UNIT 3

The passage discusses the political landscape in British India during the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
highlighting the philosophical foundations and functional reasons behind the introduction of representative self-
government reforms. Here's a summary:

1. **Philosophical Basis of British Imperialism:**

- After the suppression of the 1857 revolt, British imperialism in India became more despotically inclined, with no
inclination towards granting self-governing rights to Indians.
- There were divergent strands of liberal thought in England regarding democracy and self-government for
dependent empires.

2. **Liberal Division on India:**

- The division arose on the question of democracy and self-government for the dependent empire.
- Extreme liberals like John Bright were critical of British rule in India, while others like John Stuart Mill believed that
democracy was suitable only for civilized people.

3. **Authoritarian Strand:**
- Some, like Fitzjames Stephen, adopted an authoritarian position, combining Benthamism with Hobbesian
despotism.
- The philosophy emphasized power as a means of improvement and rejected the notion of introducing
representative institutions in India.

4. **Imperial Mission and Direct Rule:**

- Fitzjames Stephen's philosophy influenced the tradition of direct rule, imperial law, and an Evangelical sense of
duty to initiate improvement.
- Direct rule rejected buying support with favors to specific classes and aimed to establish pax Britannica and
introduce European civilizational principles.

5. **Gradual Introduction of Representative Self-Government:**

- Despite the authoritarian philosophy, the Government of India gradually introduced representative self-
government in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
- Various acts, such as the Indian Councils Act of 1861, Local Self-Government Act of 1882, and the Morley–Minto
Reforms of 1909, were implemented.

6. **Explanations for Reforms:**

- The "Cambridge School" explained the reforms as a result of the functional needs of imperialism, driven by the
essential weakness of the empire.
- B.R. Tomlinson argued for a fiscal crisis of the British Indian empire, leading to devolution of power to buy Indian
support.

7. **Impact of Indian Nationalism:**

- The passage emphasizes the role of growing Indian nationalism in forcing constitutional reforms.
- The intensity of the Swadeshi movement and the spread of extremism compelled the administration to consider
constitutional changes.

8. **Lord Morley's Role:**

- Lord Morley, the Secretary of State, urged Viceroy Lord Minto to balance the unpopular Bengal partition with
reforms.
- The realization that India could no longer be ruled with a "cast iron bureaucracy" led to a new policy of sharing
power with Indians.

9. **Policy of Divide and Rule:**

- The new policy included outright repression, concessions to rally moderates, and divide and rule through separate
electorates for Muslims.
- Constitutional reforms aimed to allow Indians some share of power in legislatures and executive councils.

10. **Post-Mutiny Policy Institutionalized:**

 - The post-mutiny policy of alliance with conservative elements in Indian society was further institutionalized in
response to mounting nationalist pressure.

The passage highlights the evolving political philosophies, the impact of Indian nationalism, and the factors leading to
constitutional reforms during this period in British India.
The passage discusses the Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley–Minto Reforms) and the Government of India Act of
1919 (Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms), highlighting the limitations and criticisms of these constitutional reforms in
British India. Here's a summary:

1. **Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley–Minto Reforms):**

- Provided for limited self-government but did not satisfy any of the Indian political groups.
- Short-lived and had to be revised within ten years.
- Introduced the principle of election but with various constraints.
- Details of seat allocation and electoral qualifications left to local governments, allowing bureaucratic
manipulation.
- Reserved seats for different groups, retaining official majority in the Imperial Legislative Council.
- Electorate based on high property qualifications, with disparities between Hindus and Muslims.
- Government had the power to disallow candidates suspected of being politically dangerous.

2. **Increasing Dissatisfaction and World War One:**

- Dissatisfaction with the existing constitution increased during World War I.
- Greater acceptance of the idea of Indian self-rule in British political circles.
- Lord Chelmsford's administration allowed concessions to nationalist demands, but a declaration of goals for
British rule in India was awaited.

3. **Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms (Government of India Act of 1919):**

- Declared the overall objective of "gradual development of self-governing institutions."
- Proposed a bicameral legislature at the center, with an elected majority in the legislative assembly.
- Introduced the concept of 'dyarchy,' transferring certain functions to ministers responsible to legislative
assemblies.
- Retained and extended communal representation and reservations.
- Introduced larger electorates but kept certain subjects under firm bureaucratic control.
- Provincial governors had veto and certificate powers.

4.

**Assessment of Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms:**

- The reforms were considered an improvement over the 1909 act, with the main theme being an elected majority
in provinces with executive responsibility.
- The responsible government was to be realized progressively, suggesting an indefinite timetable that could be
manipulated.
- Despite theoretical criticism of the principle of separate electorates, communal representation and reservations
were retained and extended.
- 'Dyarchy' transferred certain functions to ministers while keeping crucial departments under official control.
- The reforms were seen differently by historians, with varying opinions on whether they aimed at establishing
parliamentary democracy or safeguarding British interests.

5. **Criticism and Failures:**

- The reforms failed to satisfy Indian political opinions, and they did not prevent the eventual mass movement for
independence.
- Many Indians had moved beyond the idea of self-government within the empire and now aspired for complete
independence (swaraj).
- Gandhi's non-cooperation program in 1920 included boycotting the new councils, criticizing Western civil society,
and aiming to liberate Indian politics from constitutional constraints.
- The Cambridge School connected the constitutional reforms with the emergence of mass politics after World War
I, but this interpretation did not fully explain the mass upsurge under Mahatma Gandhi.
In summary, the passage provides an overview of constitutional reforms in British India, focusing on the limitations of
the 1909 and 1919 acts. It discusses the dissatisfaction with the existing constitution, the changing political climate
during World War I, and the varying assessments of the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms, ultimately leading to the
mass movement for independence.
**Continuation - 6.2. The Arrival of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi:**

**Nationalist Movement Before Gandhi:**

- Before Gandhi's arrival in 1915, the nationalist movement in India had limitations, characterized as "politics of
studied limitations" and representing specific classes rather than the masses.
- Western-educated professionals, mainly from specific castes and communities, were involved in politics, primarily in
Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras.
- These leaders were described as "underlings of the British rulers" more interested in creating a new elite society
influenced by British ideals than in advocating far-reaching social or economic change.

