CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

In recent decades, the growth in the global population has resulted in a greater increase in water

demand. Increased domestic and industrial water demand has resulted in groundwater

overexploitation, especially in arid and semi-arid regions where water supplies are scarce and

eventually results in higher volume of waste water being generated (Ebrahimi et al., 2016). Due

to the scarcity of freshwater available to agriculture and the high volume of urban waste water

being generated, reuse of waste water has become an alternative for irrigation of agricultural land

due to its low cost. Besides the decrease in the use of freshwater for irrigation, waste water reuse

may also reduce the discharge of effluents into freshwater ecosystem thereby enriching the soil

with organic matter, macro and micro nutrients (Ganjegunte et al., 2018). Waste water is a

valuable source of plant nutrient and organic matter needed for the conservation of soil fertility

and productivity (Rusan et al., 2007). Irrigation with waste water has been shown to result in

increase in growth, yield and plant constituents (Aghtape et al., 2011). However, regardless the

benefits, prolonged inappropriate reuse of waste water could negatively impact the human,

environment and soil quality (Kabata-Pendias and Mukherjee, 2007). Consequently, with respect

to the use of waste water, concerns are frequently stated about degradation of soil quality and

accumulation of heavy metals.

Soil micro-organisms exhibit increased metabolic activity under irrigation with waste water

(Melissa et al., 2002; Ramirez-Fuentes et al., 2002). Organic carbon, total nitrogen, microbial

biomass C and N and microbial activity increases with increase in the time duration of waste

water irrigation (Ramirez-Fuentes et al., 2002). Concentrations of total Mg, Hg, Mo, Ca, Cu, and

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Cr, and available concentrations of Pb, Cd, and Cu increase substantially in soils under waste

water irrigation, and the concentrations remain below the hazardous levels (Ramirez-Fuentes et

al., 2002). The findings of Singh et al. (2009) shows that some harmful effects like inhibition of

root and shoot growth, and reduction in yield are due to the accumulation of these heavy metals

in plants grown at waste water-irrigated fields.

As an important part of preserving soil quality, soil microorganism participates in most

biological and biochemical activities and are sensitive to reflect the change of soil health

(Stenberg, 1999). The soil microbial population, composition and behaviour are complex

processes with environmental change and the number of microbial living cells is considered one

of the most important biological indicators (Li et al., 2009). Waste water irrigation will cause a

change in microhabitat to some degree, which will have a great impact on soil microbial

activities (Zhang et al., 2008). For instance, wastewater irrigation provides water, minerals, and

nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus as well as other organic matter to soil (Minz et al.,

2011). These factors may have beneficial effects on soil microbial communities and in turn soil

fertility (Gans et al., 2005). The natural soil environment is affected by wastewater in a variety

of ways, including biological, physical, and chemical. The use of untreated wastewater for

irrigation without risk assessments and management can endanger water, soil, and humans

(Murtaza et al., 2008).

Studies on the practice of using untreated wastewater for irrigation is still limited (Khalil and

Kakar, 2011), therefore the need for this study for more knowledge and better understanding of

the impacts of untreated wastewater on soil with a view to developing site-specific irrigation

water management.

1.2 Statement of research problem

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As the population increases, the need for suitable and freshwater increases thereby creating

shortage of clean water and generating more of waste/drainage water for irrigation (Lazarova and

Bahri, 2005; Qadir et al., 2007). Waste water from homes, hospitals and industries flowing into

drainage systems cause contaminations which affect the microbial population of the soil.

Farmers in turn uses it for irrigation thereby introducing these contaminations to the soil, which

accumulate causing problems to the soil rhizosphere by affecting the enzyme activities as well as

the physical and chemical properties of the soil. Hidri et al. (2010) reported that long-term

irrigation with treated wastewater resulted in increased soil microbial abundance and reduction in

particular composition and activity of the bacterial and fungal communities.

1.3 Justification of the study

The use of waste water for irrigating agricultural soil has been shown to be associated with a

number of potential beneficial changes such as an increase in organic carbon, available nitrogen,

phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium contents in soil (Rai et al., 2011). The use of waste

water in irrigation has also been found to have additional agronomic benefits associated with soil

fertility. According to Kiziloglu et al. (2007) waste water has a high nutritive value that may

reduce fertilizer application rates and increase productivity of poor fertility soils. Therefore, the

present study was undertaken to evaluate the impact of irrigation water quality on soil physical,

chemical and enzyme activities at Kampanin Kutare and Lapai Gwari, Minna, Niger State.

1.4 Objectives of the study

The objectives of the study are;

i. To determine the effect of waste water on soil physical and chemical properties.

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ii. To determine the effect of waste water on soil enzyme activities (Acid and Alkaline

phosphatase).

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Irrigation

Irrigation can be seen by strategies other than natural precipitation as replenishing the soil water

content in the plant root zone (Hill, 2013). Irrigation can also be said to be the artificial

application of water to the soil at required intervals or unique intervals to aid crop growth.

Irrigation is typically used in agriculture on dry fields or in times of drought (rainfall shortages),

it is also used to protect plants from frost. Irrigation helps to reduce the growth of weeds in rice

fields (Williams et al., 2007).

The earliest known irrigation system in Egypt and Mesopotamia started in 6000 B.C. In Egypt,

the Nile floods every year for a few months, and the waters were redirected into the field to

allow farmers to grow crops where it would otherwise have been impossible. The earliest

possible method of irrigation involved people bringing buckets of water to dump on their crops

from a well or river. Egypt and China built irrigation canals, dams, dikes, and water storage

facilities as modern facilities grew. This water was used for their domestic and irrigation

activities. The largest contiguous high density areas of irrigation are located in Northern India

and Pakistan. Smaller areas of irrigation extend to almost all inhabited parts of the world.

Irrigation in agriculture accounts for about 70 per cent of the total fresh water used directly by

humans, the rest portion is used for industrial and domestic purpose; these proportions varies

widely due to climatic and economic state of a specific locality (Lawton and Wilke, 1979).

2.2 Irrigation water quality

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Where the available rain-derived soil moisture is insufficient, irrigation will make up for this

lack. Water quality refers to the characteristics of a water supply which affects its suitability for a

particular use. Irrigated agriculture relies on an adequate supply of available quality water. The

characteristic of drinking water quality has become important for drinking, agricultural, and

irrigation purposes in water resources planning and development (Daniel and Eelco, 2015).

Water quality issues have been ignored because good quality water supplies have been abundant

and readily available; this situation is now changing in many areas due to the fact that water

needed for irrigation of cropland is being deteriorated in terms of quantity and quality due to

ever-increasing demand for water use in contemporary societies. In addition, the crop production

is related to both the soil quality and the quantity of irrigated water available. The report showed

that human activities involving urbanisation, agricultural operations, fertilizer / pesticide use,

inadequate land use management and wastewater management and sewage disposal have directly

or indirectly affected the quality of water and making it unsuitable for irrigation (Stockle, 2001).

Poor quality water may affect irrigated crops by causing accumulation of salts in the root zone,

by causing loss of permeability of the soil due to excess sodium or calcium leaching. Or by

containing pathogens or contaminants which are directly toxic to plants or to those consuming

them in general, evaluation of irrigation water quality should focus on salt content, sodium

concentration, the occurrence of nutrients and trace elements, alkalinity, acidity, and hardness of

the water. Every year salinity across the globe results in the depletion of fertile soils. Knowledge

on both quantity and quality is needed in identifying water availability for irrigation: however,

quality needs have often been overlooked, especially in developing countries. Quality should

generalize how significantly a water supply meets the intended user's needs, and should be

measured on the basis of its suitability for the proposed use. Water quality is tailored to its

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suitability for use. Full yields can be achieved if the quality of the water is reasonable under

proper conditions of soil management. The salt problem in soils arises when more soluble salts

are present in the irrigation water that is deposited in root zone as the plants absorb water thereby

reducing yield. Severe water scarcity occurs in different parts of the world, particularly in arid

and semi-arid regions. The main concern in terms of water quality and quantity is due to its

insufficient distribution on the earth's surface and the rapid decline in fresh useable water (Irfan

et al., 2014). The over-dependence on groundwater to meet ever-increasing demands of the

domestic, agricultural and industrial sectors has led to over-exploitation of groundwater

resources in these areas.

Contamination of groundwater due to salinisation is a major issue that can be caused by various

processes, i.e. seawater intrusion, agrochemical pollution, irrigation-induced contamination and

salinisation. In addition to water quality, different factors such as soil type, crop size, crop

pattern, precipitation etc. play an important role in assessing the water suitability for irrigation.

Bearing in mind the facts, the quality of groundwater for irrigation is imperative. Properly

managed irrigation, including taking into account water quality, will increase crop yield, reduce

the risk commonly associated with agriculture, increase the quality of the product, reduce pest

pressure, and deliver and manage nutrients accurately. Since irrigation is unique to each crop,

irrigation work must be crop-specific, ensuring that cropping systems must be understood,

including those involving high-value specialties with special needs (USDA, 2011). The

assessment of water quality has resulted in the identification of causes, relationships and effects

between water constituents and acceptability levels. Several stakeholders emerge as quality-

related measures with appropriate recorded interactions and measured responses (FAO, 2013).

