used.
complete and references. references in
comprehensive. Consistent text.
References
Consistent and referencing Inconsistent or
logical system. illogical
referencing referencing
system. system.
OVERALL
Unacceptable Marginal Acceptable Exceptional
Performance
Points
0-5 6 - 10 11 - 15 16 - 21
Required
Rubrics in Oral Presentation

Unacceptable
PARAMETERS Exceptional (3) Acceptable (2) Marginal (1)
(0)
Holds attention of
Consistent use of Displayed minimal
entire audience No eye contact with
direct eye contact eye contact with
Nonverbal Skills with the use of audience, as entire
with audience, but audience, while
Eye Contact direct eye contact, report is read from
still returns to reading mostly from
seldom looking at notes.
notes. the notes.
notes
Made movements Very little
Movements seem No movement or
Body or gestures that movement or
fluid and help the descriptive
Language enhance descriptive
audience visualize. gestures.
articulation. gestures.
Student displays Makes minor Tension and
Displays mild
relaxed, self- mistakes, but nervousness is
tension; has trouble
Poise confident nature quickly recovers obvious; has
recovering from
about self, with no from them; displays trouble recovering
mistakes.
mistakes. little or no tension. from mistakes.
Demonstrates a
strong, positive Occasionally shows Shows some Shows absolutely
Verbal Skills
feeling about topic positive feelings negativity toward no interest in topic
Enthusiasm
during entire about topic. topic presented. presented.
presentation
Student uses a Student’s voice is
Student’s voice is Student mumbles,
clear voice and low. Student
clear. Student incorrectly
correct, precise incorrectly
pronounces most pronounces terms
pronunciation of pronounces terms.
Elocution words correctly. and speaks too
terms so that all Audience members
Most audience quietly for a
audience members have difficulty
members can hear majority of students
can hear hearing
presentation to hear.
presentation presentation.
Content Student
Student is Student does not
Subject demonstrates full Student is at ease
uncomfortable with have grasp of
Knowledge knowledge by with expected
information and is information; student
answering all class answers to all
able to answer only cannot answer
questions with questions, without
rudimentary questions about
explanations and elaboration.
questions. subject.
elaboration.
Student presents Student presents Audience cannot
Audience has
information in very information in understand
difficulty following
logical, interesting logical, interesting presentation
Organization presentation
sequence which sequence which because there is no
because student
audience can audience can sequence of
jumps around.
follow. follow. information.
Student’s Student’s
Presentation has at
Presentation has presentation has presentation has
most three
Mechanics no misspellings or four or seven eight or more
misspellings and/or
grammatical errors. spelling and/or spelling and/or
grammatical errors.
grammatical errors. grammatical errors.
Visual aids are well
Visuals are
done and are used
adequate but do Very little or poor No
Visual Aids/Hand- to make
not inspire use of visual hand-outs/visual
outs presentation more
engagement with materials aids provided.
interesting and
the material.
meaningful
Too long or too
Presentation
+/-2 minutes +/- 4 minutes +/- 6 minutes short (+/- 10
Length
minutes
OVERALL
Unacceptable Marginal Acceptable Exceptional
Performance
Points Required 0-7 8 - 14 15 - 21 22 - 30

Crop Sci 21 Practices 4 Stdent ADDL

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Unit 1- Introduction

(Issues and Developments in Crop Production)

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 produce reaction paper on crop production issues at different agricultural

Issues and Developments in Crop Production

Pre-Green Revolution Period

Prior to the Green Revolution, the production of rice in the Philippines

Green Revolution Period

History of Green Revolution. The term “Green Revolution” was first

The Green Revolution was initially started in Mexico as a research

Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation which was supported by the US

Highlights of Developments during Green Revolution

 Dry-land cultivation in its Northwest to solve problem on food

 In 1960, the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI),

 In 1962, IRRI breeder, Peter Jennings and his team did

Figure 1. Former US President, Lyndon Johnston and Former President of the

India had been at the brink of mass famine in 1961. During

worldwide with 9.8 million metric tons in 2018/2019 as shown in

Figure 2. Major rice exporting countries in 2018-2019

Establishment of Consultative Group on Agricultural Research

It is clear that Ford and Rockefeller Foundations could not meet

 International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (known by its

Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo) with headquarter in El Bataan,

1. Africa Rice Center

Brazil's inland cerrado region was regarded as unfit for farming

In 2005 the small African country of Malawi launched the

Issues Emerge from Green Revolution

2. Food Security and Nutrition

Moseley (2015) defines food security as enough food at all times

Efforts have been made by organizations like CGIAR to address

Figure 3. Comparison of Cereal Yields from 1960s to 1990s Across the

Figure 4. GR2E Golden Rice currently under developed by IRRI

The Green Revolution Agriculture required higher inputs, which

Women farmers and female-headed households are found to

The excessive and inappropriate use of chemicals, inappropriate

The spread of Green Revolution agriculture has affected both

b. Increase Greenhouse Gas Emission

According to a study published in 2013 in PNAS, in the

c. Dependance on Non-Renewable Resources

The high intensity agricultural production is highly reliant on

all depend on fossil fuels. Nitrogen fertilizer is a direct fossil

d. Soil and water degradation

Two-thirds of the world’s ecosystems have been degraded as

Post- Green Revolution Period

Sustainable Crop Production

The concept of sustainable agriculture arises from the negative

Imadi et.al. (2016) define sustainable crop production as

Below are just some of the management practices in sustainable

1. Practice of Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)

2. Employ Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

3. Use of traditional and high yielding varieties while conserving

Technological Developments in Crop Production

Current farms and agricultural operations operate very differently

drones, temperature and humidity sensors, aerial photographs, and GPS

Many countries have started carrying out particular advanced

Emerging Modern Technologies in Crop Production

1. Soil and Water Sensors

Pervasive Automation refers to any technology that reduces operator

A minichromosome is a small structure within a cell that includes very

These sensors provide information that can be associated with farming

Vertical farming a component of urban agriculture is the practice of

a. Hydrophonic. This system involves growing plants in nutrient

b. Aerophonic. It is one of the techniques of the soilless culture