**Early Congress Politics:**

- Early Congress politics, before Gandhi, had limited goals and modest achievements.
- After the Surat Split in 1907, moderates demanded colonial self-government, while extremists called for complete
independence.
- Popular perception saw little difference between the two groups, and both lost credibility due to their failure to
achieve stated goals.
- The Morley–Minto Reforms of 1909 reflected the failure of constitutional politics, while extremism faced repression
in Bengal, Maharashtra, and Punjab.

**Conditions Leading to Gandhi's Emergence:**

- By 1915–17, both moderate and extremist politics reached an impasse.
- Gandhi, as a newcomer, was not burdened by the failures of existing groups, offering a fresh perspective.
- He was not tied to the political status quo and was willing to shift power from Western-educated elites to the
masses.
- Gandhi had a clear vision of Indian society's pluralism and a dedication to a united India, appealing to the frustrated
younger generation tired of squabbles between moderates and extremists.

**Social and Economic Environment during World War I:**

- The war led to social and economic dislocations, creating a context for Gandhi's emergence.
- Increased defense expenditure during and after the war resulted in a substantial national debt and rising taxes.
- Indirect taxation, food shortages, an influenza epidemic, and export of food for the war effort led to near famine
conditions in some areas.
- Forced recruitment for the army caused resentment in rural areas, impacting all sections of rural society.
- Industrial growth during the war led to increased working-class dissatisfaction due to rising prices and declining real
wages.

**Impact of World War I on Indian Population:**

- Social and economic dislocations affected all classes, setting the stage for mass mobilization.
- Educated youth, disillusioned by the war, discovered the downside of Western civilization.
- Gandhi's ideology appealed to many, offering a moral and spiritually noble political program.
- His inclusivism, recognizing India's diversities, became a unique style of politics, uniting different communities
under his leadership.
- Gandhi's political ideas drew from Western thinkers, Vaishnavism, and Jainism, but his philosophy began with a
critique of "modern" civilization, marking a departure from earlier nationalist leaders.

**Gandhi's Philosophy and Critique:**

- Gandhi's philosophy, influenced by Thoreau, Ruskin, Emerson, Tolstoy, Vaishnavism, and Jainism, included a
trenchant critique of modern civilization.
- Unlike earlier leaders, Gandhi critiqued the entire edifice of bourgeois society and challenged the ruling culture's
internal legitimacy.
- Gandhi's philosophy evolved continuously, making it challenging to provide an authoritative statement on it.
- Some key aspects of his political thinking include a critique of liberalism and a fundamental critique of bourgeois
society, emphasizing its moral and spiritual dimensions.
In summary, the arrival of Gandhi marked a transformative period in the nationalist movement, offering a fresh
perspective and a unique style of politics that appealed to a broad spectrum of the Indian population, especially in
the context of the social and economic disruptions caused by World War I. His inclusive approach and critique of
modern civilization set him apart from the earlier leaders and contributed to his widespread popularity.
**Continuation:**

**Gandhi's Ideological Critique:**

- In *Hind Swaraj* (1909), Gandhi presented a civilizational concept of the Indian nation, asserting that Indians
constituted a nation since pre-Islamic days.
- He praised the ancient Indian civilization as the best, with immense assimilative power, contrasting it with the
"godless" modern civilization that propagated immorality.
- Industrial capitalism, the essence of modern civilization, was blamed for conflicts, imperial aggression, and
enslavement. Gandhi argued that Indians embraced capitalism and were responsible for their own subjugation.
- Gandhi's remedy was a moral and utopian shift to a village-based self-sufficient economy, eschewing greed and
consumption.

**Gandhi's Political Philosophy:**

- Gandhi rejected parliamentary democracy as reflective of party interests, limiting the moral autonomy of
parliamentarians.
- His alternative was a concept of popular sovereignty where each individual controls their own self—a subtle
distinction between self-rule and mere home rule.
- Gandhi's goal was to evolve an Indian alternative to Western liberal political structures, emphasizing moral and
utopian ideals.
- His concept of swaraj had to be experienced by each individual, not just a dream, and his technique to achieve it
was satyagraha, based on truth force and non-violence.

**Gandhi's Relationship with Modernity:**

- Although Gandhi utilized modern communication and transportation methods, he effectively contested the moral
legitimacy of British rule by critiquing Western modern civilization.
- Gandhi's methods provided maneuverability in real politics, bridging the gap between morality and politics through
the concept of ahimsa.
- The perpetual dilemma of reconciling non-violence principles with the realities of the nationalist movement
remained throughout Gandhi's career.

**Precedents to Gandhi's Politics:**

- Gandhi did not introduce an entirely new kind of politics. Tilak's mass movement in Maharashtra, Punjab
extremists, and the Swadeshi movement in Bengal in 1905–8 had already foreshadowed agitational politics.
- The Home Rule Leagues of Tilak and Annie Besant prepared the ground for the success of Gandhi's initial satyagraha
movements.
- In 1914, Tilak and Besant aimed to steer Indian politics in a similar direction, but their efforts faced challenges and
the Congress remained inactive.
- Home Rule Leagues, with a membership of about sixty thousand by 1917–18, aimed to promote Home Rule for
India but could not bring in mass agitational politics.

**Annie Besant and the Home Rule Leagues:**

- Annie Besant, made Congress President in 1917, took a conciliatory attitude towards moderates after Montagu-
Chelmsford reform proposals.
- This frustrated young extremist leaders, and the Home Rule Leagues became defunct. Nevertheless, local leaders of
Gandhi's early satyagrahas often came from the Home Rule League background.