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2.3 Contaminants of irrigated soils

The act of irrigation has the potential of adding contaminants to the soil, for instance, Stockle

(2001) reported that irrigation increases the rate of salinization in the soil. Dissolved salts

particles are present in all soil water and when evaporation occurs, the salt remains in the soil

thereby increasing the soil salinity and when it stays long on the soil may affect the soil structure

by forming layers that will not allow water infiltration. Schoengold et al. (2005) attributed this to

poor drainage which reduces crop yield. Other contaminants of irrigated soils are heavy metals

and chemical toxins introduced to the soil via irrigation water or in situ of the soil. There are

some considerable amount of toxic chemicals as well as metals in these drainage water (Brar et

al., 2000; Yadav et al., 2002; Rattan et al., 2005) and the amount of these toxins varies with

location and activities around the location (Rattan et al., 2005). When used for irrigation

increases contaminants in the soil e.g. metals, oils, surfactants, microbial contaminants (e.g.

bacteria and fungi) which are disease carriers and washed from farm lands where they are being

applied or point of disposals chemicals (Eriksson et al., 2002; Rizzo et al., 2013; Varela and

Manaia, 2013).

Surface active agents and oil contaminants reduces the hydraulic conductivity of the soil (Travis

et al., 2008; Wiel-Shafran et al., 2006). Both cadmium and lead are the most prevalent heavy

metals affecting vegetable crops (Kachenko and Singh, 2006). Cadmium is mobile in plants, thus

affecting its toxicity on animal and human consuming the plant (Barassi et al., 2007; Lehoczky

et al., 2000). Sodium accumulation is also another contaminant of irrigated soils (Travis et al.,

2010). Heavy metals are combined with soil organic matter to form insoluble layer. Mapanda et

al. (2005) explained that insoluble layers formed due to contaminations of cadmium, copper,

nickel, lead and zinc depends on the pH of the soil solution, organic matter content of the soil

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and metallic contamination of the soil which influences environmental pollution due to their non-

degradable nature and their ability to remain fixed. Contaminants of irrigation soils can also

come from chemicals used such as fertilizers, pesticides herbicides, manures and insecticides

(Devkota and Schmidt, 2000; McBride, 2003), also from surroundings (Bakare et al., 2004).

2.4 Wastewater

Application of municipal and industrial wastewater and related effluents to land dates back 400

years and now is a common practice in many parts of the world (Reed et al., 1995). Worldwide,

it is estimated that 20 million hectares of arable land are irrigated with waste water. In several

Asian and African cities, studies suggest that agriculture based on wastewater irrigation accounts

for 50 % of the vegetable supply to urban areas (Bjuhr, 2007). Farmers generally are not

bothered about environmental benefits or hazards and are primarily interested in maximizing

their yields and profits. Although the metal concentrations in wastewater effluents are usually

relatively low, long-term irrigation of land with such can eventually result in heavy metal

accumulation in the soil (Bjuhr, 2007).

2.5 Influence of waste water irrigation on soil properties

The soil is not only the basis for plant growth and reproduction, but also the foundation of human

agricultural development (Killham, 1994; Molles, 2008). In the soil, all sorts of human

agricultural production practices take place and abundant agricultural products are obtained from

the soil. Soil is situated at the surface layer of the earth crust, engaging in a number of processes

involving physics, chemistry, biochemistry and being the main place for organic matter and

inorganic material circulation and energy exchange (Huang, 2000; Killham, 1994). Its presence

provides a relatively stable climate for aboveground plants and underground microbes to thrive

and procreate (Li et al., 2000).

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 Some farmers still directly use untreated sewage in agricultural production for irrigation of

agricultural land. For substances dissolved in waste water, there are primarily four transfer

approaches after migration into the soil (Wang and Lin, 2003; Zeng and Zhu, 2004). By soil self-

purification, some would be gradually reduced; some would be adsorbed and retained in the soil

layer; some could be absorbed by crops and the remainder would join aquifers along with water

infiltration (Keesstra et al., 2012; Qadir et al., 2010). While soil is capable of clearing and

degrading contaminants through metabolism and transformation, raising the content of certain

nutrients and enriching soil, long-term waste water irrigation that does not comply with water

quality standards easily induces organic pollutants, heavy metals, solid suspended particles and

microbes of bacteria into the soil (Fatta-Kassinos et al., 2011; Meng et al., 2016; Rusan et al.,

2007; Zeng et al., 2007). In addition, the worst thing is that these contents have become well

beyond the capacity to self-purify the soil, causing extreme pollution of the soil and causing

some changes in the soil physical, chemical properties and enzyme activities.

2.6 Effect of waste water irrigation on soil physical characteristics

Long-term irrigation with waste water upsets the equilibrium of nature, causing farmland to

deteriorate ecologically (Wiel-Shafran et al., 2006). The most direct effects are structural

damage, functional destruction and soil hardening due to the impact of waste water irrigation on

soil physical properties (Wang and Lin, 2003). Soil bulk density is one of the significant

measures that quantify the physical properties of the soil. To a certain extent, it represents the

degree of compaction that has a major impact on soil aeration, soil water holding quantity and

absorption capacity, infiltration, resistance to soil erosion and migration of solvents (Huang,

2000). High salinity effluent irrigation increase the total alkalinity and sodium alkalinity of the

soil, causing soil hardening and soil permeability to decrease (Li et al., 2003; Li et al., 2006).

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Soil penetration resistance is the most apparent phenomenon of soil hardening, which is an

important index measuring the resistance of crop roots to elongation (Barber, 1994; Mullins et

al., 1994). It is usually related to soil aggregate characteristics and spatial structure unique to the

soil (Ahmed et al., 1987; Franzluebbers et al., 2000).

2.7 Impact of waste water irrigation on soil chemical characteristics

Soil pH, which is one of the important factors influencing soil fertility, represents the impact of

waste water irrigation on soil chemical properties (Bao, 2000). The formation and alteration of

soil pH depends on the relative strength of the leaching and aggregation phase of base substances

(Dheri et al., 2007). The degree of acidity or alkalinity can be represented most easily by the pH

value (Huang, 2000). The soil has a buffering feature, so the pH level is relatively stable (Masto

et al., 2009). Once the value changes significantly, the chemical characteristics of the soil can

change accordingly, which directly affects the current form, transformation and availability of

soil nutrients (Ma and Zhao, 2010). Soil pH changes are related to forms of water for irrigation

and categories of soil (Wan et al., 2015).

He et al. (2012) found that with the increase in irrigation times by using wastewater from pig

farms to irrigate the yellow clay in China, the pH value in the soil will decrease. Although an

opposite conclusion was drawn that if irrigated by effluents from paper factories to moderately

degraded saline-alkali soil, the value would increase (Xia et al., 2011). It is also found that when

sewage came from livestock breeding, there was no apparent impact on vegetable field soil pH

(Zhang et al., 2011). The various degrees of ammonisation and nitrification of soil organic

matter, anaerobic decomposition of organic matter, enrichment and release of metal ions could

explain the reason for pH fluctuations (Dheri et al., 2007; Rusan et al., 2007). Organic matter is

an essential component of soil and its quality has traditionally been considered an important

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index of soil fertility calculation (Rattan et al., 2005). Not only is the deposition of soil organic

matter closed in relation to natural environmental conditions, but it also depends on the input of

organic matter (Qin, 2003; Shao et al., 2006). In addition, more attempts to preserve the global

carbon balance are based on soil organic matter, which is considered to play an irreplaceable role

in global warming. The cumulative effect of sewage irrigation of soil organic matter has been

one of the supplies of soil organic carbon in agriculture and has been involved in the global

circulation of carbon (Rattan et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2008).

