CHAPTER 1

1.0BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Water scarcity already affects every continent. Water use has been growing globally at
more than twice the rate of population increase in the last century, and an increasing
number of regions are reaching the limit at which water services can be sustainably
delivered, especially in arid regions (UN, 2018). About 4 billion people, representing
nearly two-thirds of the world population, experience severe water scarcity during at
least one month of the year (Mekonnen and Hoekstra, 2016). Over 2 billion people
live in countries experiencing high water stress. (UN, 2018). 700 million people
worldwide could be displaced by intense water scarcity by 2030. (Global Water
Institute, 2013). Fresh water shortage is becoming an increasingly acute problem
facing many nations in the world. In the Near East Region, some 16 countries out of
29 member states are classified as water-deficit, with less than 500 m3 per capita of
the annual renewable fresh water resources (Bazza, 2002). Water resources are
becoming increasingly scarce in many arid and semi-arid areas such as Saud Arabia
due to agricultural development and increased demand (Hussain and Al-Saati, 1999).
In Saudi Arabia, more than 80% of the water is met from non-renewable ground
sources (MAW, 1996). While water demands continue to increase, the limited amount
of groundwater will always impose great challenges to water resources management
in the region.

Based on past experiences in moderately developed countries in arid zones, renewable

freshwater resources of 1,700 m3/capita/year (0.45 mg/capita/year) has been proposed
as the minimum value at which countries are most likely to begin to experience water
stress, which may impede development and harm human health (Earth Trends, 2001).
The world’s population is expected to increase dramatically between now and the year
2020 and with this growth will come an increased need for water to meet various
needs, as well as an increased production of wastewater ( Thebe, 2010). The total
annual freshwater resources withdrawal in Zimbabwe is estimated at 21.05% of total
annual renewable water resources meaning thatZimbabwe is water-stressed in terms of

1
a water intensity use index greater than 20% or per capita water availability of
less than

2
1700m3/yr ( UNEP/GRIPD-Arendal, 2005). Factors such as rapid increase in
groundwater use for domestic purposes, epecially in Harare explain water shortages in
Zimbabwe.As a result, some boreholes are drying out (GoZ, 2012). Groundwater
resources are required to be scientifically assessed and planned for sustained
development.

By 2020, more than half the total population of Asia, Africa, and Latin America will
be living in cities, and all of these cities will need additional water supplies (Thebe
and Mangore 2010).Countries and regions need to urgently tackle the critical
problems presented by water stress. Water has to be treated as a scarce resource, with
a far stronger focus on managing demand. The need for alternative water resources,
coupled with increasingly stringent water quality discharge requirements, are the
driving forces for developing water reuse strategies in the world today (Thebe,2010).
Water reuse enables practitioners to manipulate the water cycle, thereby creating
needed alternative water resources and reducing effluent discharge to the
environment. According to the conclusions of various water reuse surveys (Lazarova
et al., 2001 and Mantovani et al., 2001), the best water reuse projects, in terms of
economic viability and public acceptance, are those that substitute reclaimed water in
lieu of potable water for use in irrigation, environmental restoration, cleaning, toilet
flushing, and industrial uses.

Urban and/or peri-urban agriculture is a phenomenon that is practised in

bothdeveloping and developed nations. Since the 1950s, wastewater for irrigation use has
had a signigcant increase, especially in water-stressed areas (D’Andrea et al, 2015).
Wastewater use in agriculture is growing due to fresh water scarcity, population
growth and urbanisation, which in turn, lead to the generation of yet more wastewater
in urban areas. Wastewatercan be used to substitute for other better quality water
sources, especially in agriculture (Carr et al., 2004). Other benefits of re-using
wastewater are recovery of nutrients (nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus). Re-use of
wastewater reduces pollution load in rivers and also offers a reliable water supply
throughout the year (FAO, 2010). Wastewater in most countries of the Near East

3
Region (NER) is being more and more recognized as of vital importance to be treated
and made safe for reuse. It contributes

4
considerably to the water budget in several countries, particularly those suffering from
water scarcity (Bazza, 2002. In Saudi-Arabia for the last two decades the reuse of
municipal wastewater has emerged as an important available alternative water source
and a viable mean to meet water requirement for the agricultural sector in many of
countries (Hussain and Al-Saati, 1999; Al-Turki, 2003; Bashaar, 2007) . In many
instances, the reuse of municipal wastewater is promoted as a means of limiting
wastewater discharges to the environment (Huertasa et al., 2008).

In Zimbabwe, water reuse is an established practice that has been accepted not only by
engineers and environmentalists, but also by all stakeholders involved in the water
resources management of the country (Hranova, 2000).The main benefits of using
reclaimed water in these situations are conservation of water resources and pollution
reduction. One of the most economically feasible agricultural uses of reclaimed water
is the irrigation of vegetables which typically have high returns per volume of water
invested in it (Toze et al., 2006). This acceptance of water reuse in Zimbabwe was
influenced by 2 major factors governing the water resources systems management of
the country, one of them being the scarcity of available natural water resources (
Thebe, 2010). The other is the direct reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation
purposes, where the treatment technologies adopted are based on classical biological
treatment systems, mainly trickling filters, waste stabilization ponds, and
combinations. ( Thebe and Mangore, 2010).

Wastewater reuse for agricultural practices depends mainly on the quality of

wastewater effluent which has to be sufficient to protect environment and human
health and also be suitable for soil and plants (Huertasa et al., 2008). Of the many
constraints faced in waste water re-use, health concerns are the most important as they
pervade almost all recharge projects (Tsuchihashi et al., 2002). Where reclaimed water
will be ingested, health effects due to prolonged exposure to low levels of
contaminants must be considered as well as the acute health effects from pathogens or
toxic substances. Recommendations would be to identify, evaluate and, where
feasible, implement or disseminate promising and affordable technologies (including
water treatment options)
5
for making the most of specific local conditions and resource endowments for urban
and peri-urban irrigation.

African Distillers Ltd (AFDIS) is one or the organisations in Harare, Zimbabwe that is
abstracting groundwater resources for its production further depleting the dwindling
water resourses leading to water scarcity. The main users of water being the Blending
department, Senior Staff through irrigation of lawns and the gardens in the Village/
Compound as illustrated in Table 1.0. below. The main crops found in the gardens are
vegetables ( chomolia and covo).

Fig 1.0 AFDIS Departmental Water Usage

1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

A third of the world’s biggest groundwater systems are already in distress (Richey et
al., 2015).Over 1.4 billion people currently live in river basins where the use of water

6
exceeds minimum recharge levels, depletion of groundwater (Human Development
Report 2006 ). In 60 percent of African cities with more than 100,000 people,
groundwater is being used at a faster rate than it can be replenished (World Business
Council For Sustainable Development (WBCSD)). Zimbabwe has limited
groundwater resources, mainly because the greater part of the country consists of
ancient igneous rock formations where groundwater potential is low. The annual
renewable groundwater resources are estimated at 6km3/yr (FAO, 2005). Despite the
fact that groundwater resources are limited, groundwater is the main source of water
for more than 70 percent of the population in particular in rural areas (WB, 2014). To
curb the this problem, it has been noted from various studies that most organisations
have resorted to use of reclaimed waste water for irrigation purposes. One of the
scholars to carry out such a study at Chinhoyi University and Midlands State
University in 2010 to assess different parameters of several kinds of waste water e.g
from a winery, meat production etc for suitability for re-use.

AFDIS disposes its effluent in Waste Stabilisation Ponds (WSP) for its reclamation.
Apploximately 14 000 cubic meters is discharged to the WSP per week. In 2015
AFDIS partook in a monthly irrigation scheme of the fruit trees (orchard) using its
effluent. Although African Distillers tests for suitability of some physicochemical
parameters, it was discouraged by the Environmental Management Agency (EMA) to
irrigate using this water. This is because EMA was sceptical about the pathogenic risk
since the effluent is composed of distillery effluent and raw waste sewer from the the
Compound. No study was then conducted to ascertain the re-use of this waste water in
irrigation of food crops/ plants. Therefore this project sought to do a comprehensive
analysis of all necessary parameters in reclaimed industrial effluent for irrigation in
unrestricted areas.

1.2 OBJECTIVES

1.2.1 Broad objective

To assess the suitability of reclaimed industrial effluent for re-use in unrestricted

irrigation at African Distillers

7
1.2.2 Specific objectives

1. To measure the physico-chemical parameters; pH, TDS, conductance

,Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD),
Dissolved Oxygen, turbidity, temperature, salinity in industrial effluent
2. To measure the nitrates and phosphates which are the nutrient content in
industrial effluent
3. To measure the biological indicators through faecal coliform count of the
industrial effluent

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1.3.1 Broad question

Is the industrial waste water suitable for unrestricted irrigation?

1.3.2 Specific question

1. What is the level of pH, TDS, conductance ,Biological Oxygen Demand

(BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Dissolved Oxygen, turbidity,
temperature, salinity in the industrial effluent at the final pond?
2. What is the nutrient content within the industrial effluent in the final pond?
3. What is the faecal coliform count in the industrial effluent at the final pond?

1.4 HYPOTHESIS

H0: The reclaimed industrial effluent is not suitable for unrestricted irrigation

H1: The reclaimed industrial effluent is suitable for unrestricted irrigation’

1.5 JUSTIFICATION

The use of wastewater in irrigation may improve groundwater conditions, by

recharging aquifers thereby lessening over-draft in the catchment area. Water
shortage, in particular in Bulawayo, the country's second largest city, sometimes
8
 restricts industrial activity (GoZ, 2012). Therefore The results from this study will
also assist arid regions of Zimbabwe regions such as Bulawayo to adopt the
initiative using reusing reclaimed waste water for unrestricted irrigation by
improving groundwater conditions and reduce fertilization costs since waste water
contains nutrients. The study is of significance to the body of knowledge in the
academic field.

1.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION

 Consent was sought from African Distillers Ltd to conduct the study
 Gathered information for this research was solely for academic processes only
and will be held with high confidentiality.
 The researcher ensured safe handling and disposal of microbial products of
microbial experiments and chemicals to be used in the laboratory to avoid
contamination

1.7 LIMITATIONS

 This study did not account for seasonal vanriatio since it is a once off grab
sampling (snap shot in time) due to logistical inconveniences.
 The results from the study can only be used for the industrial waste water (
domestic and distillery effluent) in a food industry and cannot be
generalized for any other waster water from other processes.

1.8 DELIMITATIONS

The research was strictly confined to African Distillers Ltd in Harare. The area being
the final pond which is the last settling dam of the waste stabilization pond before
disposal into the environment.