Gandhi's entry into Indian politics occurred in a context shaped by existing political movements and ideological
currents. His critique of modern civilization and emphasis on moral and utopian ideals set the stage for a unique form
of political leadership that would profoundly impact the course of the Indian nationalist movement.
**Continuation:**

**Gandhi's Political Strategy and Appeal:**

- Gandhi succeeded in uniting moderates and extremists by tactically combining the goals of moderates with the
means of extremists.
- He adopted the goal of swaraj but remained deliberately vague about its definition, allowing different
interpretations.
- Gandhi's method of satyagraha resembled the passive resistance of extremists, but his insistence on non-violence
eased fears of moderates and propertied classes.
- Gandhi aligned with younger Muslim leaders on the khilafat issue, highlighting its anti-British aspects and
downplaying its pan-Islamic tendencies, uniting Hindus and Muslims against the British.

**Gandhi's Populist Appeal:**

- Beyond elite leaders, Gandhi appealed directly to the Indian peasantry, tapping into the dislocations caused by war.
- His popular appeal was not just controlled by elite leaders but rooted in his simple attire, colloquial language, and
use of religious symbols.
- Gandhi's charismatic appeal made him comprehensible to the common people, invested with supernatural power
in popular myths.
- Despite attempts by elite leaders to control this groundswell, Gandhi's popular appeal often transcended their
influence.

**Gandhi's Role in Localized Satyagrahas:**

- In Champaran, Bihar, Gandhi led a satyagraha against the tinkathia system, mobilizing peasants through the call of
Mahatma.
- Despite Gandhi's disapproval of violent actions by rich peasant leaders, the movement achieved its limited goal with
the Champaran Agricultural Act.
- Gandhi's intervention broke the fear barrier in the minds of poor peasants, although the movement didn't fully stop
planter oppression.
- Kheda district in Gujarat faced unusual hardships in 1917, leading to a satyagraha. Peasant leaders played a
significant role independent of Gandhi's direct influence.
- The satyagraha, a "patchy campaign," affected only a few villages, and government concessions led to its
withdrawal. Gandhi established political base but faced deviations from Gandhian non-violence.
- In the Ahmedabad textile mill strike of 1918, Gandhi intervened as an arbitrator but later championed workers'
cause, using a hunger strike.
- The workers ultimately got a 27.5% wage rise, and the movement helped mobilize and organize the working classes
in Ahmedabad, laying the foundation for the Textile Labour Association in 1920.

**Gandhi's Impact on Political Life:**

- Gandhi's entry into politics brought a radical restructuring of political life in India.
- The mass upsurge he inspired often deviated from his ideals, reflecting a paradox in Gandhian politics.
- Gandhi aimed for a "controlled mass movement" adhering strictly to his prescribed path, but the masses often
crossed boundaries and believed in a mythical messiah, challenging Gandhi's control.
- Gandhi's localized satyagrahas demonstrated the grassroots appeal of his methods but also revealed the challenge
of maintaining control over the movement's direction.

Gandhi's political strategy, rooted in populism and mass appeal, marked a transformative phase in Indian politics,
challenging existing power structures and laying the groundwork for a unique form of political mobilization.
**Continuation:**

**Implementation of Non-cooperation Movement:**

- The non-cooperation movement, proposed by Gandhi, faced initial skepticism from established Congress leaders
who lacked experience in mass agitation.
- Gandhi's proposal gained support from politically backward provinces and groups not previously involved in
Congress politics.
- Between September and December 1920, a struggle ensued within the Congress between those supporting and
opposing Gandhi's non-cooperation programme.
- A special Congress session in Calcutta in September 1920 approved Gandhi's resolution, overcoming opposition
from the old guard.
- The non-cooperation programme included surrendering government titles, boycotting schools, courts, and councils,
boycotting foreign goods, encouraging national schools, arbitration courts, and khadi (homespun cloth).
- The programme was endorsed at the regular Congress session in Nagpur in December 1920, leading to a
compromise between Gandhi and some opposing leaders.

**Reasons for Congress Acceptance of Gandhi:**

- The reasons for veteran Congress leaders accepting Gandhi and his mass movement proposal are subject to
conjecture and controversy.
- Gandhi had proven himself as a political organizer with access to new areas of political support beyond the reach of
older Congress leaders.
- Gandhi's support came from the Muslim Khilafatists, backward regions, and classes, contributing to a populist
groundswell.
- The Nagpur Congress session saw an unusually large attendance, with most new delegates being supporters of
Gandhi.
- Established leaders, swayed by this mass support, accepted the Gandhian creed, despite hesitation and resistance.
- Gandhi needed the Congress leaders to organize a nationwide movement, emphasizing the emergence of a centrist
leadership within India's political pluralism.

**Commencement of Non-cooperation Movement:**

- The non-cooperation movement began in January 1921, initially focusing on middle-class participation, including
students leaving schools and lawyers giving up their practices.
- Efforts were made to develop national schools and arbitration courts, raise funds, and recruit volunteers.
- The movement evolved, with increased militancy, including the boycott and organization of public bonfires of
foreign cloth.
- A nationwide strike on November 17, coinciding with the Prince of Wales' official visit, saw the outbreak of the first
violent riot in Bombay.
- This led to the postponement of full-scale civil disobedience or a no-tax campaign. An experimental no-revenue
campaign was planned for Bardoli in Gujarat in February 1922.
- The choice of Bardoli was strategic, being a ryotwari area without zamindars, reducing the risk of escalating into a
no-rent campaign.
- However, the non-cooperation movement was withdrawn before the planned no-revenue campaign in Bardoli.

The non-cooperation movement marked a significant shift in Indian nationalist politics, bringing together diverse
groups under Gandhi's leadership. Despite setbacks and withdrawals, the movement set the stage for future political
mobilization and resistance against British rule.
**Continuation:**

**Assessment of the Non-Cooperation Movement:**

- Gandhi's non-cooperation movement faced challenges, particularly in terms of middle-class participation. School,
college, and court boycotts did not see spectacular involvement.
- Peasant and working-class participation was more impressive, especially in regions like Rajasthan, Sind, Gujarat,
Awadh, Assam, and Maharashtra.
- Council election boycotts were relatively successful, except in Madras, where the Justice Party returned as a
majority party.
- Economic boycott, particularly of foreign cloth, was intense and successful. Import figures dropped significantly
during 1921–22.
- Marwari and Gujarati merchants, though not entirely pro-non-cooperation, contributed to the economic boycott
due to grievances against falling exchange rates and government taxation policies.
- Other associated Gandhian social movements, such as the temperance campaign, witnessed success, resulting in a
drop in liquor excise revenue in Punjab, Madras, Bihar, and Orissa.
- The Hindu-Muslim alliance remained strong, except in the Malabar region.
- The anti-untouchability campaign was a secondary concern for Congress, but Gandhi highlighted the issue in the
1920 resolution.