Nitrogen is an important nutrient for crop growth and soil nitrogen supply, in abundance it

affects crop growth and production (Masto et al., 2009). A long-term analysis of aquaculture

wastewater irrigation found that nitrogen accumulation in soil increased dramatically and that the

nitrogen content of soil irrigation for more than 12 years was significantly greater than that of

untreated farmland irrigation (Zhang et al., 2011). The concentration of nitrogen in the soil

profile has, meanwhile been greatly affected by nitrogen mobility and irrigation infiltration

(Wiel-Shafran et al., 2006). One of the three important nutrients for plants is phosphorus. Not

only does it constitute the components of many essential plant compounds, it also participates by

all means in different plant metabolic processes (Dalai, 1977; Marschner et al., 2007; Redding et

al., 2002). The farmland and forest land analysis in China found that the total phosphorus in the

soil surface had risen significantly and most of them could be kept in the topsoil within 40 cm by

using waste water irrigation from pig farms for long-term irrigation (Hu et al., 2010; Hu et al.,

2012). In farmland with piggery wastewater irrigation, comparable concentrations were found

that the phosphorus mainly accumulated in the plowing layer (0 - 40 cm) and increased with the

increase in irrigation time (Yu, 2009). Reddling et al. (2005) found that the available phosphorus

and total phosphorus content were significantly higher than that of the control after anaerobic

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digestion of irrigated piggery wastewater and the phenomenon of excessive phosphorus

accumulation occurred within 5 cm in the upper soil layer. In higher plants, potassium is also a

major nutrient which, together with nitrogen and phosphorus, is considered to be three important

plant nutrition factors. Among them, the potassium available refers to the potassium that is

readily absorbed by the plant and becomes the main soil fertility diagnostic index (Huang, 2000;

Qin, 2003). The soil potassium content available has increased significantly after sewage

irrigation, the main reason being that there are a lot of nutrients in the sewage, allowing

potassium enrichment available on the soil surface (Hu, 2010; Masto et al., 2009). For sewage

irrigation, the total potassium content in the soil could also be improved, previous studies stated

that the application of alcohol wastewater significantly increased the total potassium content of

the soil, increasing soil fertility. In general, soil particles can adsorb heavy metals from sewage

effluents, and most heavy metal ions are concentrated in the soil, resulting in soil heavy metal

contamination, which has become the most important issue for human health (Liu et al., 2005;

Mapanda and Mangwayana, 2005; Wan et al., 2015).

2.8 Influence of waste water irrigation on enzyme activities

Soil microorganisms are involved in most soil biological and biochemical activities as an

essential part of preserving soil quality and are susceptible to certain changes in soil quality

health (Stenberg, 1999). Soil microbe composition and activities are complex processes of

environmental change and the number of living microbial cells is considered to be one of the

most sensitive biological indicators (Li et al., 2005). To some extent, waste water irrigation will

cause micro-environmental change, having a major impact on soil microbial activities (Zhang et

al., 2008). The three basic forms of microorganisms that can be used to represent the total

number of soil microorganisms and play an important role in the transformation of soil organic

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matter and inorganic materials are soil bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes (Aleem et al., 2003).

After long-term sewage irrigation, the number of bacteria and actinomycetes in the soil showed a

downward trend, whereas the number of fungi rose steadily (Ge et al., 2009).

A series of studies by Oron et al. (1995) found that, under sewage irrigation conditions, soil

surface humidity influenced the total number of soil bacteria. The overall number of bacteria

from subsurface drip irrigation is much higher than that of the underground where sub-surface or

underground drip irrigation has been introduced. The most plausible explanation may seem to be

that soil played a role as a secondary filter in the sewage infiltration process, minimizing the

likelihood of interaction between sewage and the portion of aboveground vegetation (Oron et al.,

1999; Oron et al., 1995). Soil enzymes are the catch-all term for active substances present in the

soil, mainly from soil microbes and root secretion of plants and enzymes produced by the

decomposition of residues of animals and plants (Burns and Dick, 2002; Cao et al., 2003).

Phosphatase, hydrolytic enzymes, crack enzymes and transferases are primarily common

enzymes, all of which participate in and facilitate the transformation of organic substances and

material circulation through various soil ecological processes (Zhang et al., 2011). There have

been problems with several studies about the indirect effects of sewage irrigation, such as soil

secondary salinization in calcareous drab soil, leading to restricted enzyme activities, causing a

decrease in the consistency of the soil environment (Li, 2001).

2.9 Indices for assessment of soil quality

2.9.1 Physical indicator

2.9.1.1 Soil texture

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Soil texture is a measurement of the proportion of sand, silt and clay within a layer of soil (Tabor

et al., 2017). By maintaining a balance of air and water, well aggregated soil can resist soil

erosion and sustain nutrient cycling (Arshad et al., 1996). Soil texture is critical in determining

the bulk density of soil (Martin et al., 2017) and improving soil quality because it provides

isolated microhabitats for microorganisms, resulting in an increase in the diversity and

abundance of microorganisms (Li et al., 2010; Rabot et al., 2018; Abraham et al., 2019). Soil

texture has an effect on microbial activity because it directly influences the moisture content and

temperature of the soil (Hassink, 1994; Sessitsch et al., 2001; Bach et al., 2010; Chodak and

Niklinska, 2010; Sugihara et al., 2010; Chau et al., 2011; Vinhal-Freitas et al., 2017).

2.9.2 Chemical indicators

2.9.2.1 Soil salinity

The agglomeration of soluble mineral salts found in the soil is known as salinity (Tanji, 2002).

Salt levels in the soil that are too high may have a negative impact on soil productivity (Yan et

al., 2015). Soil salinization could be caused by the deposition of dissolvable salts in the soil (de

Souza Silva and Fay, 2012). Soil salinity has the potential to affect soil microbial diversity

(Foissner et al., 2002; Rietz and Haynes, 2003; Wichern et al., 2006; Yan et al., 2015; Zhao and

Xu, 2016). Excess salts increase the osmotic potential of soil water, causing water to be drawn

out of the cell, potentially killing soil microorganisms (Yan et al., 2015). As a result, salinity

reduces soil fertility. Increased salinity has also been linked to the destruction of soil structure

(de Souza Silva and Fay, 2012; Abraham et al., 2019).

2.9.2.2 Soil pH

The concentration of hydrogen ions in a soil solution is known as pH (Mc Lean, 1983). pH is a

significant soil property because it controls the diversity of microbes in soil and determines

15
nutrient accessibility and soil physical condition (Abraham et al., 2019). The buffering ability

and consistency of organic substances in soil are influenced by pH (Usharani et al., 2019). It has

been well reported that a decline in soil pH causes a decrease in microbial growth and activity

(Gupta and Germida, 1988; Geisseler and Scow, 2014). Baath and Anderson (2003) showed that

a rise in soil pH causes an increase in microbial biomass.

2.9.2.3 Soil CEC

The ability of soil to absorb cations from the soil and impart a negative charge to the soil is

known as cation exchange capacity (Graber et al., 2017). It also provides buffering capacity

against pH change in the soil (Moral and Rebollo, 2017; Rahal and Alhumairi, 2019). Cation

exchange capacity (CEC) is a sensitive measure that can be used to determine the soil's nutrient

holding capacity, fertility, and long-term productivity (Graber et al., 2017; Khaledian et al.,

2017; Moral and Rebollo, 2017). Soils with high CEC also have high clay content and high

water holding capacity (Moral and Rebollo, 2017; Rahal and Alhumairi, 2019). Also, soil with

high CEC requires less application of fertilizers (Shiri et al., 2017). CEC increases with the

increase in pH (Graber et al., 2017). Soils with higher CEC have high organic matter and soils

with high organic matter also have higher microbial diversity and abundance (Xu et al., 2016).

2.9.2.4 Nitrogen

It is considered an important soil nutrient because it reduces soil productivity by influencing soil

properties, plant growth, and microbial activity (Liu et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2013; Li et al.,

2019). Despite the fact that nitrogen is abundant in the atmosphere, plants are unable to use it

(Rice et al., 1997). Plants take nitrogen in the form of ammonia, and various soil microbes play

an important role in nitrogen cycling by converting atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia (Rice et

16
al., 1997). Nitrogen is a key component in improving soil fertility and also acts as a useful

measure of soil fertility (Liu et al., 2013).

2.9.2.5 Phosphorus

It is an essential nutrient for terrestrial productivity (Filippelli, 2017). Phosphorus is important

for the transformation of carbon biomass into soil organic matter (Filippelli, 2017). Soil

phosphorus, like nitrogen, serves as an indicator of soil fertility because it affects a variety of soil

properties, plant growth, microbial activity, and community structure (Doolette and Smernik,

2011; Filippelli, 2017; Li et al., 2019). Phosphorus is present in the soil in many forms but the

most available form is phosphorus present with organic matter and plants are not able to take this

organic form of phosphorus (Filippelli, 2017).

2.9.2.6 Potassium

After nitrogen and phosphorus, it is the third most important macronutrient for plant productivity

(Jaiswal et al., 2016; Singh and Pathak, 2018; Sattar et al., 2019). It is abundantly found deep

within the Earth's crust (Rao and Srinivas, 2017). Potassium aids in the advancement of plant

roots, increases product yield, helps plants in tolerating various biotic and abiotic stresses, and

aids in the activation of enzymes for metabolic processes in plants (Jaiswal et al., 2016). (Qiu et

al., 2014; Jaiswal et al., 2016; Rao and Srinivas, 2017; Loka et al., 2018; Singh and Pathak,

2018; Sattar et al., 2019). Pseudomonas spp, Burkholderia spp, Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans,

Bacillus mucilaginosus, Bacillus edaphicus, Bacillus circulans, and Paenibacillus spp. are

examples of potassium-solubilizing bacteria (KSB) that have been found to release mineral

bound potassium from the soil (Jaiswal et al., 2016). Inadequate potassium in the soil decreases

crop yield and quality, reduces root growth in plants (Jaiswal et al., 2016), affects plant nitrogen

17
fixation capacity by influencing the microbial community, and affects various physiological and

metabolic processes in plants (Jaiswal et al., 2016; Singh and Pathak, 2018).