9
1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS

TERM DEFINITION
Reclaimed waste water Former wastewater that is treated to
remove solids and impurities and is
used in sustainable landscaping
irrigation, to recharge grown water
acquifers, to meet commercial and
industrial water needs and for
drinking. In essence it is the end
product of waste water quality
requirements for biodegradable
materials
Industrial effluent In the context of this study it is a
mixtuere of distillery effluent from the
Plant and domestic waste water from
the compound. When discharged it
goes for treatment at the waste
stabilization ponds before discharge
into the environment
Domestic waste water Waste water derived from sewage ,
business buildings and the other
activities such as cleaning processes
within the Plant
Distillery effluent An ancillary unit of sugar industry
and uses can molasses as raw
material, which is the by product of
sugarcane manufacturing.
Characterised by presence of large
quantity of organic
matter ( Kaul et al.,1993).
Compound Residential area where 60% of AFDIS
employees live along with their families

10
 Unrestricted irrigation Irrigation of landscapes, parksand
crops/ plants that are consumed after
cooking
Reuse The deliberate application of
reclaimed water, in compliance with
the FAO guidelines, for a beneficial
purpose
Table 1.9

11
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides a detailed presentation of information that is relevant to the

study from previously done studies and researches. This will help the researcher have
a full understanding of the study subject.

2.1 WASTE WATER RECLAMATION OVERVIEW

The lack of freshwater resources due to population growth and the degradation of
water quality is becoming a big challenge across the globe (Jeong et al2016). As an
alternative water resource, wastewater reuse for agriculture is gaining international
interest. Treated wastewater, which in many ways is ideal for agricultural water,is
already being widely used throughout the world. ). It is estimated that about 20 million
hectare use wastewater for irrigation (WHO 2006, El-Zanfaly, 2015), only 10% uses
treated wastewater. Previous studies suggest that more than 10% of the world’s
population is consuming agricultural products cultivated by wastewater irrigation (
Jeong et al, 2016). The reuse of water for agricultural irrigation is common practice in
many countries around the world (Raschid-Sally & Jayakody 2009).

The use of reclaimed water for agricultural irrigation is practiced worldwide and will
increase in the future. It is estimated that 1.5–6.6% of irrigated agricultural areas are
irrigated with treated or untreated wastewater and that this percentage will increase in
the future (Sato et al. 2013. The definition of water quality limits is a useful
instrument for the assessment of water quality regarding its suitability for irrigation
purposes and the performance of wastewater treatment steps. The characteristics of
water quality have become important in water resources planning and development for
drinking, industrial and irrigation purposes (Shakoor, 2015). Water quality is the basic
to judge the fitness of water for its proposed application for existing conditions. The
current information is required, provided by water quality monitor for optimum
development and management of water for its proficient uses (Haydar et al., 2009).
Strict monitoring
12
the quality of irrigation water is necessary to protect human health, soil, plants and
water bodies and to prevent the deterioration of irrigation infrastructure (Ayers &
Westcot 1985). Generally, the quality of treated wastewater depends to a great extent
on the quality of municipal water supply, the efficacy of the treatment plants (Kgopa
et al., 2018)

Furthermore, regular sampling and water analyses are required to collect routine
operating data of wastewater treatment and water reclamation plants and to evaluate
wastewater treatment processes (Tchobanoglous et al. 2004).

2.2 INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT

Effluents are wastes produced from industries and they differ depending on the human
activities that produce them (Mater, 2009). It is defined by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency as wastewater that is treated or untreated, that flows
out of a treatment plant, sewer or industrial outfall. Production of these wastes is an
integral part of industrial activities (Uaboi-Egbenni et al, 2009).

2.2.1 Distillery effluent and its characterisation

The production and the characteristics of the spent wash are highly variable and
dependent on the feedstock used and various aspects of the ethanol production
process. Wash water used to clean the fermenters, cooling water blow down and
broiler water blow down further contribute to its variability. In a Distillery, sources of
wastewater are stillage, fermenter and condenser cooling water and fermenter
wastewater. The liquid residues during the industrial phase of the production of
alcohol are: liquor, sugarcane washing water, water from the condensers and from the
cleaning of the equipment, apart from other residual water (Patel and Jamaluddin,
2018). Distillery effluent, which can also be termed distillery spent wash, is the
unwanted residual liquid waste that is generated during alcohol production (Mater,
2009). Alcohol production by fermentation from molasses and sugar beet is conducted
worldwide (Billore et al, 2001). Bath fermentation is a method that is used in nearly
all distilleries and per every litre of
13
alcohol produced; 12 to 15 L of spent wash is generated. Distillery effluent is reported
as medium to high-strength organic wastewater. Generally the effluents term as (spent
wash) from molasses based distilleries are acidic, have a brown colour and have a high
content of organic substances that varies according to the raw material distilled e.g.
wine type, lees etc (Patel and Jamaluddin, 2018).

The amount of effluent generated in a distillery depends upon the extent of process
water used and the technology adopted for the manufacture of alcohol (TIFAC,
2009).In the modern continuous type distillery, spent wash generation is of the order
of 10 to 12 kl/kl of alcohol or 5 to 6 kl/kl of alcohol if a reboiler is used. Studies have
proven that spent wash from distilleries are characterized by high load of pollutants.
The effluent is turbid and has a strong alcoholic odour (Bezuneh T and Kebede M,
2015). The effluent is highly coloured with an extremely high chemical oxygen
demand (COD) load and contains high percentage of dissolved organic and inorganic
matter. The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and COD, the index of its polluting
character, typically range between 35,000-50,000 mg L-1 and 80,000-1,00,000 mg L-
1 respectively (Patel and Jamaluddin, 2018) . Apart from high organic content,
distillery wastewater also contains nutrients in the form of nitrogen, phosphorus
usually 8 mg/L to 35 mg/L and 2 mg/L to 20 mg/L, respectively (Bories et al, 2005).

Thus distillery effluents can be characterized by high levels of biochemical oxygen

demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), phenolic compounds, sulphates,
heavy metals, lower pH, obnoxious odour, lower concentration of dissolved oxygen,
high electrical conductivity (EC) and high inorganic and organic salts (Susheel et al,
2007). Its pH however varies from 3.5 to 7 (Bories et al, 2005). Conventional
treatment systems fail to effectively treat distillery wastewater, as such wastewater
shows high daily and seasonably variable flows and loadings depending on the
working period and products (Fernandez et al, 2007).

2.2.2 Domestic waste water characterisation

14
Wastewater from households and buildings connected to sewerage systems is the main
contributor to domestic wastewater, but raw or treated discharges from industries and
urban runoff can also make significant and usually non-defined contributions.
Effluents from households discharge numerous acidic and basic chemical compounds
that could be detrimental to agricultural soils (Al Salem, 1987; Amouei et al., 2014).
Since almost 70% of all domestic wastewater generated globally is released untreated
into the environment, of which about 90% in developing countries, it is not surprising
that most direct reuse activities are performed with raw wastewater ( D’Andrea,
2015). It is critical to assess the feasibility of water reuse, since wastewater flow rate
and composition vary from place to place with respect to availability. Water reuse is
also dependent on economic aspects, social behaviour, local industries, climatic
conditions, and water consumption, among other factors (D’Andrea, 2015). The main
pollutants in sewage are: (a) suspended solids; (b) soluble organic compounds; (c) (in)
organic nutrients and (d) pathogenic microorganisms. The types of pathogens, for
example, are markedly different in industrialized and developing countries. The same
could be said of the concentration of a variety of chemicals like heavy metals, trace
elements, detergents, solvents, pesticides, and other compounds like pharmaceuticals,
antibiotics, and hormones, which can make wastewater unsuitable for irrigation.

2.3 EFFLUENT TREATMENT

Treatment of wastewater and its suitability for reuse depend on the treatment
technologies used. Stringent regulations have been set to meet unrestricted irrigation
which is intended for any crop and any type of soil without limitations (Alberta
Environment, 2000). Such tight standards cannot be met unless tertiary treatment is
applied (Abu-Rizaiza, 1999). The more advanced the technology, the higher is the
expected cost of wastewater reclamation. According to the International Water and
Sanitation Centre (IRC), stabilisation ponds are the most cost-effective (semi-
)centralised wastewater treatment technology for the removal of pathogenic
microorganisms. They are recommended for the treatment in order to reuse the
effluent in agriculture, because of its effectiveness in removing nematodes (worms)
and helminth eggs (WHO 2006).

15
Waste stabilization ponds ( WPS) are large man-made basins in which greywater,
blackwater or faecal sludge can be treated to an effluent of relatively high quality and
apt for the reuse in agriculture (e.g. irrigation) since the effluent still contains
(preserves) some nutrients for instance nitrogen and phosphorus. For the most
effective treatment, WSPs should be linked in a series of three or more with effluent
being transferred from the anaerobic pond to the facultative pond and, finally, to the
aerobic pond, each with different treatment and design characteristics (Tilley et al.,
2014).

The anaerobic pond is the primary treatment stage and reduces the organic load in the
wastewater. Anaerobic lagoons are the simplest choice for anaerobic treatment of
molasses wastewater (www.researchtrend.net,2018). Anaerobic conditions in first-
stage stabilization ponds are created by maintaining a high volumetric organic
loading, certainly greater than 100g BOD5/m3 d (FAO, 1992). Solids and 60 % of the
BOD removal occurs by sedimentation and through subsequent anaerobic digestion by
anaerobic bacteria inside the accumulated sludge ( Tilley et al., 2014)). For high
strength industrial wastes, up to three anaerobic ponds in series might be justifiable
but the retention time tan, in any of these ponds should not be less than 1 day
(McGarry and Pescod, 1970). Rao, carried out the pioneering research work in the
field of distillery waste management by employing two anaerobic lagoons in series,
resulting in BOD removal ranging from 82 to 92% (Patel and Jamaluddin, 2018). In a
series of WSPs, the effluent from the anaerobic pond is transferred to the facultative
pond, where further BOD is removed.

Facultative Treatment Ponds consist of an aerobic zone close to the surface and a
deeper, anaerobic zone. According to Mara and Pearson (1998), they are designed for
BOD removal using aerobic and anaerobic organisms and can treat water in the BOD
range of 100 to 400 kg/ha/day corresponding to 10 to 40 g/m2/day at temperatures
above 20°C having a detention time between 5 to 30 days. Solids in the influent to a
facultative pond and excess biomass produced in the pond will settle out forming a
sludge layer at the bottom. The benthic layer will be anaerobic and, as a result of
anaerobic breakdown of organics, will release soluble organic products to the water
column above (FAO, 1992). These ponds loose ammonia into the air at high pH; and
16
settle some nitrogen and phosphorus in the sludge. Total nitrogen removal in WSP
systems can reach 80% or more. They can result in the removal of 80 to 95% of the
BOD5 (Sperling, 2007), which means an overall removal of 95% over the two ponds
.i.e. anaerobic ponds and facultative ponds.