**Geographical Spread and Regional Variations:**

- The non-cooperation movement displayed uneven geographical spread and wide regional variations.
- Participation occurred in regions and among classes not previously involved in Congress movements.
- Significant peasant participation was observed in various regions, often autonomously, without Congress
organizational intervention.
- Different linguistic regions in South India showed varying degrees of involvement, with Karnataka remaining
unaffected.
- Non-Brahman lower-caste participation occurred in Madras and Maharashtra.
- Powerful tribal movements in Andhra delta and Bengal, forest satyagraha, labor unrest in Madras, Bengal, and
Assam, and traders' participation in Bombay and Bengal were notable.
- Masses sometimes exceeded the limits of Gandhian non-violence, prompting Gandhi to hesitate on initiating a full-
fledged civil disobedience or no-revenue campaign.
- The Chauri Chaura incident in Gorakhpur district (Uttar Pradesh) on February 4, 1922, where villagers burned
policemen alive, led to the withdrawal of the non-cooperation movement on February 11, 1922.

**Khilafat Movement and Its Challenges:**

- The Khilafat movement, coupled with non-cooperation, posed challenges for Gandhi. Khilafat leaders increasingly
embraced non-violence as a tactical convenience rather than a matter of faith.
- Religious emotions were evoked among Muslim masses through the movement, and violent tendencies emerged.
- The Moplah uprising in Malabar showcased the worst-case scenario, with poor Moplah peasants rising against
Hindu moneylenders and the state.
- Factionalism within the Khilafat Committee widened, leading to differences between ulama and moderates, causing
a breach in the Hindu-Muslim alliance.
- The Khilafat movement lost significance after the abolition of the caliphate in Turkey in 1924, but religious emotions
persisted, matched by Hindu radicalism.

**Nature of Mass Movement and Regional Variations:**

- The non-cooperation movement took different shapes in different regions, initially confined to cities and small
towns.
- Participation declined over time, and there was low turnout in council elections, except in Madras.
- Regional variations included a Brahman-non-Brahman conflict in Madras, weaker foreign cloth boycott in Tamil
regions, and unsuccessful development of national schools, arbitration courts, and khadi in some areas.
- Mobilization in some areas depended on local issues, such as temple politics, control over municipalities,
educational institutions, or grievances against rising taxes.
- The Akali movement in Punjab, though representing nonviolent resistance, had limited relevance to Gandhi's non-
cooperation programme. It aimed to reform Sikh gurdwaras and reclaim control from government-manipulated
committees.

The non-cooperation movement, despite its challenges and eventual withdrawal, left a lasting impact on India's
political landscape. It revealed regional variations and diverse class participation, shaping future movements and
strategies in the quest for Indian independence.
**Continuation:**

**Shift in Focus and Challenges in Urban Areas:**

- Urban middle-class enthusiasm waned across India, affecting business interest. Larger Indian capitalists opposed the
non-cooperation program from the beginning.
- Smaller traders and merchants supported hartal and donated to the Tilak Swaraj Fund but opposed a total boycott
of foreign goods.
- Efforts to involve the working classes faced challenges, and dependence on capitalists hindered mobilization.
Gandhi insisted on maintaining a harmonious capital-labor relationship.
- In places like Nagpur and Berar, some influence was gained over the working classes, but it had limited impact on
the overall momentum of the non-cooperation movement.

**Shift to the Countryside and Peasant Mobilization:**

- The declining interest in urban areas shifted the focus of the movement to the countryside, where it took various
shapes based on the structures of peasant societies.
- The movement was most effective in areas where peasants were already organized. Examples include Awadh, north
Bihar, Midnapur in Bengal, Kheda in Gujarat, and certain regions of Orissa.
- In areas with no pre-history of peasant mobilization, the response was muted, indicating that internal dynamics of
regions played a crucial role in the success of the non-cooperation movement.
- The movement remained more under control where there were homogeneous and dominant peasant communities
with greater control through caste organizations and kinship networks.
**Peasant Initiatives and Variations:**
- Peasants showed considerable self-initiative, and in some cases, movements started even without formal approval
from the Congress.
- The movement faced challenges where there were cross-caste mobilization and where peasants interpreted
Gandhi's message in their own varied ways.
- Instances of violence and attacks on property increased in some regions, leading to the withdrawal of support by
Congress leaders.
- In Punjab, the Akali movement continued in the countryside after the formal withdrawal of the non-cooperation
movement. The movement crossed the boundary of non-violence at various places.
- Tribal populations, impressed by Gandhi's message, engaged in wider politics but often developed consciousness on
their own terms. Local leaders organized movements against localized grievances.
- Congress had little to do with the consciousness or political articulation of tribal movements.

**Imagined Gandhi and Local Interpretations:**

- The real Gandhi and his program of non-violent non-cooperation were often lost in the imagination of the rural
population.
- Peasants imagined Gandhi to have extraordinary occult power and considered him a saint who could heal diseases,
reward followers, and punish non-believers.
- Gandhi's imagined protective power influenced tribal populations, and wearing a Gandhi cap or chanting his name
was believed to shield them from harm.
- Rural protesters engaged in activities that crossed the threshold of Gandhian ideals, including looting markets and
violating forest laws.