2.9.3 Biological indicator (Enzyme)

2.9.3.1 Phosphatase

Phosphatases are a group of enzymes that break down phosphoric acid esters and anhydrides

(Adetunji et al., 2017; Tiwari et al., 2019). They are in control of phosphorus cycling and can be

used as a potential indicator of soil fertility (Das and Varma, 2011). Acid phosphatases are

generated primarily by soil microorganisms, while alkaline phosphatases are found in root

exudates (Mndzebele et al., 2020). Phosphatase activity in soil is increased by nano compounds

(Khati et al., 2017). Acid phosphatase activity increases on cadmium-amended soil. Thus, acid

phosphatase activity can serve as an indicator of cadmium contamination in soil (Xu et al.,

2020). Alkaline phosphatase increases with an increase in soil organic matter and soil nitrogen

but decreases with an increase in pH and salinity (Guangming et al., 2017; Bilen et al., 2018).

Phosphatase activity increases with manure application, but this increment is dose dependent

(Liang et al., 2017).

2.10 Heavy metals contamination of soils

The heavy metals essentially become contaminants in the soil environments due to their rates of

generation via man-made cycles are more rapid relative to natural ones. They become transferred

from mines to random environmental locations where higher potentials of direct exposure occur.

The concentrations of the metals in discarded products are relatively high compared to those in

the receiving environment and the chemical form (species) in which a metal is found in the

receiving environmental system may render it more bioavailable (D‟Amore et al., 2005).

2.11 Sources of heavy metal contamination of soils

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2.11.1 Fertilizer

Agriculture was the first major human influence on the soil (Scragg, 2006). To Grow and

complete the lifecycle, plants must acquire not only macronutrients (N, P, K, S, Ca, and Mg), but

also essential micronutrients. Some soils are deficient in the Heavy metals (such as Co, Cu, Fe,

Mn, Mo, Ni, and Zn) that are essential for healthy plant growth, and crops may be supplied with

these as an addition to the soil or as a foliar spray. Cereal crops grown on Cu deficient soils are

occasionally treated with Cu as an addition to the soil, and Mn may similarly be supplied to

cereal and root crops (Lasat, 2000). Large quantities of fertilizers are regularly added to soils in

intensive farming systems to provide adequate N, P, and K for crop growth. The compounds

used to supply these elements contain trace amounts of heavy metals (e.g., Cd and Pb) as

impurities, which, after continued fertilizer, application may significantly increase their content

in the soil (Jones and Jarvis, 1981). Metals, such as Cd and Pb, have no known physiological

activity. Application of certain phosphatic fertilizers inadvertently adds Cd and other potentially

toxic elements to the soil, including F, Hg, and Pb (Jones and Jarvis, 1981).

2.11.2 Pesticides

Several common pesticides used fairly extensively in agriculture and horticulture in the past

contained substantial concentrations of metals. For instance in the recent past, about 10 % of the

chemicals have approved for use as insecticides and fungicides in UK were based on compounds

which contain Cu, Hg, Mn, Pb or Zn. Examples of such pesticides are copper-containing

fungicidal sprays such as Bordeaux mixture (copper sulphate) and copper oxychloride (Jones and

Jarvis, 1981). Such contamination has the potential to cause problems, particularly if sites are

redeveloped for other agricultural or non-agricultural purposes. Compared with fertilizers, the

19
use of such materials has been more localized, being restricted to particular sites or crops

(McLaughlin et al., 2000).

2.11.3 Bio solids and manures

The application of numerous bio solids (e.g. livestock manures, composts, and municipal sewage

sludge) to land inadvertently leads to the accumulation of heavy metals such as As, Cd, Cr, Cu,

Pb, Hg, Ni, Se, Mo, Zn, Tl, Sb and so forth, in the soil (Basta et al., 2005). Certain animal wastes

such as poultry, cattle, and pig manures produced in agriculture are commonly applied to crops

and pastures either as solids or slurries (Sumner, 2000). Although most manure are seen as

valuable fertilizers, in the pig and poultry industry, the Cu and Zn added to diets as growth

promoters and as contained in poultry health products may also have the potential to cause metal

contamination of the soil (Sumner, 2000). The manures produced from animals on such diets

contain high concentrations of As, Cu, and Zn and if repeatedly applied to restricted areas of

land, can cause considerable build-up of these metals in the soil in the long run. Bio solids

(sewage sludge) are primarily organic solid products, produced by wastewater treatment

processes that can be beneficially recycled (USEPA, 1994). Land application of bio solids

materials is a common practice in many countries that allow the reuse of bio solids produced by

urban populations (Weggler, 2004). The term sewage sludge is used in many references because

of its wide recognition and its regulatory definition. However, the term bio solids are becoming

more common as a replacement for sewage sludge because it is thought to reflect more

accurately the beneficial characteristics inherent to sewage sludge (Silveira, 2003). It is

estimated that in the United States, more than half of approximately 5.6 million dry tonnes of

sewage sludge used or disposed of annually is land applied, and agricultural utilization of bio

solids occurs in every region of the country. In the European community, over 30 % of the

20
sewage sludge is used as fertilizer in agriculture (Silveira, 2003). In Australia over 175000

tonnes of dry bio solids are produced each year by the major metropolitan authorities, and

currently most bio solids applied to agricultural land are used in arable cropping situations where

they can be incorporated into the soil (McLaughlin et al., 2000). Heavy metals most commonly

found in bio solids are Pb, Ni, Cd, Cr, Cu, and Zn, and the metal concentrations are governed by

the nature and the intensity of the industrial activity, as well as the type of process employed

during the bio solids treatment (Mattigod and Page, 1983). Under certain conditions, metals

added to soils in applications of bio solids can be leached downwards through the soil profile and

can have the potential to contaminate groundwater (McLaren et al., 2004).

2.11.4 Metal mining and milling processes and industrial wastes

Mining and milling of metal ores coupled with industries have bequeathed many countries, the

legacy of wide distribution of metal contaminants in soil. During mining, tailings (heavier and

larger particles settled at the bottom of the flotation cell during mining) are directly discharged

into natural depressions, including onsite wetlands resulting in elevated concentrations

(DeVolder et al., 2003). Extensive Pb and Zn ore mining and smelting have resulted in

contamination of soil that poses risk to human and ecological health. Many reclamation methods

used for these sites are lengthy and expensive and may not restore soil productivity. Soil heavy

metal environmental risk to humans is related to bioavailability. Assimilation pathways include

the ingestion of plant material grown in (food chain), or the direct ingestion (oral bioavailability)

of, contaminated soil (Basta and Gradwohl, 1998). Other materials are generated by a variety of

industries such as textile, tanning, petrochemicals from accidental oil spills or utilization of

petroleum-based products, pesticides, and pharmaceutical facilities and are highly variable in

composition. Although some are disposed of on land, few have benefits to agriculture or forestry.

21
In addition, many are potentially hazardous because of their contents of heavy metals (Cr, Pb and

Zn) or toxic organic compounds and are seldom, if ever, applied to land. Others are very low in

plant nutrients or have no soil conditioning properties (Sumner, 2000).

2.11.5 Air-borne sources

Airborne sources of metals include stack or duct emissions of air, gas, or vapour streams, and

fugitive emissions such as dust from storage areas or waste piles. Metals from airborne sources

are generally released as particulates contained in the gas stream. Some metals such as As, Cd,

and Pb can also volatilize during high-temperature processing. These metals will convert to

oxides and condense as fine particulates unless a reducing atmosphere is maintained (Smith et

al., 1995).

2.12 Wastewater treatment techniques

Wastewater, or sewage, originates from industrial waste, animal waste, rain runoff, and

contamination of groundwater from human and home. Wastewater is usually the drainage of

used water from a community. The wastewater is made up of 99.9 % water by weight, where the

remaining 0.1 % is either suspended or dissolved substances. This solid substance is a mixture of

excrement, detergents, food leftovers, grease, fats, salts, chemicals, heavy metals, sands, and

grits (Gray, 2005). Wastewater types include: urban wastewater, industrial wastewater, industrial

/ household wastewater mixtures, and agricultural wastewater. Typical agricultural industries

include: dairy processing industries, meat processing plants, juice and drinking industries,

slaughterhouses, vegetable processing plants, rendering plants, and irrigation system drainage

water. Subsequent to primary wastewater treatment, i.e., physical wastewater treatment, it still

contains large amounts of dissolved and colloidal material that must be isolated prior to

discharge. The problem is how to turn the dissolved materials or particulate matter which is too

22
small for sedimentation into larger particles to remove them from the separation processes. This

can be done by secondary, i.e. biological treatment. Treatment of wastewater after the removal of

suspended solids by micro-organisms such as algae, fungi, or bacteria under aerobic or anaerobic

conditions where organic matter in wastewater is oxidized or introduced into cells that can be

dissolved or sediment is called biological treatment. Biological therapy is considered secondary.