Following primary or secondary facultative ponds, if further pathogen reduction is

necessary anaerobic or maturation ponds will be introduced to provide tertiary
treatment (FAO, 1992). An aerobic pond is commonly referred to as a maturation,
polishing, or finishing pond because it is usually the last step in a series of ponds and
provides the final level of treatment. These are essentially designed for pathogen
removal and retaining suspended stabilised solids (Mara et al. 1992; Tilley et al.
2008). Although the longer retention in anaerobic and facultative pond systems will
make them more efficient than conventional wastewater treatment processes in
removing pathogens, the effluent from a facultative pond treating municipal sewage
will generally require further treatment in maturation ponds to reach effluent standards
imposed for reuse in unrestricted irrigation. Faecal coliform bacteria are commonly
used as indicators of excreted pathogens and maturation ponds can be designed to
achieve a given reduction of faecal coliforms, (Feachem et al. 1983). The size and
number of maturation ponds depends on the required bacteriological quality of the
final effluent. Ideally, several aerobic ponds can be built in series to provide a high
level of pathogen removal. Viruses, protozoa and other microorganisms get removed
also. The principal mechanisms for faecal bacterial removal in facultative and
maturation ponds are; high light intensity, temperature and alkaline conditions ( pH>
9). Tilley et al (2008) alludes that when these ponds are used in combination with
algae this type of pond is also effective at removing the majority of nitrogen and
phosphorus from the effluent. Anaerobic ponds are built to a depth of 2 to 5 m and
have a relatively short detention time of 1 to 7 days. If used in combination with algae
such as dollar weed and duck weed, this type of pond is effective at removing the
majority of nitrogen and phosphorus from the effluent.

Stabilisation ponds also have the advantage of very low operating costs since they use
no energy compared to other wastewater treatment technologies and only low-tech
infrastructure (IRC 2004). Since they constitute the low cost technology that might be
17
suitable for the countries of low-economic situation. WSPs are particularly well suited
for tropical and subtropical countries because the intensity of the sunlight and
temperature are key factors for their efficiency (IRC 2004). Pond systems
incorporating anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds, with an overall average
retention time of 10-50 days (depending on the ambient temperature), can produce
effluents in line with WHO guidelines (Hespanhol I. 1997). Stabilization bonds are
also practiced in Tunisia and Egypt. The Ismailia stabilization pond-system in Egypt,
with a design capacity of 90,000 cubic meters per day and current actual inflow of
80,000 cubic meters per day, showed a suitable reclaimed wastewater for reuse in
irrigation of commercial trees and mulberry trees for silkworm raising. Mechanical
aeration is sometimes used in these lagoons to improve the quality of treated
wastewater (Bazza, 2002). However, in many cases, lagoons may not be effective to
get appropriate treatment, particularly when the wind is not dominant over the year in
the lagoon area claims Mohammed Bazza in 2002. Therefore, mechanical aeration is
established to improve the treatment. Other major disadvantages of WSPs are a rather
long process of days to week (Mara & Pearson 1998; Rose 1999), which is essentially
the required time required to achieve acceptable levels of treatment.

2.4 PHYSICO CHEMICAL PARAMETERS

Water quality is defined as a measure of the physical, chemical and biological

characteristics of water (Myers, 2014). Monitoring water quality provides empirical
evidence to support decision making on health and environmental issues.

Several parameters are commonly employed to evaluate the quality of treated

wastewater including Total Suspended Solid (TSS), turbidity, salinity, Biological
Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) (Alberta
Environment, 2000; Huertasa et al., 2008). Microbiological quality of wastewater is
usually indicated by quantification of fecal and total coliforms (Fattouh and Al-
Kahtani, 2002; Wand et al.,2007; Srinivasan and Reddy, 2009). Irrigation water
quality is described by different parameters such as Electrical Conductivity (EC),
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) (Shakoor et al., 2015).

18
2.4.1 Total Suspended Solids

These are sometimes called settleable solids. Total suspended solids (TSS) are the
fine particles consisted of microorganisms, algae, mineral particles and organic
matter, suspended in water. Usually suspended material settles at the bottom and
tendency to settle slowly . When the sample is shaken they rise to suspension again
(Basnic et al., 2000). The test for settleable solids is to allow the solids to settle out of
the wastewater undesturbed for at least 30 minutes and then determine the volume of
solids. It is for this reason that the settleable solids are often expressed as mg/l by
weighing the mass of settleable solids (Anon, 2000).

Particles might cause clogging of irrigation equipment (e.g. drip lines), influence the
efficiency of disinfection and lead to aesthetic impairment of the water (Ayers &
Westcot 1985). The amount of particles in water can be expressed by turbidity or by
the total suspended solids (TSS) content (Tchobanoglous et al. 2004). Ayers &
Westcot (1985) give limits of <50 mg/L (= no restriction on use) and >100 mg/L (=
severe restrictions on use) for TSS when irrigating with drip lines. In the Outapi case,
the determination of TSS was not possible due to the rapid clogging of glass fiber
filters (no weighable filter cakes could be obtained). TSS determination was only
possible via the determination of TS and TDS in the same sample. Since this is very
time- consuming, turbidity measurements were used as a surrogate.

2.4.2 Electrical Conductivity

The conductance also sometimes referred to as the electrical conductivity of water is a

measurement of the ability of an aqueous solution to carry an electrical current,
measured in microsiemens per centimeter (µS/cm) (Claulston, 2010). It is a physical
parameter that reflects mineral salt content of water. It is directly related to the
concentration of dissolved solids in the water. The presence of mobile ions, their
concentration, mobility, valence, relative concentration and temperature of
measurement from the dissolved solids in water influence the ability of that water to

19
conduct an electrical current, which can be measured using a conductivity meter
(Energy and Environmental Research Center, 2003). Electrical conductivity (EC) is
also an important parameter for water quality, higher conductivity indicates high
amount of ions that exceed the recommended limit (Ayers and Westcot, 1985).
However although it is not a meaningful measure of contamination or the ability of a
given body of water to meet its designated use (Claulston, 2010), conductivity has
generally been used in the field as a first screen for water quality. Elevated
conductivity levels indicate that further analysis should be done to determine the
specific water chemistry. Wong et al., (2013) alludes that water have a tendency to
have a relatively constant range of conductivity hence, once the conductivity is
established it can be used as a baseline for comparison with regular conductivity
measurements.

It is directly related to the sum of the cations (or anions), as determined chemically
and is closely correlated, in general, with the total salt concentration. When correlated
with laboratory TDS measurements, electrical conductivity can provide an accurate
estimate of the TDS concentration. (FAO, 1992)A study conducted at City of
Bakesfield Reclaimed wastewater application in irrigation for green chop winter rain
forage is has a range of 0.7-0.9ds/m (Wu, 2009). Another study conducted by Ali et
al., (2012) indicated that conductivity of treated wastewater at M company varied
from 872 to 1620 μS/cm.

2.4.3 Total Dissolved Solids

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) are the total amount of mobile charged ions, including
minerals, salts or metals dissolved in a given volume of water, expressed in units of
mg per unit volume of water (mg/L), also referred to as parts per million (ppm)
(WHO, 2003). TDS is directly related to the purity of water and the quality of water
purification systems and affects everything that consumes, lives in, or uses water,
whether organic or inorganic. Total dissolved solids (TDS) comprise inorganic salts or
small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water.Certain components of
TDS, such as chlorides, sulfates, magnesium, calcium, and carbonates, affect
corrosion or encrustation in water-distribution systems (Sawyer and McCarty,

20
1977). Therefore,

21
high TDS levels (>500mg/litre) result in excessive scaling in water pipes, water
heaters and boilers (Tihansky, 1974).

Total salt concentration (for all practical purposes, the total dissolved solids) is one of
the most important agricultural water quality parameters. This is because the salinity
of the soil water is related to, and often determined by, the salinity of the irrigation
water. Accordingly, plant growth, crop yield and quality of produce are affected by
the total dissolved salts in the irrigation water. Equally, the rate of accumulation of
salts in the soil, or soil salinization, is also directly affected by the salinity of the
irrigation (FAO, 2005).

Dissolved salts increase the osmotic potential of soil water and an increase in osmotic
pressure of the soil solution increases the amount of energy which plants must expend
to take up water from the soil. As a result, respiration is increased and the growth and
yield of most plants decline progressively as osmotic pressure increases (FAO, 2005).
A study conducted at a tertiary treatment plant in California indicated an average TDS
of 680mg/l.

2.4.4 Salinity

Salinity is a measure of the amount of dissolved particles and ions in water (Starrett,
2004). It includes mostly chloride, sodium, nitrate, calcium, magnesium, bicarbonate,
and sulfate ions, which make up most of the dissolved material in water (FAO, 2005).
Salination is the accumulation of salts in the soil to an extent that they inhibit the
growth of plants. The salts are the product of the breakdown of rocks and minerals
through weathering. In irrigated areas, these salts often originate from a saline, high
water table or from salts in the applied water. Yield reductions occur when the salts
accumulate in the root zone to such an extent that the crop is no longer able to extract
sufficient water from the salty soil solution, resulting in a water stress for a significant
period of time. If water uptake is appreciably reduced, the plant slows its rate of
growth. The plant symptoms are similar in appearance to those of drought, such as
wilting, or a darker, bluish-green colour and sometimes thicker, waxier leaves.(FAO,
2006) Treated wastewater contains high salt content which can immensely affect
crop growth; thus,
22
there needs to be a standard for salinity . Salinity is usually described in electric
conductivity (EC). The effect that salinity gives to crop growth differs by crop type.
Generally, if the EC of irrigation water is below 700 µs/cm, it does not affect crop
growth; when above 3000 µs/cm, it can cause severe damage ( FAO, 2016)The
salinity of irrigation water needs to be monitored in order to prevent soil salinization
and reduced crop yields (Ayers & Westcot 1985).

All water that passes through the soil is bound to dissolve these salts. The longer is its
course through the soil, the greater is its burden of salts. If the water leaves the soil
through evaporation, then its salt content will be deposited, thereby increasing the
salinity of the soil (Pollock, 2005 ). This scenario is observed in one off the effects of
irrigation which is to raise water table level. Crops can be damaged and plant growth
affected by adding to the burden of salts, by the capillary action of the roots of plants
to be drawn upwards, if groundwater that is saline reaches a level of 2.5 metres below
the surface of the soil(Pollock). Therefore, control of an existing shallow water table is
thus essential to salinity control and to successful long-term irrigated agriculture.
Since salinity has an adjunct problem of water-logging, this challenge can be
overcome only by limiting the quantity of the irrigating waters and by ensuring that
they are sufficiently drained from the soils (Pollock, 2005). A study conducted in
Qatar Country for analysis of water to grow fodder for milking cows had an EC value
of 530 µs/cm (Arab Water World, 1991).