**Congress Leadership and Challenges:**

- The local Congress leaders did not approve of deviations from their version of the Gandhian movement, aimed at
dislodging the British without disturbing social harmony.
- Gandhi, sympathetic to the masses, condemned their indiscipline and referred to it as "Mobocracy."
- Even after the official withdrawal of the movement, it continued in pockets of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. In several
villages in Kheda, the no-revenue campaign continued.
- The movement, launched by Gandhi through the Congress organization, involved various sections of society, but the
extent to which they accepted the Congress creed or internalized Gandhian ideology was doubtful.
- The provincial leadership, including figures like Jawaharlal Nehru, C.R. Das, Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, and
C. Rajagopalachari, relayed Gandhi's message to the masses through local leaders.
- However, the message was transformed in the imagination of the masses, with different visions of freedom
contesting within the movement. Various levels of consciousness informed by different visions of freedom marked
the movement, challenging the Congress's programmatic version of nationalism.
CIVIL DISOBIDIENCE
**Continuation:**

**Political Landscape after Non-Cooperation Movement:**

- After the withdrawal of the Non-cooperation movement, Gandhi focused on constructive programs like the
untouchability removal campaign, promoting the use of the charkha (spinning wheel), and building the Sabarmati
Ashram.
- The Congress became divided between "no-changers" sticking to Gandhian ways and "pro-changers" favoring a
return to constitutional politics.
- The Swaraj Party, led by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru, emerged within the Congress, aiming to participate in council
politics and work within the constitutional framework.
- The Congress Socialists, led by Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose, created a Right-Left confrontation
within the party.
- The Muslim League-Congress alliance was jeopardized by the decline of the Khilafat movement and divisions within
the Muslim League over joint and separate electorates.
- Communal riots occurred in various regions, disrupting Hindu-Muslim relations. The decline of the Hindu-Muslim
pact in Bengal led to a fierce riot in Calcutta in April 1926.

**Economic Challenges and Fissures:**

- The colonial economy faced a major crisis during the great depression in the late 1920s, affecting export-oriented
agricultural cash crops and impacting the rich peasantry.
- Prices of exportable crops fell steeply, leading to increased economic hardships for the peasantry.
- Repeated crop failures and food production shortfalls in UP added to the miseries of poor peasants, leading to the
organization of peasant movements outside the Congress.
- Despite fissures in political life, some changes prepared the ground for another round of mass agitation.

**Peasant Mobilization and Challenges:**

- The economic crisis helped Congress mobilize rich peasants and smallholders in various parts of the country.
- Poor Muslim, untouchable Namasudra, and tribal Santhal peasants mobilized around radical agrarian demands,
representing a parallel stream of protest.
- Local Congress leaders faced the challenge of reconciling the interests of richer landowning peasants with the
concerns of laboring agricultural workers and tenants.

**Emergence of a Capitalist Class:**

- A capitalist class emerged during and after World War One, organizing itself under the Federation of Indian
Chambers of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927.
- The Indian bourgeoisie came into conflict with the imperial government, leading them to consider aligning with the
Congress to fight their battles.
- The Bombay mill owners, facing depression and competition from cheap Japanese textiles, considered supporting
the Congress as an option.
- The Congress began supporting capitalist demands and making them national issues, attracting the capitalist class
to its side.
- The industrial working class also expanded, with increased political consciousness, leading to labor unrest.

**Labor Unrest and Communist Influence:**

- The peak period of labor unrest occurred in 1928–29, witnessing about 203 strikes throughout the country.
- Communist influence played a significant role, particularly through the Workers’ Peasants’ Party in eastern India and
the Girni Kamgar Union in Bombay.
- By 1930, communist influence declined due to repressive measures by the government, and the Comintern
instructed them to distance themselves from the Congress-led nationalist movement.
- The decline of communist influence allowed the Congress to resurrect a broad united front, attempting to bring
capitalists and workers under the same banner.

**Congress as a "Supra-Class Entity":**

- The Congress tried to project itself as a "supra-class entity" and "above interests" in an attempt to include both
capitalists and workers under the same banner.
- Working-class support for the Congress was generally weak, except in Bengal, where the fight was against British
capitalists.
- Despite challenges, the Congress sought to build a united front, albeit clumsily, to address the changing political and
economic landscape.
**Continuation:**

**Indian Politics and the Simon Commission:**

- In late 1927, a Tory government in London appointed an all-white Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon to
review the constitutional system in India.
- The non-inclusion of Indians in the commission led to protests and a successful nationwide boycott by both
Congress and the Muslim League.
- The Simon Commission, arriving in India in early 1928, faced slogans like "Go Back Simon."
- Motilal Nehru negotiated for a joint Hindu-Muslim constitutional scheme, leading to the Nehru Report, a set of
uneasy compromises finalized at an all-parties conference in Lucknow in August 1928.

**Bardoli Satyagraha and Gandhi's Re-Emergence:**

- The Bardoli taluka of Surat district became a stronghold for Gandhian politics, with the Patidar peasants and
Kaliparaj tribals organized by the Mehta brothers under the banner of the Patidar Yuvak Mandal.
- The Bardoli satyagraha, launched in 1928, focused on a no-tax campaign against the raised land revenue, leading to
significant social mobilization.
- Gandhi's image was used for political mobilization, and the movement was a spectacular success, resulting in
reduced revenue rates, returned lands, and abandoned revenue revisions.
- The success of the Bardoli satyagraha brought Gandhi back into the limelight and proved the effectiveness of
satyagraha over constitutional methods.

**Congress Session in Calcutta (1928) and the Nehru Report:**

- The opposition to the Nehru Report grew stronger, with a radical younger group led by Jawaharlal Nehru and
Subhas Chandra Bose advocating complete independence.
- Gandhi proposed a compromise resolution at the Calcutta Congress, adopting the Nehru Report but setting a
deadline for full independence if not accepted by the government.
- Muslim opposition to the report increased, and Gandhi's compromise resolution, with a shortened time limit, was
passed, once again establishing Gandhi's dominance in the Congress.
- A detailed constructive program was also passed, involving revival of organizational work, removal of untouchability,
boycott of foreign cloth, spread of khadi, temperance, village reconstruction, and removal of disabilities of women.