A portion of the undesired chemicals and heavy metals will react with chemical treatment or

tertiary treatment, using chemical products, but a portion of the polluting material will remain

unaffected. The prices of chemical additives and the environmental problem of disposing of large

quantities of chemical sludge also make this treatment process deficient (Gray, 2005).

Alternatively, it must apply the biological therapy. This treatment process utilizes naturally

occurring microorganisms to turn the dissolved organic matter into a dense biomass which the

sedimentation process will isolate from the treated wastewater. In addition, the microorganisms

use the dissolved organic matter as food for themselves, where the sludge generated for chemical

treatment will be far less. Therefore secondary treatment in practice tends to be a biological

process with chemical treatment implemented for the removal of toxic compounds.

2.13 Aims of wastewater treatment

Treating wastewaters transforms the materials available in the wastewater into secure end

products that are able to be safely disposed into domestic water devoid of any negative

environmental effects. It protects public health and ensures that wastewaters are efficiently

handled on a trustworthy basis without annoyance or offense. Recycling and recovering the

valuable components available in wastewaters is achieved through treatment (Gray, 2005).

23
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Study area

Soil and water samples were collected from Kampanin Kutare and Lapai Gwari, Niger State.

Minna is located in the middle belt of Nigeria at latitude of 9° 35' 0.7980'' N and longitude of 6°

32' 46.7376'' E. It is situated at elevation some meters above sea level. The soils of Minna are

predominantly Alfisols (USDA) developed from basement complex rocks ranging from shallow

to very deep soils overlying deeply weathered gneiss and magnetite with some underlain by iron

pan to varying depths (FDALR, 1990).

3.2 Soil, climate and vegetation description

Soils of Minna has been described as Alfisols, derived from basement complex rocks and

underlain with hardpan. The climate of Minna is the sub-humid tropical climate with an annual

mean rainfall of 1284 mm and a distinct dry season which lasts for about 5months occurring

from November to March (Ojanuga, 2006). Temperature rarely falls below 22 °C. The peaks are

40 °C (February – March) and 35 °C (November – December). The highest mean monthly

rainfall is in September with almost 300 mm. The raining season starts on average between April

and lasts between 190 and 200 days. The vegetation of these areas comprises mainly of shrubs,

grasses and few scattered trees. Vegetable crops commonly grown in the area of study include

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), Amaranthus (Amaranthus spp.) and Water leaf (Talinum

triangulare).

3.3 Treatment and experimental design

The experiment was a single factor experiment where soil and water samples were taken from

two locations at depth of 0 - 20 cm for soil sample and water sample was collected from top,

24
middle and bottom stream of the drainage fitted to a Completely Randomized Design (CRD)

replicated 3 times.

3.4 Soil sampling and preparation

Soil samples were collected randomly from 10 different points for each site (top, middle, and

bottom slope) and bulked to form a composite sample each from Kamfanin-Kutare and Lapai

Gwari, Niger State. Soil samples were collected randomly at an appropriate depth of 0 - 20 cm

using a soil auger, which was sterilized with Ethanol to avoid contamination. The samples will

then be taken to the Soil Science and Land Management Laboratory in a sampling bag, labelled

properly for easy identification and refrigerated. The samples was air-dried, gently crushed and

passed through a 2.00 mm sieve for physicochemical analysis. The sample for microbial study

was kept in the refrigerator prior to determination of enzyme activities.

3.5 Soil physical and chemical analysis

The soil analysis was carried out according to standard methods (IITA, 1989) as follows; Particle

size analysis of the soil sample was determined by bouyoucos hydrometer method as achieved by

(Gee and Bauder, 1986), using sodium hexametaphosphate (calgon) as dispersing agent. Soil pH

was determined using electrometric method in a 1:2.5 soil to water, with a glass electrode pH

meter. Organic carbon was determined using modified Walkley and Black wet oxidation method

(Walkley and Black, 1934). Total nitrogen was determined using Kjeldahl method (Hinds and

Lowe, 1980). Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and K+ which are exchangeable bases was extracted with a neutral

1N NH4OAC (Ammonium acetate). Na+ and K+ in the extract were determined using flame

photometry method while the Ca and Mg were determined by titration with EDTA. Both H + and

Al3+ which represent the soil exchangeable acidity was determined together by using unbuffered

neutral salt of KCl (potassium chloride) and titrated against 0.01 N NaOH (sodium hydroxide)

25
and phenolphthalein indicator by titration. The concentration was determined calorimetrically

using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). Available phosphorus was determined

using bray p1 method.

3.6 Water sampling procedure

Water samples were collected using containers sterilized with ethanol and rinsed with diluted

water early in the morning. The water sample containers were labelled prior to sample collection.

The water samples were taken at 3 points of the drainage (upper, middle and bottom stream).

Collected samples were kept in dry lender shade prior to analysis. Samples were taken

immediately to the laboratory for analysis.

3.7 Water analytical methods

The water analysis was carried out according to standard methods of examination of water and

waste water (APHA, 1999) as follows; the pH and electrical conductivity was determined using a

pH and conductivity meter respectively. Organic Carbon was determined using Walkey and

Black wet oxidation method. Calcium and magnesium was determined using Varian AA240 Fast

Sequential Atomic Absorption Spectrometer. Chloride and Nitrogen was analysed using ICS-90

chromatography. Sodium and potassium was determined using a flame emission photometer.

Carbonate and bicarbonate was determined by titration with HCl. Sulphate was analysed by ion

chromatography (DX-120, dionex) and Boron was analysed using ICP-MS (Ultra mass 700,

Varian). Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) was calculated using the relationships shown below;

The concentrations of SAR in the water samples was computed using Equation 2 (Richards,

1954).

SAR = Na ____

√ Ca
2 +¿
2+¿+Mg ¿
¿

26
 2

3.8. Microbial enzyme activity analytical methods

3.8.1 Determination of Alkaline Phosphatase, using Tabatabai (1994) Method

(a) Preparation of reagents.

Tris buffer salt was prepared by accurately weighing and dissolving 0.16 g of trishydroxymethyl

amino methane (THAM) in 80 mls of distilled water, into volumetric flask. The solution was

adjusted to pH 8 by titrating with 0.2 N H2SO4. The resulting solution will then be made up to

100 mls with distilled water. 0.2 N H2SO4 was prepared by measuring 0.55 ml of concentrated

sulphuric acid (H2SO4) dissolved in 100 mls of distilled water in a volumetric flask. 0.005 N

buffer para-nitrophenol (BPNP) was prepared by weighing 0.181 g BPNP and dissolving in 80

mls of THAM and the solution was diluted to 100 mls with the same THAM and stored in a

refrigerator. 0.5 M CaCl2 was prepared by weighing 5.55 g CaCl2 into 100 mls distilled water.

THAM-NaOH was prepared by weighing 1.22 g of THAM and dissolved in 50 mls of distilled

water. The solution was adjusted to pH 12 by titrating with 1 N NaOH. The solution was made

up to 100 mls with distilled water. 0.5 N NaOH was prepared by weighing and dissolving 2 g of

NaOH salt into 100 mls distilled water. The pH was adjusted to pH 10 with distilled water.

Standard Para-nitrophenol dissolved in 70 mls of distilled water. Trihydroxymethyl amino

methane (THAM) was prepared by weighing 1 g of PNP and dissolved solution was prepared by

weighing 1 g of PNP and the solution will then be diluted to 100 mls with distilled water and was

stored in a refrigerator.

(b) Procedure for assay of alkaline phosphatase.

1 g of 0.5 mm sieved soil sample was weighed and transferred into a 250 mls conical flask for

each of the treatment. Then, 0.2 ml of toluene, 4 mls of THAM at pH 8 and 1 ml of BPNP was

27
added in that sequence. The flask was swirled for few seconds, stopper and kept in an incubator

at temperature of 37 °C for 1 hour. Then, 1 ml of 0.5 M CaCl 2 and 4 mls of THAM-NaOH

extractant was added to the solution, the flask was swirled for few seconds before the solution

was filtered. The yellow colours of the filtrates were measured using a spectrophotometer

calibrated at 410 nm wavelength to get the absorbance from which alkaline phosphatase activity

was derived. Prior to this, 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 ppm P were produced by dissolving 1 g of

PNP in 70 mls of distilled water and made up to 100 mls with distilled water. From 1000 ppm P,

10 mls was taken and dissolved in 90 mls of distilled water to get 100 ppm P. To produce 10

ppm P, 2.5 mls of 100 ppm P was made up to 25 mls with distilled water. This will continue until

50 ppm P working standard is achieved. The absorbance of the working standards (0, 10, 20, 30,

40, and 50) was measured using spectrophotometer that was calibrated at 410 nm wavelength. A

graph absorbance against, 0, 20, 30, 40, and 50 ppm P was produced. The slope of the graph was

used to produce the concentration of Phosphodiesterase in a formula Y=Slope x Concentration;

where Y is the absorbance and concentration of alkaline phosphatase was in ppm or mg per litre.

This was further transformed to mg g-1 or µg g-1 which is the standard unit.