2.4.5 Turbidity

Turbidity is an expression of the optical property that causes light to be scattered and
absorbed (NEERI, 2013). Turbidity can be caused by i.e. Silt, sand and mud; Bacteria
and germs; chemical precipitates. It is an important parameter to measure for water
quality. The prescribed for turbidity measurement by Nephelometer is Nephelometric
Turbidity Units (N.T.U.) (Shakoor, 2015). A high level of turbidity can affect the
performance of the irrigation facility, and can lower the hydraulic conductivity of the
soil and in turn pollute the soil surface through surface flow. In addition, since various
viruses and bacteria can be attached to and migrate along with the solid particles, the
elimination of suspended solids is related to the elimination of germs. Therefore, the

23
standard for turbidity can be set up based on the turbidity’s influence on the irrigation
facility performance, or vegetables which are vulnerable to germ infection. In the case
of indirect wastewater reuse, a strict standard of 2 NTU can be applied for directly
consumed crops, and, for indirectly consumed crops, a specific standard that can
prevent the adverse effects is needed (Wu et al, 2009).

Turbidity measurements are much easier to perform, and results are immediately
available. Although it has to be kept in mind that the relationship between TSS and
turbidity is plant-specific, it is approximately TSS (mg/L) = turbidity (NTU) × 2.35
for settled secondary effluents (Tchobanoglous et al. 2004Disinfection of reclaimed
water may be required for irrigation. Bulk parameters such as turbidity and TSS are
often used to assess water quality prior to disinfection. Mamane (2008) concludes
from reviewed literature that turbidity levels up to roughly 10 NTU can be neglected
for the inactivation of seeded viruses, bacteria and parasites via UV disinfection. For
this case, a turbidity limit <10 NTU is set as required water quality objective prior to
UV disinfection.For instance, when irrigating food crops, the USEPA (2012) suggests
a 24- hour average turbidity of ≤2 FNU, never to exceed 5 NTU at any time.

2.4.6 pH

Hydrogen ion concentration represented by pH is an index upon which irrigation

water is quickly assessed for its suitability. According to Wong et al (2013), pH is a
convenient method of expressing the acid condition of wastewater. It is an indicator of
the acidity or basicity of water but is seldom a problem by itself. Standards for pH
may vary from one place to another. Therefore, measurement of pH in one of the most
important and frequently used tests, as every phase of water and wastewater treatment
and waste quality management is pH dependent (Wong et al, 2013).

Normally, pH is a routine measurement in irrigation water quality assessment. The

normal pH range for irrigation water is from 6.5 to 8.4 according to FAO guidelines.
pH values outside this range are a good warning that the water is abnormal in quality.
The pH outside of the normal range might be suitable for irrigating, but has the

24
potential

25
to cause an imbalance of nutrients or contain poisonous ions . pH affects alkalinity of
soils. It also affects the growth of bacteria. In a study carried out in Outapi, North
Namibia after anaerobic pre-treatment, the mean pH was 6.9 (±0.4), which is within
the optimal range for methane-producing microorganisms (pH 6.6–7.4 (Chernicharo
2007). Lastly, according to Patel and Kanungo (2010), optimum pH levels allow for
growth and survival of plants. The pH outside of the normal range might be suitable
for irrigating, but has the potential to cause an imbalance of nutrients or contain
poisonous ions. The biggest hazard related to an abnormal pH in water is its effect on
irrigation facilities. Exceptionally low pH in irrigation water can expedite the
corrosion process of facilities, and irrigation water containing high levels of alkalinity
can lower the efficiency of the trickle irrigation system ( South Korea Paper). Water
with a low pH can be corrosive while water with a high pH might be scale-forming
(Tchobanoglous et al. 2004). The FAO guidelines generally recommend a ‘normal’
range of pH 6.5–8.4 (Table 1). For drip irrigation systems, a range of pH 7.0–8.0 is
recommended. For sprinkler irrigation, the pH should not be below 6.5 (Ayers &
Westcot 1985).

2.4.7 Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a very crucial parameter for the survival of aquatic
organisms and is used to evaluate the degree of freshness of water (Abakpa et al,
2013). All living organisms depend upon oxygen to maintain the metabolic processes
that produce energy for growth and reproduction. Dissolved oxygen is important in
precipitation and dissolution of inorganic substances in water. It is the basis of BOD
test to evaluate pollution potential of wastes (NEERI, 2013).

2.4.8 Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Generally, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is used as an index for organic matter.
In a high BOD environment, oxygen in water is consumed for decomposing organic
matters to create an anaerobic state, and, during the process of decomposition, oxides
in the soil such as Fe3+, Mn5+, and SO4+ consume oxygen to lower the oxidation-
reduction potential ( Wu et al, 2009). Most organic compounds of human, animal or
plant origin in sewage effluent are rapidly decomposed in the soil. Under aerobic
26
conditions (intermittent flooding), breakdown is generally faster and more complete
(to carbon dioxide, minerals and water) than under anaerobic condition (FAO,1992).

The BOD5 of sewage varies from several hundred to about 1000 mg/l for raw sewage,
and from about 10 to 20 mg/l for good quality secondary effluent (FAO,1992). Several
other guidelines include limits for 5-day BOD. The United States Environmental
Protection Agency, for example, recommends a maximum BOD 5 of 10 mg/L for food
crops and 30 mg/L for non-food and processed food crops (USEPA 2012).
AQUAREC (2006) recommend a BOD5 of 10–20 mg/L for irrigation purposes. In
European guidelines, recommended limits for BOD range from 10 to 20 mg/L for
irrigation of vegetables eaten uncooked (Paranychianakis et al. 2015). A BOD5 of 15
mg/L could be set as water quality objective for irrigation water quality.

2.4.9 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

COD can be defined as a measure of the amount of oxidizable matter present in the
sample that is susceptible to oxidation by strong chemical oxidants (Wong et al,
2013). It is an important parameter which can be rapidly measured as a means of
establishing organic strength for streams and polluted water bodies. COD is a widely
used alternative parameter for BOD when assessing the efficiency of wastewater
treatment steps because results are obtained faster and values are more reproducible
(Tchobanoglous et al. 2004). This parameter is not included in the FAO guidelines. If
the BOD5/TCOD ratio is stable, TCOD water quality objectives can be derived and
used to assess the degree of stabilization of the water.

2.5 NUTRIENTS

Nutrients in wastewater can meet 75% of the fertilizer requirements of a typical farm
in Jordan (Carr et al., 2011). On the other hand, excess nutrients can also reduce crop
productivity, so there is need for careful nutrient management (Hanjra et al., 2012).

27
2.5.1 Nitrates

Nitrogen is essential for all living things as it is a component of protein. Nitrogen

exists in the environment in many forms and changes forms as it moves through the
nitrogen cycle (WHO, 2003). Nitrates are a polyatomic ion with the molecular formula
NO−3 and a molecular mass of 62.0049 g/mol. Nitrogen makes up about 78% of the
atmosphere and is present in streams as nitrogen and ammonia (gaseous forms),
nitrates and nitrites (inorganic forms) and in living matter (organic forms). The
fertility of the soil is dependent on an ample supply of nitrogen compounds and on a
variety of other nutrients and trace elements (Pollock, 2005). Plants cannot obtain their
nitrogen directly from the atmosphere. They must absorb it from the ground in the
form of nitrogen compounds.

In the soil, bacteria convert various forms of nitrogen to nitrate, a nitrogen/oxygen ion
(NO3-) (Forni et al, 2001). There are two kinds of nitrogen-fixing micro-organisms.
There are freeliving bacteria, including the cyanobacteria (or blue-green algae) and
symbiotic bacteria, which are commonly associated with leguminous plants, and with
cereal grasses. The symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria invade the root hairs of host
plants, where they multiply and stimulate the formation of nodules, which contain
plant cells and bacteria in intimate association. Within the nodules, the bacteria
convert free nitrogen to nitrates, which the host plant utilises for its development. In
return, it supplies the carbohydrates that nourish the bacteria. When leguminous plants
die and decay, a substantial part of the nitrogen becomes available for uptake from the
soil by other plants. This is a desirable process as the majority of the nitrogen used by
plants is absorbed in the nitrate form. (Pollock, 2005). However, nitrate is highly
leachable and readily moves with water through the soil profile. If there is excessive
rainfall or over- irrigation, nitrate will be leached below the plant's root zone and may
eventually reach groundwater (Meyers, 1975). Morishita (1985) has reported that
irrigation with nitrogen-enriched polluted water can supply a considerable excess of
nutrient nitrogen to growing rice plants and can result in a significant yield loss of rice
through lodging, failure to ripen and increased susceptibility to pests and diseases as a
result of over- luxuriant growth. A study conducted treated waste water at
Michelson Water

28
Reclamation Plant in California, results indicate an average total nitrates of 4.5 mg/l
which again is within the stipulated FAO guidelines (Wu et al, 2009)

2.5.2 Phosphates

Phosphorus is a nutrient used by organisms for growth. It occurs in natural water and
wastewater bound to oxygen to form phosphates ((Korner and Vermaat, 1988). occurs
in traces in many natural waters, and often in appreciable amounts during periods of
low biologic productivity. Phosphates come from a variety of sources including
agricultural fertilizers, domestic wastewater, detergents, industrial process wastes and
geological formations. Waters receiving raw or treated sewage agricultural drainage,
and certain industrial waters normally contain significant concentrations of phosphate
(NEERI, 2013).

Sewage effluent can contain 5 to 50 mg/l phosphorus, depending on diet and water use
of the local population. During pretreatment of the sewage, and in passage through the
soil of the SAT system, organic phosphorus is biologically converted to phosphate
(FAO,1992) Phosphates are classified as orthophosphates, polyphosphates and organic
phosphates ((Korner and Vermaat, 1988). In calcareous soils and at alkaline pH,
phosphate precipitates with calcium to form calcium phosphate. In acid soils,
phosphate reacts with iron and aluminium oxides in the soil to form insoluble
compounds. Sometimes, phosphate is initially immobilized by adsorption to the soil
and then slowly reverts to insoluble forms, allowing more adsorption of mobile
phosphate, etc. In clean sands with about neutral pH, phosphate can be relatively
mobile (FAO, 1992). Excess phosphates may accumulate in the soil or leach out
(Pescod 1992). Thus, monitoring phosphate loads is necessary for optimal nutrient
management when reclaiming water for irrigation.