**Irwin Offer and Lahore Congress (1929):**

- The viceroy, Lord Irwin, proposed the "Irwin Offer" in October 1929, suggesting a Round Table Conference to settle
the constitutional issue.
- Gandhi was initially reluctant, and negotiations broke down as Congress leaders wanted detailed discussions on
dominion status.
- The Lahore Congress, with Jawaharlal Nehru as president, faced reservations about starting a movement for full
independence, given the rise of violence by revolutionary leaders.
- Gandhi's resolution defining the Congress goal as full independence or "purna swaraj" was passed, initiating a civil
disobedience movement and a boycott of legislatures.

**Civil Disobedience Movement and Independence Day (1930):**

- The call for the boycott of legislatures had limited response, facing opposition from Muslim members, Sikh groups,
non-Congress Hindus, and business groups.
- Gandhi devised a strategy to break the impasse and announced an eleven-point ultimatum for Lord Irwin on
January 31, 1930.
- The ultimatum included issues of general interest, specific bourgeois demands, and basically peasant themes,
appealing to a wide cross-section of political opinions.
- The most crucial grievance in the ultimatum was the salt tax, as it affected all sections of the population without
divisive implications and could be made into a highly emotive issue.

Gandhi's strategic approach aimed to unite Indians under one overarching political leadership by relating the abstract
concept of independence to specific grievances. The salt tax became a crucial focus for its widespread impact and
emotive potential.
**Continuation:**

**Civil Disobedience Movement and Its Evolution:**

- Gandhi's historic Dandi March to the Gujarat seashore began on March 12, 1930, culminating in the public violation
of the salt law on April 6.
- The march gained enormous publicity, leading to widespread illegal manufacture and sale of salt, boycott of foreign
cloth and liquor, and non-payment of revenue in different regions.
- However, by the end of April, violent activities and less disciplined mass upsurge began, including the armoury raid
in Chittagong, Bengal, and violent activities in various provinces.
- In mid-May, Gandhi was arrested, and spontaneous strikes and violent activities occurred in different regions, such
as the textile strike in Sholapur.
- The movement witnessed a definite advance of radicalism over the 1920 movement but faced challenges such as
the absence of Hindu-Muslim unity, limited labor participation, and less involvement of the intelligentsia.

**Business Support and Women's Participation:**

- A notable feature of the Civil Disobedience movement was massive business support. The business community
participated by providing finance and supporting the boycott movement, leading to a decline in the value of
imported cloth.
- Women's participation in the movement was significant, with women from respectable upper-caste families actively
participating in picketing shops dealing in foreign cloth and liquor.

**Village-Level Participation and Challenges:**

- In villages, especially in Bengal, peasant women considered participation in the Gandhian movement as a "religious
mission," belonging mostly to upwardly mobile peasant castes.
- The movement in the countryside involved the richer peasantry in areas like Gujarat, UP, Bihar, Orissa, and Coastal
Andhra, with non-payment of chaukidari taxes, no-revenue campaigns, and widespread illegal manufacture of salt.
- In some places, village-level Congress enthusiasts used "limited violence" and social coercion to enforce their
boycott program.

**Government Repression and Movement Decline:**

- The government responded with repressive measures, arresting frontline leaders and thousands of volunteers.
- The movement began to decline from September 1930, with financial losses affecting the enthusiasm of mercantile
classes in urban areas.
- The government offered concessions to the business community in February 1931, contributing to a decline in their
support.
- Educated youth turned towards militant nationalism, and working-class support was non-existent, except in Nagpur.
- In the countryside, enthusiasm among the richer peasantry dissipated due to property confiscation, while the lesser
peasantry adopted radical tendencies, leading to no-rent campaigns, violation of forest laws, and tribal rebellions.
- Gandhi's reservations about the radical turn of the movement, including violence, led to the withdrawal through
the Gandhi-Irwin Pact of March 5, 1931.
- Congress agreed to participate in the Second Round Table Conference to discuss the future constitution of India.

**Debates on the Gandhi-Irwin Pact:**

- There is a major controversy regarding the Gandhi-Irwin Pact in Indian history.
- Some historians argue that bourgeois pressure played a significant role in the compromise, with the Indian
bourgeoisie influencing both the initial success and subsequent withdrawal of the movement.
- Others contest this view, stating that business groups were not homogeneous and did not speak with one voice. The
business community's support for the movement was affected by the depression, boycotts, and social disruptions.
- While business communities supported the movement, they were not in a position to pressure Gandhi to withdraw.
The Congress, as an umbrella organization, aimed to incorporate all classes and communities.
- The most weighty reason for the withdrawal of the movement was the appearance of radicalism and violence
among certain lower classes, threatening the unity of the political nation. This led to compromise and withdrawal.

The Gandhi-Irwin Pact marked the end of the Civil Disobedience movement and a shift towards constitutional
negotiations with the British government.
**Continuation:**

**Failed Negotiations and Renewed Movement (1931-1932):**

- Negotiations with the British government failed, and Gandhi returned empty-handed from the second Round Table
Conference in London held from September to December 1931.
- Congress boycotted the first session of the conference, and the second session deadlocked on the minority issue,
with various minorities demanding separate electorates.
- The government had already unleashed repression, banned the Congress on January 4, 1932, and Gandhi's only
option was a renewal of the movement.

**Challenges and Apathy in the Second Phase:**

- The renewed movement faced challenges and evoked less enthusiasm.
- Rich peasant groups, who had shown greater militancy during the first phase, felt betrayed by the withdrawal and
remained unstirred in many places.
- Certain aspects of the Gandhian social program, such as the crusade against untouchability, did not appeal to
higher-caste peasants and even evoked hostile responses.
- Gandhi's Harijan campaign failed to impress the Harijans themselves, especially in regions where Ambedkar's dalit
politics held sway.
- Despite signs of radicalism among some sections of the lower peasantry, movements like salt satyagrahas and forest
satyagrahas were largely outside the Congress organization's ambit.
**Ambivalence in Urban Areas:**
- In urban areas, business groups were ambivalent, with an open estrangement between Congress and Bombay mill-
owners.
- Other sections of Indian big business were in a dilemma, as their hope for concessions from the government had
been belied, and a renewal of civil disobedience might threaten the social status quo.
- The unity of the Indian capitalist class broke down, and by 1933, the weakening economy and growing violence
crushed the enthusiasm of staunch Gandhian supporters.