3.8.2 Determination of Acid Phosphatase Activity using Tabatabai (1994) Method .

(a) Preparation of reagents.

Modified Universal Buffer (MUB): 1.21g of THAM was accurately weighed and mixed with

1.16 g of maleic acid 1.40 g of citric acid and 0.63 g of boric acid in 48.8 mls of 1 N NaOH. The

mixture was diluted with distilled water and was made up to 100 mls into a volumetric flask and

then stored in a refrigerator as stock solution.

28
MUB pH 6.5 and pH 11: 20 mls of MUB (Stock Solution) was measured into 500 mls beaker

containing a magnetic stirring bar and was placed on a magnetic stirrer. 0.1 N HCl was added

drop wise and the solution was titrated to pH 6.5 using a pH meter. The same procedure was

followed for pH 11 except that 1 N NaOH was used instead of 0.1 N HCl. Both MUB pH 6.5 and

pH 11 was made up to 100 mls with distilled water. 0.1 N HCl: 10 mlss of 1 N HCl was

measured into 100 mls volumetric flask and made up to 100 mls distilled water. 0.1 N NaOH:

0.4g NaOH was weighed and dissolved in 100 mls volumetric flask. The solution was made up

to 100 mls with distilled water. Para-nitrophenyl phosphate solution (0.025 M). 0.42 g P

nitrophenyl phosphate tetrahydrate was accurately weighed in duplicate and dissolved in 40 mls

MUB pH 6.5 for assay of acid phosphatase. The solution was diluted with MUB of the same pH

and made up to 50 mls and stored in the refrigerator. 0.5 M CaCl 2: 5.55 g CaCl2 was weighed

and dissolved in 100 mls of distilled water. 0.5 NaOH: 2 g of NaOH was accurately weighed and

dissolved in 100 mls volumetric flask. Standard Para – nitrophenyl solution (PNP). 1 g of PNP

was weighed accurately and dissolved in 70 mls of distilled water. The solution was diluted to

100 mls with distilled water and stored in the refrigerator.

(b) Procedure for assay of acid phosphatase.

1 g of soil sample was passed through a 0.5 mm sieve and transferred into 250 mls conical flask

for all samples. 0.2 ml of toluene was added to the samples prior to the addition of 4 mls of MUB

pH 6.5 and 1 ml of Para - nirophenyl phosphate solution, was added to the sample. The solution

was mixed by swirling the flask properly then sealed with a stopper and was kept in an incubator

at 37 °C for one hour. After one hour, the samples were removed from the incubator and

unstopped. 1 ml and 4 mls of 0.5 M CaCl 2, and 0.5 M NaOH was added respectively to the

suspension. The flasks were then swirled for a few seconds and filtered using a filter paper. The

29
yellow colour intensity of the filtrates was measured and recorded with a colorimeter at 410 nm

wavelength. A stock was used to obtain the concentration at 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 P (PPM).

The working standard to be used for all standards will also be measured in P (PPM) by the

colorimeter, three times. The phosphate activities were estimated from the absorbance readings

using the graph produced.

3.9 Data analysis

All data was subjected to Analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Statistical analysis system

(SAS), version 9.4 (2015) computer software and mean was separated using Least Significant

Difference (LSD) at 5 % level of probability.

30
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS

4.1 Physical and chemical properties of irrigated soils

Table 4.1 shows the physical properties of irrigated soils in Kampanin-Kutare and Lapai Gwari.

The textural class for Kampanin- Kutare remain unchanged at top, middle and bottom slope as it

was Sandy loam, while Lapai Gwari soil textural class was Loamy sand at top slope and Sand at

middle and bottom slope.

Tables 4.2 shows the chemical properties of irrigated soil in top, middle and bottom slope at

Kampanin-Kutare and Lapai Gwari. At Kampanin-Kutare, the pH in water of the irrigated soils

was slightly acidic to neutral as it ranged from 6.55 to 6.72 at top, middle and bottom slope,

while the pH in CaCl2 was strongly to moderately acidic with a range of 5.47 to 5.84 at top,

middle and bottom slope. The Organic carbon content was low and ranged from 6.30 to 6.90

cmol kg-1 at top, middle and bottom slope. The available phosphorus ranged from moderate to

high as the values falls between 10.50 mg kg-1 to 23.10 mg kg-1 at top, middle and bottom slopes

with the highest observed at top slope. Total nitrogen ranged from medium to moderately high as

the values of top, middle and bottom slope falls between 1.96 g kg -1 to 2.52 g kg-1. Sodium

content (Na+) ranged from very low to low as the values at the three slopes ranged between 0.06

to 0.21 cmol kg-1 with its lowest at the top slope. Potassium (K +) was very low as its content at

the three slopes ranged between 0.06 to 0.17 cmol kg -1. Magnesium (Mg2+) and calcium (Ca2+)

content ranged from high to very high as the values falls between 4.40 to 12.80 cmol kg -1 and

11.20 to 22.00 cmol kg-1 respectively, where magnesium was highest at middle slope and

calcium was highest at bottom slope. Exchangeable acidity was low as it ranged from 0.10 to

0.11 cmol kg-1 at the three slopes.

31
At Lapai Gwari, the pH in water of the irrigated soil was neutral at top, middle and bottom slope

ranging from 6.71 to 6.92 while the pH in CaCl 2 was strongly to moderately acidic as it ranged

from 5.48 to 5.96 at top, middle and bottom slope. The Organic carbon content was low and

ranged between 6.00 g kg-1 to 7.80 g kg-1 at top, middle and bottom slope. Available phosphorus

ranged from moderate to high as its values falls between 9.45 mg kg -1 and 14.00 mg kg-1 at the

three slopes. Total nitrogen ranged from moderately low to medium as its values fall between

1.26 g kg-1 and 1.96 g kg-1 at the three slopes. Sodium content (Na+) ranged from very low to

moderate as its values ranged from 0.03 to 0.60 cmol kg -1 at the top, middle and bottom slope.

Potassium content (K+) ranged from very low to very high as its values ranged from 0.18 to 9.26

cmol kg-1, where its highest was observed at the middle slope and it was lowest at both the top

and bottom slope. Magnesium (Mg2+) and calcium (Ca2+) content both ranged from high to very

high at top, middle and bottom slope with its values for magnesium and calcium content between

7.20 to 8.00 cmol kg-1 and 28.80 to 50.00 cmol kg-1 respectively, where magnesium was highest

at middle slope and calcium was highest at both top and bottom. Exchangeable acidity ranged

from very low to low with its values ranging from 0.07 to 0.11 cmol kg -1 at top, middle and

bottom slope, where its lowest was observed at top slope.

4.2 Effect of slope on soil chemical properties at Kampanin-Kutare

The results on (Table 4.3) show the effect of slope on chemical properties of soil. pH in water

was significantly (p < 0.05) influenced by slope and recorded highest values at bottom (6.72) and

top slope (6.69) and lowest value at middle slope (6.55). pH in CaCl 2 recorded the highest in top

slope (5.84) while the lowest was observed with the middle (5.52) and bottom slope (5.47)

respectively. Organic carbon ranked the highest at bottom slope (6.90 g kg -1) followed by middle

slope (6.45 g kg-1) and top slope (6.30 g kg-1). The highest available phosphorus was obtained at

32
top slope (23.10 mg kg-1) followed by bottom and middle slope at 10.50 mg kg -1 and 17.15 mg

kg-1 respectively. Total nitrogen concentration was higher in middle slope (2.52 g kg-1) than top

and bottom slope at 2.24 g kg-1 and 1.96 g kg-1 respectively. Exchangeable potassium (K+) was

not significantly affected. Sodium content (Na2+) was significantly higher in bottom slope (0.21)

than middle slope (0.15) and top slope (0.06). Slope was shown to have a highly significant

effect on exchangeable magnesium (Mg2+), the highest value recorded 12.30 and 11.20 at middle

and top slope and the lowest value was recorded as 4.40 at bottom slope. Exchangeable calcium

(Ca2+) was highly significantly affected by slope with 16.80, 11.20 and 22.00 at the top, middle

and bottom slope respectively. There was no significant effect of slope on exchangeable acidity.

4.3 Effect of slope on chemical properties of water at Kampanin-Kutare

Table 4.4 shows the effect slope had on the chemical properties of water. Electrical conductivity

was not significantly affected by slope. The pH was significantly (p < 0.05) affected by slope

with the values of top, middle and bottom slope recorded at 5.85, 5.80 and 5.66 respectively.

Total hardness of water was highly significantly (p < 0.01) affected and recorded lowest values

of 70.00 mg l-1 at middle slope, 80.00 mg l-1 at top slope and the highest value of 92.00 mg l -1 at

bottom slope. Calcium content (Ca2+) was affected by slope with highly significantly (p < 0.01)

with highest value recorded at bottom slope (21.87 mg l-1) followed by middle slope (15.14 mg l-
1
) and the lowest value at the top slope (10.09 mg l -1). Chlorine content (Cl-) was observed to be

highly significantly (p < 0.01) affected with highest recorded at top slope (297.84 mg l -1) and

lowest recorded at middle slope (54.60 mg l-1), while bottom slope was recorded at 99.28 mg l-1.