2.6 MICROBIAL RISK

2.6.1 Microorganisms

29
The main constitutents that must be removed from sewage effluent before it can be
used for unrestricted irrigation are pathogenic organisms (FAO,1992). The health
hazards associated with direct and indirect wastewater use are of two kinds: the rural
health and safety problem for those working on the land or living on or near the land
where the water is being used, and the risk that contaminated products from the
wastewater use area may subsequently infect humans or animals through consumption
or handling of the foodstuff or through secondary human contamination by consuming
foodstuffs from animals that used the area (WHO, 1989).

Coliform bacteria are defined as rod-shaped Gram-negative non-spore forming and

motile or non-motile bacteria which can ferment lactose with the production of acid
and gas when incubated at 35–37°C. They are a commonly used indicator of sanitary
quality of foods and water. Coliforms do not multiply in water, but behave and
respond to treatment similarly to faecal pathogens, and can be easily measured and it
is this characteristic that enables them to be used in assessment of wastewater quality
(www.cdc.gov). Total coliform includes E. coli as well as a wide range of other
bacteria, traditionally including Citrobacter, Klebsiella, and Enterobacter. Coliform
bacteria are present in the environment and faeces of all warm-blooded animals and
humans. Coliform bacteria are unlikely to cause illness. However, their presence in
wastewater indicates that disease-causing organisms (pathogens) could be in the
system (Nataro JP and Kaper JB 1998).

A bioindicator is an organism or part of an organism or a community of organisms

that contains information on the quality of the environment or a part of the
environment (Li, Zheng and Liu, 2010). Faecal coliforms are the indicator bacteria
most commonly used in discussions of wastewater reuse (Blumenthal et al., 2000).
They are broadly equivalent to “thermotolerant coliforms”. The preferred grouping
would be thermo tolerant “coliforms/Escherichia coli ” which would eventually allow
E. coli to be used as the preferred and exclusively faecal indicator bacterium (Edberg,
2000). Hence are considered an indicator of microbial pollution (Halablab et al.,
2010). Escherichia coli can also be isolated and identified fairly simply, with their
numbers usually being given in the form of faecal coliforms (FC)/100 ml of
wastewater (FAO, 1992). Escherichia
30
coli is present in large numbers in the normal intestinal flora of humans and animals,
where it generally causes no harm. However, in other parts of the body, E. coli can
cause serious disease, such as urinary tract infections, bacteraemia and meningitis.
The strength of E. coli as an indicator of fecal contamination is also summed up by the
presence of the enzyme glucuronidase and galactosidase, which distinguishes it from
other coliforms (Dufour et al., 2003). Previous studies done in the Sahelian region of
Burkina Faso (Guillemin et al., 1991), two districts of Guinea (Gelinas et al., 1996),
peri-urban areas in Kampala Uganda (Howard et al., 2003), Harare, Zimbabwe (Dalu
et al., 2011) and rural, northern Malawi (Kanyerere et al., 2012) reported the presence
of faecal coliforms in at least one of the investigated sources through the use of E. coli
as an indicator organism.

Health impacts are mainly due to pathogens (bacteria e.g. E.coli, viruses, protozoa,
cysts and helminthes eggs) and other organic and inorganic toxic substances which are
likely to exceed health protection standards (WHO, 2006). These pathogenic
organisms, as with treated sewage, have the potential to contaminate both the soil and
the crop depend. The critical factor to consider for wastewater use is that most
wastewater treatment plants were designed to reduce organic pollution of rivers and
lakes and rarely are designed to remove all risks from pathogenic organisms.
Therefore, regardless of the level of treatment provided, some pathogenic organisms
will reach the agricultural fields when the water is used ( FAO 2006). The pathogens
are transmitted to the public through consumption of irrigated produce, especially
crops eaten raw (Blumenthal et al., 2000). Vibrio cholerae, the aetiologic agent of
cholera is consumed from contaminated water, foods including vegetables and
seafood (Adesida et al., 2012) with water playing a central role in its transmission
(Madoroba and Momba, 2012). The pathogens survive for days, weeks and at times
months in the soil and on crops that come in contact with wastewater. Early
approaches to measuring the health risk from these pathogenic micro-organisms
centred on detection. Based upon the fact that these micro-organisms could survive,
detection in any of these environments was sufficient to indicate that a public health
problem existed. It was then assumed that such detection showed evidence that a real
potential for disease transmission existed (Shuval et al., 1986a; Shuval, 1991). Several
studies throughout the world have demonstrated a very close relation between the

31
consumption of fruits and vegetables irrigated with raw

32
wastewater and many food borne diseases like gastroenteritis, cholera, chemical
toxicity etc (Sou et al., 2011). The World Health Organization estimates 200, 000
deaths from food borne pathogens in Nigeria (WHO, 2009).

2.7 UNRESTRICTED IRRIGATION WATER STANDARDS

Improvement in wastewater reuse methods and the quality of reused water for
irrigation is recognized as essential. A well-established legal and regulatory
framework should be put in place for the management of wastewater reuse since
wastewater has potential benefits and at the same time presents hazards to people and
the environment (Bazza,2002). In many countries, water quality objectives are defined
in national standards (Havelaar et al. 2001; Gurel et al. 2007; Paranychianakis et al.
2015). Where they do not (yet) exist, international guidelines of the WHO (1989,
2006) and the FAO (Ayers & Westcot 1985; Pescod 1992) or other well-established
regulations (e.g. USEPA 2012; State of California 2015) are used to develop national
standards (Blumenthal et al. 2000; Gurel et al. 2007). Most water reuse guidelines and
related publications focus on public health issues whereas environmental protection
(eutrophication, salinization, adverse effects of trace elements and trace organic
compounds) plays a minor role in literature (Paranychianakis et al. 2015).

However, the absence of regulations and laws for wastewater reuse or the lack of their
enforcement as the case in most developing countries could result in serious damages,
of health, economic and environmental natures. Most countries enacted laws and
standards; however, in many developing countries enforcement of these laws faces
challenges and constraints (Bazza, 2002). Among developing countries, roughly half
do not have regulations regarding irrigation with treated wastewater (Raschid-Sally &
Jayakody 2009). When realizing water reuse projects in countries without official
rules, either water quality objectives need to be formulated by the implementing
stakeholders (for instance a municipality or non-government organization) or existing
guidelines can be used to assist in monitoring the water quality.

33
The FAO (Ayers & Westcot 1985) and WHO (1989) guidelines have been widely
incorporated into national regulations and are considered suitable for developing
countries (Crook 1991; Havelaar et al. 2001; Paranychianakis et al. 2015). The FAO
guidelines give recommendations on physical and chemical water quality objectives to
prevent harmful effects on soil, plants and irrigation equipment (Ayers & Westcot
1985). However, they do not specifically address the use of treated wastewater for
agricultural irrigation. The presented water quality parameters differ from the range of
parameters commonly used in wastewater treatment. A subsequent publication
(Pescod 1992) was targeted towards the reclamation of treated wastewater for
agricultural irrigation, but it contained the same recommended limits as Ayers &
Westcot (1985). For instance, whereas it is acknowledged that organics contained in
the water may lead to the clogging of drip irrigation systems, no recommendation on
acceptable maximum values is given for aggregate organic constituents (e.g. chemical
oxygen demand). The WHO (2006) guidelines provide a comprehensive framework
for monitoring microbial water quality in agricultural water reuse. The WHO
recommended a microbial guideline of not more than 1000 faecal coliforms/ 100 ml
for unrestricted irrigation, with special emphasis on the removal of helminth eggs
(Fine et al., 2006, El-Zanfaly, 2015). Two examples for the adoption of the WHO
(2006) guidelines are in the Ghanaian guidelines for agricultural irrigation (Amponsah
et al. 2015) and the Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling (NRMMC et al. 2008).

This study WHO and FAO water quality objectives for a water reuse project since it’s
a setting where national regulations do not yet exist. The quality of irrigation water
suitable will be determined by farm practices, such as the type of crop to be grown and
irrigation methods for instance furrow, localised, sprinkler, flood and sub-irrigation
(FAO, 1992). Therefore, available international guidelines are applied to the local
context. Table 2.6.1 and 2.6.2 below show the legal limits according to FAO and
WHO guidelines.

34
2.7.1 Physico-chemical parameters and nutrient parameters

Parameter FAO maximum limit Unit of measurement

Ph 6.5-8.4
TDS <450 Mg/l
TSS <140 Mg/l
Electrical Conductivity 0.7 / 7000 Ds/m/
BOD <240 Mg/l
Salinity 0.7 Ds/m/ 7000 µs/cm Mg/l
COD Not specified Mg/l
Turbidity Not specified NTU
Phosphates 9.5 Mg/l
Nitrates 2 Mg/l
Table 2.7.1

Source: ( Ayers and Westcot 1985, W.H.O, 2006)

Source: World Health Organization (2006) Regional Office for the Eastern
Mediterranean Regional Centre for Environmental Health Activities CEHA

2.7.2 Microbial parameters

Parameter W.H.O maximum limit Unit of measurement

Total faecal coliforms <1000 Cfu/100ml
Table 2.7.2

Source: WHO (1989), W.H.O (2006)

35
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.0 INTRODUCTION

Parahoo (1997) describes a research design as “a plan that describes how, when and
where data is to be collected and analyzed. This chapter addresses research
methodology in terms of research strategies, sampling procedures, research
instruments, data-collecting procedures and data analysis. The purpose of this chapter
is to provide a rationale for the research methodology which was ultimately chosen,
and to discuss the process for applying the methodology in analysing the water quality
of the final pond for unrestricted irrigation. Rajarsek (2003) further contended that it is
necessary for a researcher to design a methodology for the problem chosen to get
truthful findings and arrive at appropriate solutions to the problem.

Map showing AFDIS Waste Stabilization Ponds

SAMPLING POINT

Fig 3.1
(Source: Google Earth pro 2019)

36
3.1 STUDY AREA

African Distillers Limited is a company that is situated in the North-West region of

Harare. The core business of African Distillers Limited is the manufacture,
distribution and marketing of branded spirits, ciders and wines for the Zimbabwean
market and for export. It was initially registered in Bulawayo as P. J Jourbet in the
year 1944 and two years later the company’s name changed to African Distillers
Limited. In its early years, African Distillers Limited concentrated on the sale and
distribution of imported spirits, liqueurs and wines. A distillery was later acquired in
Mutare and the local production of spirits was initiated. The company became a
publicly quoted company in 1951 and it moved to Stapleford in 1974. Its current
headquarters, houses the production, warehousing and distribution facilities. The
geological coordinates of the study area are
-17.719251, 30.891470. The study was conducted on the last waste stabilization pond,
the fourth settling dam (SD4 ) at the waste stabilisation ponds at African Distillers
Ltd. The amount of waste water used per month constitutes to approximately cubic
meters per week.

