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UPDATED TO 2020 SYLLABUS

IB MIDDLE YEARS PROGRAM

CHEMISTRY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
IB MIDDLE YEARS PROGRAM CHEMISTRY
1. Understanding Matter
1.1. Some Basics
Separation techniques of mixtures
Distillation - separation by boiling point differences
Magnetism
Filtration
Crystallization
Mechanical separation - separating by hand
Extraction - ex: metals
Chromatography - separation by inner molecular
attractions
Factors affecting rate of diffusion
Temperature - more temp = more particle energy =
higher velocity → more collisions → increased rate of
diffusion
Density - more particles → greater chance of collision
→ more diffusion
Medium of diffusion - the greater the number of
molecules or larger particles within the medium, the
lower the rate of diffusion
Concentration gradient - a large difference in
concentration leads to a greater probability of
molecular collisions over the region and therefore
increases the rate of diffusion
Distance -smaller distance = faster diffusion
Particle Theory
Kinetic theory of matter - all matter consists of particles
which are constantly moving randomly or in a continual
state of motion
Degrees to which the particles move is determined by
the amount of energy they have and their relationship
to other particles
Solids, liquids, gases - describe in terms of
packing/attraction and movement
Ex: liquids have more energy than solids → ;liquids
can move around more freely
Model can be used to explain the properties of matter
and what happens during physical changes such as
boiling, evaporating and boiling
Introduction
Octet state = 8 electrons in outermost shell
Ion - atom that lost electrons
Electronegative = attracts electrons
Number of shells → period number
Number of electrons in valence → group number
1.2. Initial Atomic Models
Democritus:
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460-370 BC
Concept of “atomos”- atomos means “indivisible”
Smallest unit of matter; could not be divided any further
John Dalton:
1766-1884
Father of modern atomic theory
Solid Ball Model
Postulates:
Matter is made of very small particles called atoms
All atoms of an element are identical
All atoms of different elements are different
Atoms cannot be created, divided, or destroyed
Atoms combine in infinite whole ratios to make
compounds
Atomic Laws:
Law of conservation of mass - Matter can’t be created
or destroyed, only transferred
Law of constant composition - when atoms combine
to form molecules, the ratio of atoms is constant
Law of multiple proportions - when elements form
compounds, the proportions of the elements in those
chemical compounds can be expressed in small whole
number ratios
JJ Thomson:
1856-1940
Solid ball model could be broken down into smaller
particles
Discovered electrons
Cathode Ray tube experiment:
A cathode ray tube is a tube that has an electrode at
each end, that is connected to a battery.
When the power is turned on, the electrodes become
charged and produce a stream of charged particles
that travel from cathode to anode.
William Crooke
* We know that they moved from cathode to anode because
the paddle moved to the right * We know that the particles
had mass because the paddle moved
Julius Plucker
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Rutherford’s Model:
* Made the
anode into a maltese cross * This produced a shadow in the
glow at the end of the tube * This is how we know that
cathode rays travel in straight lines
Thomson
* Put the tube
in a magnetic field * The rays moved towards the positively
charged plate * Hence, they had to be negatively charged
particles
Conclusions:
Cathode rays are made up of invisible, negatively
charged particles called electrons
These electrons had to come from the matter of the
cathode
Since the electrodes could be made from a variety of
metals, and the observation was the same in each
case, all atoms must contain electrons
Plum Pudding Model:
A positively charged sphere with electrons scattered
within it
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Overall, the atom is neutral because the charges cancel
out
Atoms are not just neutral spheres, but contain positively
and negatively charged parts
There are spaces between atoms
1871-1937
Discovered the existence of the nucleus and protons
Gold Foil experiment
Directed narrow beam of positively charged alpha
particles at a thin piece of gold foil
He predicted that the beam would go through the foil
based on observations from previous experiments
Results:
Most particles were deflected by angles less than 5
degrees → There is a lot of empty space in the atom
and the nucleus takes up relatively little space
Some of the particles are deflected → The nucleus has
a positive charge
A few of the positive particles bounce back by large
angles → The nucleus is dense/massive
Conclusions:
The atom contains a positively charged nucleus
This nucleus contains almost all of the mass of the
atoms but takes up very little volume
The electrons occupy most of the volume of the atom
The atom is mostly empty space
The Planetary Model:
The electrons orbit the nucleus
The atom is neutral overall
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The atom is made up of a positive nucleus containing
protons
Nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of orbiting electrons
There are spaces within atoms
Question: If like charges repel, then how are protons
concentrated in the nucleus?