CaH content was highly significantly (p < 0.01) affected with highest values at bottom slope

recorded at 54.60 mg l-1 and lowest value at top slope recorded at 25.20 mg l -1, while middle

slope was recorded at 37.80 mg l-1. Magnesium content (Mg2+) in water was affected by slope

33
with high significance (p < 0.01) with highest value at top slope recorded at 13.37 mg l -1 and

lowest value at middle slope recorded at 7.86 mg l -1, while bottom slope recorded 9.13 mg l -1.

Total alkalinity in water was highly significant (p < 0.01) with highest value recorded at bottom

slope (150.00 mg l-1) and lowest value at the middle slope recorded at 110.00 mg l -1, while top

slope recorded 114.00 mg l-1. Bicarbonate content (HCO3) in water was affected by slope with

high significance (p < 0.01) and recorded highest value at bottom slope (74.74 mg l -1) and lowest

values at middle slope (54.12 mg l-1). Sodium content (Na2+) in water was highly significant (p <

0.01) and recorded its highest value at bottom slope (12.00 mg l-1) and the least value was 10.41

mg l-1 at the top slope, while middle slope was recorded at 11.50 mg l -1. Potassium content (K+)

in water was highly significant (p < 0.01) and recorded highest value at bottom slope (7.00 mg l -
1
) and its lowest value at top slope (6.10 mg l-1) for top slope, while the middle slope was

recorded at 6.50 mg l-1. COD was observed to be highly significant (p < 0.01) with lowest value

recorded at bottom slope (96.00 mg l-1) followed by middle slope (80.00 mg l-1) and the lowest

recorded at top slope (48.00 mg l-1). BOD was not significantly affected by slope. SAR was

significantly (p < 0.05) affected by slope with highest value recorded at middle slope (3.39) and

lowest value at the top slope (3.04), while the bottom slope was 3.05.

4.4 Effects of slope on enzyme activities at Kampanin-Kutare

Table 4.5 shows the effect of slope on acid and alkaline phosphatase in soil. The concentration of

acid phosphatase was observed be to be highly significantly (p < 0.01) affected by slope with

highest value of 2.44 mg g-1 and 2.23 mg g-1 at top and middle slope respectively and the least

value of 1.31 mg g-1 at the bottom slope. The concentration of alkaline phosphatase was highly

significant (p < 0.01) and recorded 25.24 mg g-1, 21.00 mg g-1 and 20.32 mg g-1 at top, middle

and bottom slope respectively.

34
4.5 Effect of slope on soil chemicals properties at Lapai Gwari

The result on (Table 4.3) shows the effect of slope on soil chemical properties. pH in water was

significantly (p < 0.05) affected by slope and recorded its highest value at top slope (6.92)

followed by bottom slope (6.79) and lowest value at middle slope (6.71). The pH in CaCl 2 was

highly significantly (p < 0.01) affected by slope with highest to lowest value recorded at 5.74,

5.48 and 5.96 for top, middle and bottom slope respectively. Organic carbon ranked the highest

at bottom and middle slope with 7.80 g kg-1 and 7.20 g kg-1 respectively while the least value of

6.00 g kg-1 was recorded at top slope. Available phosphorus was highest at bottom slope (14.00

mg kg-1) and lowest at top slope (9.45 mg kg -1) while the middle slope was 13.30 mg kg -1. Total

nitrogen content was highly significant (p < 0.01) and recorded highest value of 1.96 g kg -1 and

1.68 g kg-1 at bottom and middle slope and its lowest value of 1.26 g kg -1 at top slope. Sodium

content (Na2+) was highest at bottom slope (0.60 cmol kg-1) and lowest the middle slope (0. 03

cmol kg-1) while top slope was 0.56 cmol kg-1. Potassium content (K+) was observed to be at par

at top and bottom slope and highest value of 9.26 cmol kg -1 at middle slope. Magnesium content

(Mg2+) was affected highly significantly with the highest at middle slope (8.80 cmol kg -1) and

lowest at bottom slope (7.20 cmol kg-1) while top slope was recorded at 8.00 cmol kg -1. Calcium

content (Ca2+) was observed to be at par at top and bottom slope with the lowest at middle slope

(28.80 cmol kg-1). Exchangeable acidity was not significantly affected by slope.

4.6 Effect of slope on chemical properties of water at Lapai Gwari

Table 4.4 shows the effect of slope on the chemical properties of water. Total hardness, total

alkalinity, bicarbonate (HCO3) and potassium (K+) content were highly significantly (p < 0.01)

affected by slope with their highest values at middle slope recorded at 150.00 mg l-1, 190.00,

35
95.36 mg l-1 and 6.30 mg l-1 respectively and their lowest values at bottom slope recorded at

140.00 mg l-1, 140.00, 69.59 mg l-1 and 3.00 mg l-1 respectively. pH was not significantly affected

by slope. The electrical conductivity was significantly (p < 0.05) affected by the slope and

recorded highest value 0.74 dS m-1 at middle slope and lowest value of 0.61 dS m-1 at bottom

slope. Chloride (Cl-), sodium (Na2+), COD and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) content were

highly significant (p < 0.01) with lowest recorded at top slope (134.03 mg l -1, 11.03 mg l-1, 6.00

mg l-1, 560.00 mg l-1 and 1.18) and highest recorded at middle slope (150.90 mg l -1, 16.10 mg l-1,

9.20 mg l-1, 592.00 mg l-1 and 1.84), while bottom slope recorded at 139.00 mg l-1, 6.80 mg l-1,

576.00 mg l-1 and 1.37 respectively. The calcium content (Ca2+) was observed to be highly

significantly (p < 0.01) affected and recorded highest values of 40.37 mg l -1 and lowest value of

33.64 mg l-1 at the middle slope, while bottom slope was recorded at 37.85 mg l-1. CaH content

was affected by slope with high significance (p < 0.01) and recorded highest value at top slope

(100.80 mg l-1) and lowest value at middle slope (84.00 mg l-1) while bottom slope was recorded

at 94.50 mg l-1. Magnesium (Mg2+) was observed to remain unchanged at top and bottom but

showed significance at middle slope recorded at 16.10 mg l -1. BOD was significantly (p < 0.05)

affected by slope and the highest value of 0.28 mg l -1 was recorded at middle slope and lowest

value of 1.12 mg l-1 was recorded top slope with bottom slope recorded at 0.23 mg l-1.

4.7 Effect of slope on enzyme activities at Lapai Gwari

Table 4.5 shows the effect of slope on acid and alkaline phosphatase in soil. The concentration of

acid phosphatase was observed to be highly significantly (p < 0.01) affected by slope with

highest value of 3.29 mg g-1 and 1.67 mg g-1 at bottom and top slope respectively and the least

value of 1.22 mg g-1 at middle slope. The concentration of alkaline phosphatase was observed to

36
be at par at top and middle slope (22.48 and 22.49 mg g -1) with significance at the bottom slope

which recorded the least value of 16.83 mg g-1.

37
Table 4.1 Physical Properties of Irrigated Soil

SAND SILT CLAY

SAMPLE LOCATION SLOPE (g kg-1) (g kg-1) (g kg-1) TEXTURAL CLASS

KAMPANIN-KUTARE TOP 783.6 100 116.4 Sandy loam

MIDDLE 763.6 120 116.4 Sandy loam

BOTTOM 803.6 90 106.4 Sandy loam

LAPAI GWARI TOP 763.6 200 36.4 Loamy sand

MIDDLE 912.7 30.9 56.4 Sand

BOTTOM 912.1 8.5 96.4 Sand

38
 Table 4.2 Chemical Properties of Irrigated Soil

SLOPE Na+

pH pH OC Avail. P TN K+ Mg2+ Ca2+ Ex. Acidity

(H2O) (CaCl2) (g kg-1) (mg kg-1) (g kg-1) (cmol kg-1) (cmol kg-1)

KAMPANIN-KUTARE

0.0
6.69 5.84 6.30 23.10 2.24 0.06 11.20 16.80 0.11
TOP 6

0.1
6.55 5.52 6.45 10.50 2.52 0.16 12.80 11.20 0.10
MIDDLE 5

0.2 22.00
6.72 5.47 6.90 17.15 1.96 0.17 4.40 0.10
BOTTOM 1 .