3.2 STUDY DESIGN

This study used an experimental research design which made use of both lab based
and field based experiments to determine the water quality parameters under study.
The experimental method is a process that involves making precise and detailed
observations of outcomes when a particular factor is introduced or removed
(Anderson, 1990). The experiments generated quantitative data which allowed the
results to be easily collated and presented statistically.

3.3SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
A non-probability sampling technique called purposive sampling was used in the
study. This was because of the researchers’ prior knowledge of the study area. The
samples were collected using once- off grab sampling technique at the outlet of the
final pond (Settling Dam 4 -SD4), the last waste stabilization pond, for water
reclamation before from which water is discharged into the environment.
37
A grab sample is when the water samples is taken at a specific time and point which
gives an indication of the water quality at that point in time. This is done by filling a
container held beneath the surface of the water.

3.4 SAMPLE COLLECTION, PRESERVATION AND STORAGE

The samples were collected following standard procedure as described by APHA

(1992) and. Pre-washed 2 litre plastic bottles were used for sample collection. The
samples bottles were labelled on the field using appropriate codes

After conducting the grab sampling exercise the bottles were protected and sealed to
prevent loss of constituents. Some physico-chemical parameters were measured in situ
and the rest of the parameters were measured at the National University of Science
and Technology (NUST) laboratory.

The samples were transported in a cooler box until they reached the National
University of Science and Technology laboratory. Samples were kept away from
exposure to sunlight. The refrigerated samples kept for analysis at NUST were for
some physicochemical parameters, microbial analysis and nutrient analysis.

3.5 DATA COLLECTION

Several experiments were performed during data collection. These experiments were
to measure pH, temperature, turbidity, TDS, TSS, Salinity,conductivity, BOD, COD,
nitrates, and microbial levels. Findings, observations and calculations were made
during the experiments and these were noted down for analysis. The experiments to be
performed are described in the methods provided for in the Appendices section.

3.6 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS

pH , salinity, conductivity, TDS, turbidity, temperature were measured in situ by

immersing the Lovibond Senso Direct 150 multimeter in the sample collected for a
few minutes then taking the reading there after.

38
3.6.1 Turbidity

The apparatus used for turbidity measurement is a Secchi disc.

Procedure

1. The observation will be made at midday.

2. The Secchi disc was lowered through a shaded area of water surface
3. As the disc was lowered, the depth at which it just disappeared from view was
noted.
4. The disc was lowered a little further, then raised.
5. The depth at which it reappeared was noted.
6. The same exercise was repeated least 3 times for accuracy of results

Results

The average of the two depth readings was reported as the Secchi disc transparency.

3.6.2 Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Samples were taken from the SD4 pond and kept in an airtight bottle. Refrigeration
was used to preserve the sample below 4 degrees celcius after grab sample collection
since samples for Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD ) degrade significantly during
storage between collection and analysis, resulting in low BOD values. BOD was
determined according to procedures outlined in the Standard Method for the
Examination of Water and Waste water (APHA, 1998) elaborated in the appendices.

3.6.2.1 Determination of DO and biological oxygen demand (BOD)

Dissolved Oxygen (DO) was analysed using the modified Winkler titration method.
Analysis was done on the same day that samples were collected. The initial DO was
recorded for each sample, for the different sites. For BOD, the recorded vales for DO
were used as initial BOD. Water samples from which the small volumes for DO
testing were drawn, were taken and incubated in air-tight 250ml bottles, in
locked dark

39
cupboard for 5 days at room temperature. DO was then tested on the 5th day to determine
BOD5. BOD5 was calculated as:
(𝐷1−𝐷2)
BOD5 (mg/L) =
𝑃

Where D1 = initial DO of the sample, D2 = final DO of the sample after 5 days, and P
= dilution factor used for the sample if it was diluted due to low Dissolved Oxygen in
the sample water.

3.6.3 Chemical Oxygen Demand

It is used as a measure of the equivalent of the organic matter of a sample that is

susceptible to oxidation by strong chemical oxidant and in this instance potassium
dichromate. Chemical Oxygen Demand was determined by the Dichromate Reflux
method according to APHA standards (APHA, 2005).

3.6.4 Total Suspended Solids

Procedure

1. Weigh filter paper and record initial mass of the filter paper
2. Oven dry the filter paper to remove any moisture within the paper
3. Filter 100ml of sample
4. Oven dry filter paper again at 80 degrees celcius
5. Weight the final weight after drying

3.6.4.1 Total Suspended Solids Determination

TSS= Final filter paper weight – Initial filter paper weight

3.7 NUTRIENT CONTENT ANALYSIS

3.7.1 Total Nitrates determination

Direct colorimetric method was used to measure total nitrate concentrations in water as
per standard method (American Public Health Association APHA, 2013). Distilled

40
water (50ml) was added to 5ml of sample volume and placed on a hot plate stove to
dryness. Freshly prepared Phenol - Disulphonic acid (PDA) (2ml) were allowed to
react with the nitrate sample producing a yellow nitro-derivate alkaline solution and
10ml of concentrated ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) was gently added. Sample
absorbance of samples was measured colorimetrically with the aid of a visible
spectrophotometer set as determined at 520nm. Colour intensity produced followed
the Beers Law, and was compared to total nitrate concentration in the sample. The
total nitrate concentration is directly proportional to the colour produced and its
intensity.

3.7.2 Total Phosphates determination

Colorimetric method using stannous chloride was used to measure total phosphate
concentration (APHA, 2013). Phenolphthalein indicator (0.05ml) and 1ml of H2SO4
were added to 50ml of sample size. The solution was boiled for 30 to 40 minutes until
volume of 10ml was reached. During colorimetric development, 4.0ml of molybdate
reagent and 0.5ml of stannous chloride reagent was added. Colour intensity was
measured photometrically at 690nm using distilled water as blank. A calibration curve
was used to determine the concentration of total phosphates.

3.8 MICROBIAL ANALYSIS

3.8.1 Total feacal coliform count

Total faecal coliform counts (TFCC) were tested by standard plate counts (Feng et al.,
2012). Sample of 100ml was filtered through a 0.45μm. This technique assumes that
each bacterium, clump of bacteria, or particle with bacteria attached, give rise to a
single visible colony hence the results are expressed as colony forming units per unit
volume. The membrane retains the bacteria (total faecal coliform) on its surface and
was transferred to an m-Fc agar plate and incubated for 24 hours at 440C to allow the
bacteria to multiply and form colonies. Number of colonies counted was directly
linked to faecal bacteriological content of the final pond water using the formula:
Coliform per 100ml = (Number of faecal coliforms counted) / (number of mL of

41
sample filtered) × 100.

42
All the aseptic techniques were carefully observed throughout the procedure. The
tables were constantly swabbed with 10% alcohol after every 5 minutes. Most of the
work was done near a burning flame to induce a sterile environment on the work
bench. The flame shall was also used to sterilize equipment such as scapulars, the
mouths of the sample bottles and the filtration unit to avoid contamination by
microorganisms from the external environment.

3.9 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

The experiments generated quantitative data which allowed the results to be easily
collated and presented. The statistical analysis that was used were differential
statistics, where standard deviations were calculated. The quantitative data analysed
was compared to FAO and WHO guidelines. The results were presented in the tables
and graphs through use of Microsoft Excel.

43
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

4.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter shows the results for microbial tests for indicator organisms (total
coliforms), physico-chemical parameters (pH, TDS, DO, BOD, COD, TSS, turbidity,
conductivity, and salinity) and nutrient tests ( phosphates and nitrates). Bar graphs and
tables were used to present the results. Standard deviation of the results obtained from
the FAO and WHO guidelines was calculated in Microsoft Excel.

4.1 PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS

PARAMETER VALUE FROM FAO Standard UNIT OF

ANALYSIS MEASUREMENT
Total Dissolved 517 450 Mg/l
Solids
Electrical 863 700 µs/cm
Conductivity
pH 7.70 6.5-8.4
Salinity 863 700 µs/cm
Biochemical 2.4 240 Mg/l
Oxygen Demand
Total Suspended 31.4 140 Mg/l
Solids
Dissolved Oxygen 2.30 Mg/l
Chemical Oxygen 76 Mg/l
Demand
Turbidity 4.74 N.T.U
Table 4.1 physico-chemical analysis

Exceeding the limit according to FAO guidelines

Within acceptable limit according to FAO

guidelines
44
4.1.1 pH

The results illustrated in Figure 4.1 show the levels of pH compared to the guideline
set by FAO. From our sampling, the results showed that the waste water in the final
pond was mainly close to neutral. It was within the acceptable pH range between 6.5-
8.4. The value obtained was 7.70. The standard deviation from the minimum
acceptable (6.5) was 0.85 and from the maximum acceptable limit (8.4) it was 0.49.

pH
9
8 8,47,7 8,48,48,4
7
6 6,56,56,56,5
5
4
3
2
1
0

SAMPLE VALUE SAMPLE VALUE

Series 7,7
STANDARD 6,5 6,5 6,5 6,5
STANDARD2 8,4 8,4 8,4 8,4

Series STANDARD STANDARD2

Figure 4.1.1 pH

4.1.2 TDS

TDS in water is a measure of the total inorganic salts as well other dissolved
substances. These solids are in solution and therefore are not filterable. High TDS is a
measure of gross pollution due to inorganic salt content. The sampled value of TDS
was 517 which exceeded FAO standard limit of 450mg/l. TDS from statistical
analysis the standard deviation was 33.5.

45
 TDS
540
520
500
480
460
440
420
TDS

400

Series1

SAMPLE VALUE STANDARD

517 450

Axis Title

Figure 4.1.2 TDS

4.1.3 Conductivity

EC is known to be an important parameter of reclaimed water quality. The measurement of

the Electrical Conductivity (EC) of liquids, which is generally determined by the ionic
compounds dissolved in water, is important in many industries. EC measurement in any
solution illustrates the presence of organic and inorganic materials in the solution. The
value for conductivity obtained was 863 µs/cm. The value is above the 700 µs/cm
which is the set standard according to the FAO guidelines as illustrated
diagrammatically in Figure 4.1.3. Statistical analysis found standard deviation to be
115.28.
CONDUCTIVITY
1000
900
800
Conductivity

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0 SAMPLE VALUE STANDARD
Series1 863 700

46
Figure 4.1.3 Conductivity

47
4.1.4 Salinity

The salinity levels in reclaimed wastewater is invariably higher than in source water.
As the salinity level of reclaimed wastewater increases, the growth of sensitive crops
is reduced. Since salinity and conductivity are correlated the results from sampling are
similar. The value obtained was 863 µs/cm. The value was above the set FAO
guidelines for unrestricted irrigation which is 700 µs/cm as shown in Figure 4.1.4.
From statistical analysis, the standard deviation was 115.28.