**Decline of the Movement (1934):**

- The urban intelligentsia felt less inclined to follow the Gandhian path, and picketing of shops was punctuated by the
use of bombs, which Gandhi condemned but failed to stop.
- Labor remained apathetic, and Muslims were often antagonistic.
- Government repression led to the imprisonment of thousands of Congress volunteers.
- The movement gradually declined by 1934.

**Legacy of the Civil Disobedience Movement:**

- Despite the challenges, the Civil Disobedience movement was not a failure for Congress.
- It mobilized significant political support and gained moral authority, leading to a massive electoral victory in 1937
under the Government of India Act of 1935.
- Congress achieved an absolute majority in five out of eleven provinces and became the single largest party in
Bengal, a Muslim majority province.
- The electoral victory symbolized the expectation for real socio-economic changes promised by Socialists and left-
wing Congress leaders.
- The subsequent formation of ministries in eight provinces marked Congress's first association with the apparatus of
power, but it also symbolized a shift within Congress towards right-wingers who preferred constitutional politics over
Gandhian agitational methods.

**Conclusion:**
- While fighting against the British Raj, Congress itself began to resemble the Raj, gradually drifting away from the
Gandhian ideal of swaraj.
- This period marked a complex phase in Indian politics, with Congress gaining political power but also witnessing
internal shifts in ideology and approach.
Phases
**1. Liberal Constitutionalists (Late 19th Century):**
- **Context:** The late 19th century saw the emergence of the first phase of nationalism in India. Influenced by
Western liberal ideas and constitutionalism, a group of educated Indians began advocating for political rights and
representation within the existing colonial framework.
- **Leadership:** Early leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Dinshaw Wacha, and Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee played a
pivotal role. Dadabhai Naoroji's demands for "the drain of wealth" and "representative government" exemplified this
phase.
- **Objectives:** The focus was on gaining a voice for Indians in the British colonial administration through
constitutional reforms, representation in legislative bodies, and civil rights.

**2. Swadeshi Movement (1905-1911):**

- **Trigger:** The partition of Bengal in 1905 served as a catalyst, leading to the emergence of the Swadeshi
movement. The British decision to divide Bengal was seen as a deliberate attempt to divide and rule by creating
religious discord.
- **Leadership:** Prominent leaders included Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai, who
emphasized self-reliance, national education, and boycott of foreign goods.
- **Objectives:** The Swadeshi movement aimed at promoting indigenous industries, self-sufficiency, and cultural
revival. It marked a shift towards more assertive nationalism and non-cooperation with British rule.

**3. Radicals and Extending the Movement (1911-1920s):**

- **Context:** The period post-World War I witnessed a radicalization of the nationalist movement. The influence
of global events, the impact of the war on Indian society, and disillusionment with British promises fueled this radical
phase.
 - **Leadership:** Bhagat Singh, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Jawaharlal Nehru emerged as influential leaders
advocating for complete independence and a more confrontational approach.
- **Objectives:** The radical phase sought complete political independence, often through revolutionary means.
Movements like the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922) and the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)
characterized this phase.

**Beginning of Constitutionalism in India:**

- **Formation of Indian National Congress (1885):** The foundation of the Indian National Congress marked the
beginning of political organization for constitutional reform.
- **Early Demands:** The early demands of Congress included representation in legislative bodies, administrative
reforms, and constitutional safeguards for civil rights.
- **Moderate Phase:** The early leaders of Congress, known as the Moderates, focused on constitutional methods
to achieve their goals. Notable figures like Gopal Krishna Gokhale worked towards constitutional reforms and Indian
representation in the government.
- **Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919):** The constitutional demand gained momentum with the Montagu-
Chelmsford Reforms, introducing limited self-government and Dyarchy in provinces. Although a step forward, it fell
short of nationalist aspirations.
REVOLUTIONISTS
**Introduction:**
The term "revolutionaries" in the context of the Indian independence movement refers to a group of individuals who
believed in using radical and, at times, violent means to overthrow British colonial rule. Active during the late 19th
and early 20th centuries, these revolutionaries played a significant role in shaping the anti-colonial narrative.

**Key Features of the Revolutionaries:**

1. **Ideology:**
- *Militant Nationalism:* Revolutionaries were proponents of militant nationalism and believed in direct action
against the British authorities.
- *Secular and Inclusive:* Their movements were often secular and inclusive, transcending religious and caste
barriers.

2. **Methods and Activities:**

- *Armed Struggle:* Unlike the non-violent approach of leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, revolutionaries believed in
armed struggle as a means to achieve their goals.
- *Bombings and Assassinations:* Many revolutionaries were involved in activities such as bombings,
assassinations, and attacks on symbols of British authority.

3. **Prominent Revolutionaries:**
- *Bhagat Singh:* Among the most iconic figures, Bhagat Singh was involved in the Hindustan Socialist Republican
Association (HSRA). His acts of protest against repressive laws and the Lahore Conspiracy Case made him a symbol of
resistance.
- *Chandrashekhar Azad:* A fearless revolutionary associated with the HSRA, he played a crucial role in the Kakori
Conspiracy and remained committed to the cause of independence.

4. **Organizations:**
- *Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA):* Formed in 1928, HSRA aimed to establish a federal republic
of United States of India. It sought inspiration from socialist ideals and was involved in various revolutionary
activities.

5. **Contribution to the Independence Movement:**

- *Awakening Public Consciousness:* Through their daring actions, revolutionaries brought attention to the cause
of independence and galvanized public opinion.
- *Symbolic Resistance:* Their acts, such as the Kakori Conspiracy and the bombing of the Central Legislative
Assembly, were symbolic gestures against British oppression.

6. **Impact on Post-Independence India:**

- *Legacy of Sacrifice:* The sacrifices made by these revolutionaries left an indelible mark on the collective memory
of the nation, inspiring future generations.
 - *Influence on Political Thought:* While their methods were different from the mainstream independence
movement, the revolutionary ethos contributed to shaping the narrative of a free and democratic India.