Bohr’s Model:
1885-1962
Spectroscopic Experiments - put radiations to hydrogen
gas
Absorbed energy while heating, lost energy while
cooling
Cools down while releasing radiations
Radiations are rays travelling in waves
If Rutherford’s Model was correct, then all waves
in the spectrum would be seen during the release
of radiation
Only E4, E7, and E10 radiations were released
Energy Level Model:
Electrons are arranged in circles around the nucleus
Each circle has a different energy level
Electron are in constant motion travelling around the
circle at the speed of light
Electrons can jump from one circle to the next
They can never go to the nucleus because they are
travelling far too fast
Proposals:
Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus
Electrons can only be certain distances from the
nucleus
Quantization - everything in this model is fixed
Electrons must absorb or emit a fixed amount of
energy to travel between these energy levels
ionization - the electron gains enough energy to shoot
out of the atom
Schrodinger’s Electron Cloud Model:
An electron with energy E1 can be anywhere within the r1
sphere but not beyond
An electron with energy E2 can be anywhere within the r1
or r2 sphere but not beyond
The electron is everywhere within the shell until observed
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Orbitals:
Aufaub’s Rule - Orbitals with lower energy levels must be
filled first
Chromium and Copper are Anomalies
For example, in chromium, it is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
3d5 4s1 instead of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d4 4s2
All group 6 and group 2 elements face this anomaly
Development of the Periodic Table:
Johann Dobereiner
1817
Law of Triads - Relative mass of the middle element of
the group of three elements was close to the average
of the other two
John Newlands
Arranged elements by atomic masses
Law of octaves - every 8th element had similar
properties
Didn’t work for all elements
Dmitri Mendeleev
Put know elements together based on atomic mass
but left gaps for undiscovered elements
Predicted the properties of undiscovered
elements
William Ramsay
1894
Discovered the Noble gases
Henry Moseley
1914
Determined the atomic number of each of the known
elements
Increasing atomic number worked better than
increasing atomic mass
Modern Periodic Law - The chemical and physical
properties of elements are the periodic functions of their
atomic numbers and electron configurations
electronegativity - tendency to attract electrons
Properties of Group 1 Elements:
Electropositive
Have 1 electron in the outermost shell
Low melting and boiling points compared to other metals
Very soft and can be easily cut with a knife
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Low densities
React vigorously with cold water
Produce hydroxides and hydrogen gas
Hydroxides and oxides dissolve in water to form
alkaline solutions
Turn the universal indicator purple
As you go down the group:
Melting points decrease
distance between nuclei and outermost shell →
less attraction
Densities increase - mass increases more quickly than
volume
Become softer - attraction decreases
Become more reactive
Reactivity increases down the group. All have one
electron in the outermost shell. As you go down the
group, there are more shells, hence the electron is
farther away from the the positive nucleus, making it
easier to move.
Properties of Group Two Elements
2 electrons in the outermost shell
Reactivity increases downward
Same trends are the Alkali metals but less extreme
Properties of Halogens
Have low melting and boiling points that increase
downwards
This is because the strength of the Vanderwaal’s force
increases downwards as there is more surface area
Gas → liquid → solid down the group at room
temperature
Darker in color downwards
Reactivity decreases down the group - as they need to
gain one electron, it is easier if the outermost shell is
closer to the nucleus, hence reactivity decrease down the
group
Form acidic solutions
React with metals to make metal halides
More reactive halogen displace less reactive halogens
from a solution of one of its salts
Properties of Noble Gases
Chemically unreactive ∴ they are inert
Non-metals
Colorless
Monoatomic
Low boiling points that increase downwards
Density increases downwards
Transition Metals
Inner d or f orbitals are incompletely filled
Show similar properties by column and row
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Generally lustrous, hard and good conductors of heat and
electricity
Can lose different numbers of electrons to form variously
charged ions
Last electron enters the (n-1)d orbital called the
penultimate shell
Ns bonding → lower oxidation state; (n-1)d electron
bonding → higher oxidation state
How to Find Atomic Mass of an Element
(abundance ✕ relative atomic mass) ✕ (abundance ✕
relative atomic mass)...