SALINITY
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
Salinity

300
200
100
0

Series1

SAMPLE VALUE STANDARD

863 700

Figure 4.1.4 Salinity

4.1.5 Total Suspended Solids

Suspended solids which are also referred to as settleable solids are defined as solids
that will settle out of the wastewater if it is allowed to stand undisturbed. The test for
settleable solids is to allow the solids to settle out of the wastewater for 30 minutes
and then determine the volume of solids. The sampled effluent had a low value 0.0314
g/l (31,4mg/l) for the settleable solids. Statistical analysis proved the standard
deviation to be 0.968.

48
 TSS
1,6
1,4
1,2
1
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
TSS

Series1

SAMPLE VALUE STANDARD

0,03 1,4

Figure 4.1.5 TSS

4.1.6 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

BOD is an important biochemical parameters commonly used to examine wastewater

quality since they reflect the organic load in wastewater. It shows the adequacy and
reliability of the effluent treatment process. After analysis the results for BOD were
2.4 mg/l . Statistical test showed that the standard deviation was 168.01.

BOD
300

250

200
BOD

150

100

50
SAMPLE VALUE STANDARD
Series1 0 2,4 240

Axis Title

Figure 4.1.6 BOD

49
4.2 NUTRIENT ANALYSIS

PARAMETER VALUE FROM FAO UNITS OF

ANALYSIS STANDARD MEASUREMENT
Nitrates 1.321 9.5 Mg/l
Phosphates 0.88 2 Mg/l
Table 4.2 Nutrient Analysis

Exceeding the limit according to FAO guidelines

Below the limit according to FAO guidelines

4.2.1 Nitrates

Excessive nitrate contents may affect transplants and sensitive crops at the initial
growth stage. The effluent after nitrate analysis indicated that the nitrates
concentration are 1.32mg/l which are below the stipulated FAO limit that is 9.5mg/l.
Standard deviation was calculated to be 5.783.

Nitrates
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
nitrates

3
2
1
0

SAMPLE VALUE STANDARD

Series1 1,321 9,5

Figure 4.2.1 Nitrates

50
4.2.2 Phosphates

Total phosphates were 0.88 mg/L. It was within the acceptable legal limit according to
FAO for phosphates is 2mg/L.This is illustrated in Fig 4.4.2. The standard deviation
was 0.79.

Phosphates
2,5

1,5
phosphates

0,5

0
SAMPLE VALUE STANDARD
0,88 2
Series1
Figure 4.2.2Phosphates

4.3 MICROBIAL ANALYSIS

PARAMETER VALUE FROM W.H.O STANDARD UNIT OF

ANALYSIS LIMIT MEASUREMENT
Total faecal coliform 290 1000 Cfu/100ml
count
Table 4.3Microbial analysis

Exceeding the limit according to FAO

guidelines Below the limit according to FAO

guidelines

4.3.1 Total faecal coliform count

51
Feacal coliform count is an indicator that serves to show the extent of disinfection
through the ttreatment process. Total or faecal coliform is considered to minimize
exposures to pathogenic organisms.

The results were indicated that the total coliform count was 290cfu/100ml which is
below the FAO limit of 1000cfu/100ml. This is elaborated in Figure 4.3.1. The
standard deviation was calculated to be 502.04.

TOTAL FEACAL COLIFORM

1200

1000

800
total feacal

600

400

200

0
SAMPLE VALUE STANDARD
Series1 290 1000

Figure 4.3.1 Total faecal coliform

52
 CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
5.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter generally looked at the study results in comparison to what other scholars
found and it specified the reasons as to why these results were the way they were .i.e.
the contributing factors to the values obtained.

5.1 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL RESULTS

5.1.1 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
The results obtained were 517mg/l. The mean TDS concentration slightly exceeds the
FAO limit of 450 mg/.

Results were similar to a study conducted at Umguza Community from 2013-2015

where Madangombe et al (2015) alluded that the total dissolved solids had a mean of
607.6 g/l. This shows that the there is a great measure of organic material within the
water. This could have been attributed by the fact that the water is effectundertreated.

However, in a study that was conducted in Outapi in North Namibia, contrasting

results were observed . TDS concentrations were found to be 375 mg/L in the effluent
which are below the FAO limit of 450 mg/L and therefore acceptable for irrigation
purposes (Muller, 2017).

5.1.2 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

The researcher obtained 30mg/l of TDS which is below the FAO limit of 140mg/l
indicating good quality of effluent for unrestricted irrigation in respect to TSS. The
value obtained could as a result of long retention time given to the influent allowing
solids to settle. Similarly a study carried out in Bughyashri (2010), the TSS was 5.25
mg L-1 which clearly satisfied the maximum accepted limits required by FAO
standards (Al- Turki, 2010). Furthermore similar results were observed at Outapi
treatment plant
53
had content of solids >20 μm was 12 mg/L in the influent of the micro screen
(Tchobanoglous et al. 2004).

In contrast, Colmenarejoa et al. (2006) carried out a survey of eight wastewater

treatment plant with different technology in Spain and found that TSS range from 40
to 139 mg L-1 indicating low quality of the effluent in respect to TSS.

5.1.3 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

The results obtained were 2.4mg/l. These results were relatively low but within the
acceptable limits of below 240mg/l as stated by the FAO guidelines. From these
results it can be depicted that the water is therefore suitable for unrestricted irrigation.
This value was attributed by the factors such as the waste stabilization ponds which
are highly efficient. Muller (2017) his study concurred with the researcher’s study.
The BOD5 result obtained was 5.5 mg/L in the effluent. Thus, the effluent was
stabilized to a large degree and its suitability for unrestricted irrigation as far as FAO
regulations are concerned. Hansoek (2016) in examining water quality of the treated
wastewater effluents from the 44 Waste water Treatment Plants South Korea obtained
similar results with an average BOD measurement was 2.6 mg/L. Furthermore another
study conducted by Al Sa’ed (2007) concurred with these results . The chemical
analysis of reclaimed effluent revealed that BOD values ranged between 3–4 mg/l.
The short-term results are thought to encourage and enhance the promotion of
reclaimed effluent use for crops irrigation on a wide scale ( Al Saéd, 2007).

However another scholar, Al-Salem 1987, in his study he found contrasting results.
The BOD at AlSamra waste stabilization ponds Inlet has an average of 623mg/l which
is way above the FAO maximum concentration (Al-Salem, 1987). This is because the
water had not been sufficiently recycled to meet the FAO legal limit, it had only
undergone anaerobic digestion only.

5.1.4 pH

The pH measurement was 7.70. It was within the FAO pH range of 6.5-8.4 suitable fro
vegetable production. This could be as a result of effective treatment by the waste-

54
stabilisation ponds. Similar results were obtained in a study done by Muller and
Cornel (2017), the pH obtained was 6.8. This was as a result of waste anaerobic pre-
treatment, which is then treated aerobically furthermore no denitrification was
implemented and this decreased of the pH. Furthermore Jeong et al.,2016 found the
average pH value to be 7.73 which clearly satisfied the maximum limits required by
FAO standards for unrestricted irrigation. The pH values in the current study were
similar to those observed in Isfahan, Iran, by Abedi-Koupai et al. (2006), who reported
a pH of 7.8 for wastewater samples.

Contrasting results were observed in a study conducted in Zimbabwe in Umguza

Community the pH of water samples had an average pH of 8.9 throughout the three
sampling sessions and points (Madangombe et al, 2015) These values are higher than
the maximum permissible limit of 6.5 to 8.4 set aside by FAO (1985).The values are
favourable to growth of microorganisms. This mean result could be as a result of
partial treatment of waste-water.

5.1.5 Salinity

Water salinity, expressed as Electrical Conductivity (EC), is perhaps one of most

important parameters affecting soil characteristics and plant growth. Salinity is usually
described in electric conductivity (EC) type. The measured salinity value was 863
µs/cm. This was slightly above the FAO legal limit of 700 µs/cm. This value was so
slightly higher because reclaimed effluents will normally fall within salinity levels
usually ranging between (ECw = 700 to 3000 µs/cm) ( Ayers and Westcot, 1985) .

The water is still suitable for waste-water re-use in irrigation because it has slight to
moderate salinity (i.e. 700-3000 µs/cm), which does not have an immediate limitation
in crop choice, dissolved salts still need to be monitored and leached to prevent
accumulation in the soil. In a study conducted in India, the mean of salinity level of
the effluent was 334 µs/cm indicating its suitability for irrigation (Kumar et al, 2014).
According to Ayers and Westcot (1985), FAO guidelines for interpretations of water
quality for irrigation, indicate that no serious problems are expected from using the
effluent with this salinity level for irrigation. Saline water with EC value of 530 µs/cm
was used in a similar condition in Qatar Country to grow fodder for milking cows with
no adverse effect (Arab Water World, 1991). A field study done by Sheikh et al.

55
(1990)

56
after assessment for five years indicated that low acceptable values can be obtained as
a result of improving treatment plant operations and reclaimed water storage
procedures. The value obtained was 597 µs/cm. The results of this 5-year study
ascertain that use of tertiary treated wastewater for food crop irrigation is safe and
acceptable (Sheik et al, 1991).

5.1.6 Electrical Conductivity (EC)

In this study, the conductivity of the reclaimed effluent was 863 μS/cm which is
higher that the FAO lower permissible limits of 700 μS/cm. That means that the water
is still suitable but but care must be taken to achieve the required leaching fraction in
order to maintain soil electrical conductivity within the tolerance of the crops.

Similar results were obtained in the average quality characteristics of the treated
wastewater from La Cherguia and sewage sludge from Soukra and Nabeul where the
electrical conductivity was 2970 μS/cm (Bahri 1988). The value is higher than the
FAO limit but the effluent contains moderate to high salinity but presents no
alkalization risk hence it is suitable for unrestricted irrigation

Contrasting results were found in another study where the EC of the effluent was 527
in the effluent due to domestic water use. The mean EC value is lower than the FAO
limit of 700 μS/cm. Hence the water is re-usable in unrestricted irrigation (Chhaya and
Kumar, 2014). Results of the current study were in contrast with the EC values in
Isfahan, Iran (Abedi-Koupai et al., 2006), which were within the standards set by FAO
(2010).