LAPAI GWARI

0.5
6.92 5.74 6.00 9.45 1.26 0.18 8.00 30.00 0.07
TOP 6

MIDDLE 6.71 5.48 7.20 13.30 1.68 0.0 9.26 8.80 28.80 0.11

39
 3

BOTTOM 0.6
6.79 5.96 7.80 14.00 1.96 0.18 7.20 30.00 0.09
0

OC= Organic carbon, TN= Total Nitrogen, Avail. P= Available Phosphorus. Ex. Acidity= Exchangeable acidity

Table 4.3 Effect of slope on soil chemical properties

SLOPE pH pH OC Avail. P TN Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+ Ex. Acidity

(H2O) (CaCl2) (g kg-1) (mg kg-1) (g kg-1) (cmol kg-1) (cmol kg-1) (cmol kg-1) (cmol kg-1) (cmol kg-1)

KAMPANIN-

KUTARE

TOP 6.69a 5.84a 6.30c 23.10a 2.24b 0.06b 0.06b 11.20b 16.80b 0.11a

MIDDLE 6.55b 5.52b 6.45b 10.50c 2.52a 0. 15b 0.16a 12.80a 11.20c 0.10a

BOTTOM 6.72a 5.47b 6.90a 17.15b 1.96c 0.21a 0.17a 4.40c 22.00a 0.10a

LSD 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099

LAPAI GWARI

TOP 6.92a 5.74b 6.00c 9.45c 1.26c 0.56a 0.18b 8.00b 30.00a 0.07a

40
 MIDDLE 6.71b 5.48c 7.20b 13.30b 1.68b 0.03b 9.26a 8.80a 28.80b 0.11a

BOTTOM 6.79b 5.96a 7.80a 14.00a 1.96a 0.60a 0.18b 7.20c 30.00a 0.09a

LSD 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099

**= Significant at p < 0.01, *= Significant at p < 0.05, NS= Not significant, OC= Organic carbon, TN= Total Nitrogen, Ex. Acidity=
Exchangeable acidity, Avail. P= Available phosphorus
Means with the same letters are not significantly different at p > 0.05

Table 4.4 Effect of slope on chemical properties of water

SLOPE Total Total

EC Hardness Ca2+ Cl- CaH Mg2+ Alkalinity HCO3 Na+ K+ COD BOD

(dS m-1) pH (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) SAR

KAMPANIN-

KUTARE

TOP 0.27b 5.85a 80.00b 10.09c 297.84a 25.20c 13.37a 114.00b 56.19b 10.41c 6.10c 48.00c 0.24a 3.04b

MIDDLE 0.34a 5.80a 70.00c 15.14b 54.60c 37.80b 7.86c 110.00c 54.12c 11.50b 6.50b 80.00b 0.14b 3.39a

BOTTOM 0.38a 5.66b 92.00a 21.87a 99.28b 54.60a 9.13b 150.00a 74.74a 12.00a 7.00a 96.00a 0.14b 3.05b

LSD 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099

41
LAPAI GWARI

TOP 0.73a 5.55a 146.00b 40.37a 134.03c 100.80a 11.03b 160.00b 79.90b 6.00c 6.00b 560.00c 0.12b 1.18a

MIDDLE 0.74a 5.51a 150.00a 33.64c 150.90a 84.00c 16.10a 190.00a 95.36a 9.20a 6.30a 592.00a 0.28a 1.84a

BOTTOM 0. 61b 5.48a 140.00c 37.85b 139.00b 94.50b 11.10b 140.00c 69.59c 6.80b 3.00c 576.00b 0.23a 1.37b

LSD 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099 0.099

**= Significant at p < 0.01, *= Significant at p < 0.05, NS= Not significant, EC= Electrical conductivity, CaH= Calcium hardness, HCO 3=
Bicarbonate, COD= Chemical oxgen demand, BOD= Biochemical oxygen demand, SAR= Sodium adsorption ratio
Means with the same letters are not significantly different at p > 0.05
Table 4.5 Effect of slope on enzyme activities

SLOPE ACP (mg g-1) ALP (mg g-1)

KAMPANIN-KUTARE

TOP 2.44a 25.24a

MIDDLE 2.23b 21.00b

BOTTOM 1.31c 20.32c

LSD 0.099 0.099

LAPAI GWARI

TOP 1.67b 22.48a

MIDDLE 1.22c 22.49a

42
BOTTOM 3.29a 16.83b

LSD 0.099 0.099

**= Significant at p < 0.01, *= Significant at p < 0.05, NS= Not significant, ACP=Acid phosphatase, ALP= Alkaline phosphatase
Means with the same letters are not significantly different at p > 0.05

43
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Discussion

The pH of both locations were observed to be below acceptable limit of water use for irrigation

(6.5 – 8.4) as it ranged from strongly to moderately acidic with the highest pH value in the top

slope (5.85) at Kampanin-Kutare. Lower pH values are undesirable as they trigger corrosion of

irrigation pipes where they occur (Salifu et al., 2017).

Magnesium concentration in the water sample for both locations, were found to be in the range

of 7.86 mg l-1 to 16.10 mg l-1. The values are within the acceptable range (0 to 60.76 mg l -1) of

values for suitability of water for irrigation by FAO (Ayers and Westcott, 1985). Narany et al.

(2012) reported similar findings of magnesium concentrations (19.20 to 60.76 meq l -1) in

irrigation water sample. The water collected from Kampanin-Kutare and Lapai Gwari can

therefore be free of magnesium problem as it ranges within acceptable limit.

Bicarbonate in water was found to fall within the usual range in irrigation water by FAO (0 –

610.17 mg l-1) as it ranged from 54.12 mg l -1 to 91.36 mg l-1. A high concentration of bicarbonate

in water increases the sodium adsorption ratio which translates to salinity problem.

The Electrical Conductivity (EC) values of the analysed samples ranged from 0.27 dS m -1 – 0.38

dS m-1 at Kampanin-Kutare and 0.61 dS m-1 – 0.74 dS m-1 at Lapai Gwari. According to Ayers

and Westcott (1985), groundwater with EC value greater than 3 dS m -1 is termed ‘‘Fair’’ and

would greatly affect crop productivity or yield. Water is termed ‘‘Good’’ if the EC is in the range

of 0.7 to 3 dS m-1, while water with EC value less than 0.7 dS m -1, is classified as ‘‘Excellent’’

for irrigation. Therefore, the soils at Kampanin- Kutare are excellent for irrigation compared to

soils at Lapai Gwari which is also good for irrigation.

44
The potassium levels in the analysed water samples ranged between 3 and 7 mg l -1 (Table 4.4)

and these values are above the acceptable range of 0 to 2 mg l -1 provided by FAO for irrigation

purposes, indicating high levels of potassium in both locations (Ayers and Westcott, 1985).

The sodium levels for the analysed samples ranged from 6.0 to 12.0 mg l -1 in both locations.

These values are within the normal accepted ranges for sodium (0 – 40 meq l -1) in irrigation

water by FAO (Ayers and Westcott, 1985).

The chloride contents of the water samples analysed ranged from 54.60 to 297.84 mg l -1 both

location were found to be within its usual range in irrigation water (0 – 30 meq l -1) based on the

recommendation of Ayers and Westcott (1985). Chloride is an essential element to plants, but it

is needed at very low concentrations and it can be toxic to crops at high concentrations. High

concentrations of chlorides affect the growth of plants by increasing the osmotic pressure, reduce

water availability to plants and therefore reduced crop growth and productivity.

SAR values of analysed water samples ranged from 1.18 - 1.84 at Lapai Gwari and 3.04 – 3.39 at

Kampanin-Kutare. The values obtained are less than the SAR value of 10 which is designated as

excellent for irrigation use by (Todd, 1980; Sadashivaiah et al., 2008). Todd (1980) and

Sadashivaiah et al. (2008) classified irrigation water with SAR value less than 10 meq l -1 as

‘‘Excellent’’ for irrigation usage and those with SAR values in the range of 10 and 18 meq l -1 are

termed ‘‘Good’’. While water with SAR values ranging from 18 and 26 meq l -1 and greater than

26 meq l-1 are classified as’’ Doubtful’’ and ‘‘Unsuitable’’, respectively. SAR is used to assess

the relative concentration of sodium, calcium and magnesium in irrigation water and provide a

useful indicator of its potential damaging effect on soil structure and permeability. Therefore, the

water at both locations are considered excellent for irrigation use. Al-Ahmadi (2013) reported

lower SAR values (0.3 to 3.5) similar to the results of this study.

45
Acid phosphatase (ACP) and Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) concentration in Kampanin-Kutare

were found to be highly significantly affected by slope in top and bottom slope by 86 % and 0.3

% respectively and also at the middle and bottom slope by 70 % and 3 % respectively. While at

Lapai Gwari, ALP had the highest at top slope which was not different from the value obtained

at the middle slope while the lowest was recorded at the bottom slope. ACP was highly

significant with highest at bottom slope followed by top slope and middle slope.

5.2 Conclusion

The study carried out showed that there was high significance (p < 0.01) at the top, middle and

bottom slope for ACP and ALP activities in both locations.

Mg2+, HCO3, EC, Na+ and Cl- excluding pH and K+ were all observed to be within acceptable

limits in accordance with acceptable range of values for the suitability of water for irrigation by

FAO (Ayers and Westcott, 1985). pH was below the limit while K + was above the limit for

suitability. Therefore with proper management system, the water at Kamfanin-Kutare and Lapai

Gwari are considered safe to use for irrigation purpose.

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