**Conclusion:**
The revolutionaries, with their commitment to armed struggle and sacrifice for the cause of independence, occupy a
unique place in the history of the Indian independence movement. While their methods and ideologies differed from
the mainstream, they played a crucial role in challenging colonial authority and contributing to the broader narrative
of resistance against British rule.
SOCIALISTS
**Introduction:**
Socialists in the Indian independence movement were individuals and groups who, inspired by socialist ideals,
advocated for socio-economic reforms, equality, and justice as integral components of the struggle against British
colonial rule. They aimed to address issues of economic disparity and social injustice while fighting for political
freedom.
**Key Features of Indian Socialist Movement:**
1. **Ideological Foundation:**
- *Socialism:* Indian socialists drew inspiration from socialist principles that emphasized equitable distribution of
wealth, social ownership, and welfare measures.
- *Critique of Capitalism:* They critiqued the exploitative nature of capitalist systems, focusing on issues such as
land redistribution and workers' rights.

2. **Leaders and Organizations:**

- *Jawaharlal Nehru:* A key figure in the Indian National Congress, Nehru was influenced by Fabian socialism. He
played a significant role in shaping India's economic policies post-independence.
- *Subhas Chandra Bose:* Although known for his role in the Indian National Army, Bose also had socialist leanings
and aimed for a socio-economic transformation of India.
- *Socialist Groups:* Various socialist groups and movements emerged, including the All India Trade Union Congress
(AITUC) and the Congress Socialist Party (CSP).

3. **Economic and Social Reforms:**

- *Land Reforms:* Indian socialists advocated for land reforms to address the unequal distribution of land,
emphasizing the welfare of peasants.
- *Labor Rights:* Issues related to workers' rights, better working conditions, and fair wages were central to the
socialist agenda.

4. **Congress Socialist Party (CSP):**

- *Formation:* The CSP was formed within the Indian National Congress in 1934. It comprised socialist leaders
within the larger independence movement.
- *Objectives:* The CSP aimed to infuse socialist ideas into the Congress and work for socio-economic reforms
alongside political independence.

5. **Role in Quit India Movement:**

- *Active Participation:* Socialists played a crucial role in the Quit India Movement (1942), emphasizing the need
for not only political freedom but also a restructuring of socio-economic systems.
- *Arrests and Imprisonment:* Many socialist leaders were arrested during the Quit India Movement for their anti-
colonial activities.

6. **Post-Independence Impact:**
- *Economic Policies:* Socialists, particularly within the Congress, influenced post-independence economic policies,
leading to the adoption of mixed economy principles.
- *Five-Year Plans:* Nehru's government implemented socialist-inspired Five-Year Plans, focusing on
industrialization, public sector development, and social welfare.

**Conclusion:**
Socialists in the Indian independence movement played a crucial role in broadening the agenda beyond political
freedom to encompass socio-economic reforms. Their advocacy for socialism and social justice left a lasting impact
on post-independence India, shaping policies that aimed at reducing economic disparities and promoting welfare
measures for the citizens of the newly independent nation.
COMMUNISTS
**Communists in the Indian Independence Movement:**

**Introduction:**
Communists in the Indian independence movement were individuals and groups aligned with or influenced by
communist ideology, which sought not only political independence but also a radical transformation of society,
including the establishment of a classless, socialist state. Communists played a distinctive role in shaping the
narrative of independence, emphasizing the struggle against both British imperialism and socio-economic
exploitation.
**Key Features of the Communist Movement:**
1. **Ideological Foundation:**
- *Communist Ideology:* Indian communists were inspired by Marxist-Leninist principles, emphasizing the
overthrow of capitalism and the establishment of a classless, socialist society.
- *International Solidarity:* Communists viewed the global working-class struggle as interconnected, aligning with
international communist movements.

2. **Leaders and Organizations:**

- *Communist Party of India (CPI):* Formed in 1925, the CPI played a pivotal role in integrating communist
principles with the Indian independence movement.
- *P.C. Joshi:* A prominent communist leader, Joshi led the CPI and advocated for a united front against imperialism
and feudalism.
- *A.K. Gopalan, S.A. Dange:* These leaders played significant roles in mobilizing workers and peasants for the
communist cause.

3. **Role in Workers' Movements:**

- *Trade Unions:* Communists actively participated in trade union activities, advocating for workers' rights, better
working conditions, and fair wages.
- *Railway Strike (1926):* The communist-led railway strike was one of the early instances of organized labor unrest
against British employers.

4. **Peasant Uprisings:**
- *Tebhaga Movement:* In Bengal, communists supported the Tebhaga movement, a peasant uprising demanding a
two-thirds share of crops for tenants.
- *Telangana Armed Struggle:* Post-independence, communists were involved in the armed struggle in Telangana,
where peasants revolted against landlords.

5. **Communists and the Quit India Movement:**

- *Support and Critique:* Communists, while supporting the Quit India Movement (1942), were critical of the
leadership's failure to address socio-economic issues comprehensively.
- *Mass Mobilization:* They aimed at mobilizing the masses not only against colonial rule but also against capitalist
exploitation.

6. **Post-Independence Period:**
- *Split in CPI (1951):* The CPI witnessed a split in 1951, leading to the formation of the Communist Party of India
(Marxist) [CPI(M)].
- *Participation in Electoral Politics:* Communists actively participated in electoral politics, winning seats in state
legislatures and influencing policies in states like Kerala and West Bengal.

7. **Land Reforms and Social Movements:**

- *Land Redistribution:* In states where communists came to power, they implemented land reforms, redistributing
land from landlords to peasants.
- *Naxalite Movement:* In the late 1960s, radical elements within the communist movement, known as Naxalites,
pursued armed struggle against the state, particularly in Naxalbari.
**Conclusion:**
Communists in the Indian independence movement added a dimension of class struggle to the broader fight against
colonialism. Their influence extended beyond the struggle for political freedom, shaping post-independence policies
in states where they gained power. The communist movement in India evolved over time, responding to changing
political landscapes and engaging in both electoral politics and grassroots movements to address socio-economic
inequalities.