5.2 NUTRIENT ANALYSIS

5.2.1 Nitrates

The results indicate that the total nitrates within the reclaimed effluent is 1.321mg/l
which is below the stipulated limited from the FAO guidelines. Thus this implies that
the water in terms of the FAO guidelines is suitable for re-use as they are not in excess
to harm the plant. The nitrate content within the samples tested could have been as a
result of efficient nitrogen removal within the waste water within the facultative
ponds.
57
Similar results were obtained when reservoir irrigation water was used in South Korea
in a study conducted by ( Jeong et al, 2016). The results confirmed a total nitrate value
of 1.1 mg/L which is relatively good in relation to FAO guidelines which stipulate
maximum concentration of 9.5mg/l. Similarly another study conducted treated waste
water at Michelson Water Reclamation Plant in California, results indicate an average
total nitrates of 4.5 mg/l which again is within the stipulated FAO guidelines (Wu et
al, 2009). This was as a result of use of advanced treatment which enabled removal of
nitrogen.

5.2.2 Phosphates

The results show a mean of 0.88mg/l which is below the FAO guidelines, vividly
indicating that the total phosphates within the reclaimed effluent is acceptable
according to the FAO legal limit of less than or equal to 2mg/l. A study of treated
waste water form Michelson Water Reclamation Plant in California showed total
phosphates (orthophosphates) results to have a mean of 1.2 which is within acceptable
limits in accordance with the FAO guidelines. This was because of high efficiency in
phosphate removal by advanced treatment systems. Furthermore, Jeong et al (2016)
obtained similar results after conducting a study in South Korea where total phosphate
value attributed value was 0.05 mg/L which is acceptable according to the FAO
guidelines.

However, results observed in a study conducted in Namibia where a treatment plant in

Outapi had mean total phosphates was 8.4 mg/L in the effluent. This may have been
because of high daily loadings in relation to the capacity design of the plant to
sufficiently reclaim water that meets the FAO guidelines (Muller, 2017).

5.3 MICROBIAL ANALYSIS

5.3.1 Total Faecal Coliform Count

The results indicate that the microbial count is 290cfu/100ml which is within range
with the WHO guidelines 1989 which stipulate total coliforms of 1000cfu/100ml as
the limit. This value could be as a result of the secondary treatment process of waste
58
stabilisation

59
ponds at African Distillers, which are 11 in number to increase the effectiveness of
pathogen removal. This entails that as far as bacteriological count is concerned the
reclaimed waste water is suitable for re-use in unrestricted irrigation. Similar results
were obtained by other scholars in northeast Brazil. According to Mara and Silva 1986
the mean annual performance of five waste stabilization ponds in series in northeast
Brazil resulted in maturation ponds having a mean of 450cfu/100ml and the
maturation ponds having 30cfu/100ml (Peasy et al, 2000). The mean total of
30cfu/100ml further elaborates that the use of stabilization ponds meets the
recommended WHO guidelines 1989 if the waste stabilization ponds are in good
operation and maintenance state and enough retention time is given.

In contrast the microbiological performance at the Al Samra ponds did not meet the
WHO guidelines spite of having passed through the series of ponds with a minimum
theoretical retention time of 34 days. The total coliforms observed averaged to
814cfu/100ml. (Saqqar and Pescod, 1990). The obtained results were in contrast to a
study in Peru compared the microbiological quality of crops irrigated with water of
differing qualities (Castro de Esparza & Vargas 1990). The presence of total faecal
coliforms in treated wastewater were 1.7 x 1000FC/100ml effluent ( Peasey et al,
2000).The value for total coliform count could be as a result of the stabilisation ponds
not being exposed to temperatures between 24-27 degrees Celsius to allow for
effective removal of pathogens by ultra-violet radiation from the sun. Contrasting
results were observed also by Al-Turki (2010) where the effluent strongly indicated a
very high degree of sanitation. The value obtained was 1 cfu/100 mL. This could have
been because after secondary treatment of influent, the effluent is then treated again
using advanced methods which include chlorination and filtration. Furthermore,
microbial quality of the reclaimed effluent at Albireh wastewater treatment plant and
reclamation site showed a value 0f 10cfu/100ml. This was attributed by the advanced
tertiary treatment units that used sand filtration in conjunction with chlorine
disinfectant (Al- Saed, 2007).

60
 CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter gave the overall conclusion and recommendations of the study
basing on the results obtained as to whether or not the industrial effluent is
suitable for unrestricted irrigation.

6.1 CONCLUSION
1. Generally the water can be said to be suitable for re-use in unrestricted
irrigation since parameters such as pH, TSS, salinity, conductivity and BOD
were in spec when compared against the FAO standards. The water is not
suitable in relation to Total Dissolved Solids
2. The water is suitable for re-use in unrestricted irrigation since the nitrates and
the phosphates values are compliant with the FAO maximum concentration
limits
3. The water is suitable for use since it does not present pathogenic risk to the
consumer and the workers who deal with irrigation pipes

6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

 There is need for the international regulations to specify the maximum limits
in relation to turbidity and COD for adoption by policy makers for instance the
Environmental Management Agency in Zimbabwe
 African Distillers Ltd needs to conduct water quality tests on a regular basis.
The need for constant checking on a weekly basis is to ascertain that there is
no pathogenic risk since the industrial waste water is comprised of distillery
effluent and raw sewer from the Compound
 The organisation needs to adopt drip irrigation facilities so as to minimize
pathogenic risk

61
 Further study needs to be conducted in relation to helminth count and other
bacteria such as Salmonella typhi and other species of bacteria to prevent
outbreaks of conditions such as cholera
 The organisation in its Wellness Program needs to schedule awareness
campaigns to exposed groups of people such as the Compound and the
workers who come into contact with the water or irrigated surfaces or the
crops

62
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 APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1: Biological Oxygen Demand

Winkler Titration Method

a. Shake the water sample thoroughly to mix

b. Collect 250ml from the water sample into a beaker

c. Add 1ml of manganese sulphate to the water sample by inserting the calibrated
pipette underneath the surface of the water sample

d. Add 1ml of alkali-iodide-azide reagent to the water sample and shake the sample to
allow mixing.

A cloudy precipitate is formed immediately after adding alkali-iodide-azide reagent is

taken note of.

e. Add 1ml of concentrated sulphuric acid to the sample via a pipette and shake the
sample

f. Collect 201ml from the previous 250ml sample for titration

g. Titrate the 201ml sample by slowly adding droplets of sodium thiosulphate from a
calibrate pipette into the flask and continue stirring the water sample

h. Add droplets of iodine solution to the sample

sample turns blue-black

i. Continue titrating by adding droplets of sodium thiosulphate to the water sample

until the sample becomes clear

j. When sample becomes clear the dissolved oxygen is equivalent to the number of
parts per million (sodium thiosulphate) titrant used

k. After finding D1 dissolved oxygen incubate the sample for five days

l. After 5 days repeat steps (a.-j.) to find D2 dissolved oxygen

Calculation

BOD5 is calculated using the formula:

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BOD (𝐷1−𝐷2)
5 (mg/L) = 𝑃

Where D1 = initial DO of the sample, D2 = final DO of the sample after 5 days, and P
= dilution factor used for the sample if it was diluted due to low Dissolved Oxygen in
the sample water.

APPENDIX 2: Chemical Oxygen

Demand A closed reflux method will be used

(APHA, 2005). Apparatus

COD digester, burette, burette stand, COD Vials with stand, 250ml conical flask, pipette
tube, tissue paper, and wash bottle

Reagents

Potassium dichromate, sulphuric acid, ferrous ammonium sulphate, silver sulphate,

mercury sulphate, Ferroin indicator, organic free distilled water

Procedure

1. Take 2.5 ml water sample in tube and 2.5ml of distilled water another tube.

2. Add 1.5ml of potassium dichromate to both the tubes

3. Carefully add 3.5 ml of sulphuric acid reagent to both tubes

4. Tightly close the tubes kept in COD digester at 150 degrees for 2 hours

5. After cooling to room temperature transfer the content to the conical flask

6. Fill the burette with freshly prepared Ferrous ammonium sulphate. Add 2 drops of
Ferroin indicator.

7. Titrate the contents against Ferrous ammonium sulphate. Continue the titration till
the colour changes to reddish brown.

COD = volume of Ferrous Ammonium sulphate for blank volume of ferrous ammonium
sulphate for sample normality of ferrous ammonium sulphate volume of sample
/volume of sample taken.

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To convert the sample size from mL to L, multiply the result by 1000 ml/L to convert
the sample size from ml to L.

APPENDIX 3: Phosphates

Reagents

1. Phosphate Standard Stock Solution

2. 4N H2SO4 : Measure 112ml of concentrated H2SO4 and dilute 1L.

3. Ammonium Molybdate: Dissolve 9.6g of Ammonium Molybdate in a little volume

of water, heat to dissolve and make up 1L.

4. Mixed Reagent: 10% Ascorbic acid ; Pottasium Antimony Tartarate: Dissolve

0.667g in 250ml of water.

Procedure

1. Pipette 25ml aliquot samples into 50ml measuring cylinders.

2. Make up 1 blank using 25ml of distilled water.

3. Make up one standard using 10ml of phosphate standard working solution and
bring thi to a 25ml volume with distilled water.

4. To blank, standard and samples, add 5ml of 4N sulphuric acid, 5ml ammonium
molybdate and mix.

5. Add 4ml of the mixed reagent then make up blank, standard and samples to 50ml
with distilled water.

6. Mix and stand for 30 minutes.

7. Using 1-cm cuvettes, set spectrophotometer to a wavelength of 890mm and zero the
spectrophotometer using a blank.

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APPENDIX 4: Nitrates

Reagents

1.
Nitrate stock solution: dissolve 721,8mg anhydrous Potassium Nitrate (KNW 3) in
distilled water and dilute to 1 L. 1 ml=0.1mg. Prior to the assay, pipette and dilute
50ml of the nitrate stock solution to 500ml.

2.
Sodium salicylate solution: dissolve 2.5g sodium salicylate in distilled water and
make up to 500ml with distilled water

3.
NaOH (25%) solution: dissolve 25g of NaOH in water and make up to 100ml.

4.
Concentrated H2SO4

Procedure

1. Place suitable aliquot of about (5ml for sewage water, 10ml for drinking water) in a
50ml beaker.

2. Make one standard using 5ml the Nitrate standard stock solution in a separate beaker.

3. To the blank, standard and sample, add 2ml of sodium salicylate solution.

4. Evaporate all the contents of the beakers to dryness on the water bath.

5. Remove the beaker from the bath, cool and add 1ml of concentrated H2SO4
ensuring that all the residues on the sides of the beakers are washed.

6. Stand the beakers for 15 minutes then add 30ml of distilled water followed by 10ml
of 25% NaOH.

7. Pour the contents of the beaker into 100mlmeasuring cylinders, thoroughly washing
out the beakers with distilled water. Make up the volume to 100ml with water.

8. Mix and read at wavelength of 410nm in a UV/V is spectrophotometer

71