Do this for every isotope of the element to find the
atomic mass
1.3. Radioactivity
Radioactivity - the release of energy and matter that
results from the change in the nucleus of the atom
Radioisotope - versions of chemical elements that have
unstable nuclei and emit radiation during their decay to
stable form
Ex: Carbon - 14
Alpha Decay -
Nucleus splits up into original chunk + a chunk
containing 2 protons and 2 neutrons
High speeds can cause lung damage
Beta Decay -
Beta Minus Decay
Neutron suddenly changes into a proton →
increase in atomic number
Also creates and releases an electron
Neutrino is also released
Beta Plus Decay
Proton → Neutron
Positron is released
Gamma Decay -
No change in no. of protons/neutrons
Nucleus can be arranged in different energy levels
Shifts to lower energy level
Shoots out a high energy photon galled a gamma
ray
N-14 → C-14
7p 7n → 6p 8n due to cosmic rays
C-12:C-14 ratio is constant
Same on earth and the atmosphere
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Carbon cycle crystals have systematic arrangements; amorphous

Half-life - time taken for half of atoms of radioisotope to solids do not
decay by emitting radiation the sum of the charges is always zero
5,730 years for C-14 atoms combine in fixed ratios to form compounds
6p 8n → 7p 7n properties of ionic solids
Carbon dating - estimating age of something by they are solid because attractions hold them
measuring amount of C-14 left compactly
Only used for stuff under 50,000 years old have very high melting points because attraction is so
Radiocarbon levels are on the rise because of ozone great - strong electrostatic forces
depletion soluble in water
Contamination is easy water is a covalent compound
Overcoming challenges the negative heads of oxygen cluster around the
Tracing isotopes of positive ion and pull it away
Potassium argon - 100,000+ years the positive heads of hydrogen cluster around the
Uranium lead - 1 million-4.5 million years negative ion and pull it away
Thermoluminescence dating conduct electricity when dissolved in water or melted
Materials containing crystalline minerals to a hard
specific heating brittle
to find the molecular formula of an ionic compound,
cross multiply the powers
2. How to Atoms Bond? compounds are always neutral and all neutral things are
compounds
2.1. Atomic Bonding monatomic ions - an ion consisting of exactly one atom
polyatomic ions - an ion composed of two or more atoms
covalently bonded or of a metal complex that can be
Ionic Bonding
considered to be acting as a single unit
Ionic bonding - the electrostatic force between two ions mix with other ions to make compounds
which holds them together
positive negative
Also known as electrovalent bonding
Metals form positive ions and nonmetals form negative OH- hydroxide
ions SO4-- sulphate
metals being electropositive lose electrons to attain PO4--- phosphate
the octet state NO3-- nitrate
non-metals being electronegative gain electrons to
NO2- nitrite
attain the octet state
Because ions are oppositely charged, they attract and CO3--- carbonate
bond HCO3- bicarbonate
Transition metals have variable states and different
colors in each state Finding charge on transition elements - example of
ex: Fe+2= Ferrous and is light green KMnO4
Fe+3 = Ferric and is brown K+Mn +O4= 0
There is a donor-acceptor relationship in ionic bonding 1 + Mn + 4(-2) = 0
Sizes of ions Mn = 7
Sodium atoms are smaller than sodium atoms M n+ 7
because the nuclear attraction per electron increases Rules for naming ionic compounds
and it loses one shell metal before nonmetal
Chlorine ions are bigger than Cl atoms because metal doesn’t change its name
attraction per electron decreases nonmetal suffix = ide
In general, the size of an atom increases as we move charge of transition metal is put in brackets
down the group and as we move towards the left of name doesn’t show number of atoms
the periodic table solubility rules
ions are not only attracted to the one they share a bond all nitrates are soluble
with, but other ions are well all ammonium or alkali compounds are soluble
as a result, they end up clustering in a fixed pattern all carbonates, phosphates and hydroxides are
called a crystal insoluble except with the cations in rule 2
all crystals of the same type look similar all chlorides, bromides and iodides are soluble except
with Ag + , P b2 + or Hg +

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All sulfates are soluble except with Ca2+ , Sr 2 +,
Ba2+ , Ra2 +, and P b2 +
Testing for ions
Flame tests - use nichrome or platinum wire to place a
small amount of the compound containing the metal
ion into the Bunsen burner flame
combustion → energy release → higher energy
level of electron
returns to ground state → additional light energy
releases → flame color
flame color is used to identify the cation
Metal Flame Color
Lithium red/bright pink
Potassium lilac
Sodium yellow/orange
Lewis Dot Structures
Lewis Dot Structures, also known as dot and cross
structures represent the nucleus of an atom/ion and all of
the inner shells
The giving atom is represented with dots and the
receiving atom is represented with crosses
Only represents the electronic structure of an atom
Lone electrons and electron pairs
ex: NaCl
Covalent Bonding
Between two or more nonmetals
Share electrons
the electron clouds merge and they try to hold on the
common electrons
the “-” in between represents the covalent bond
a “=” implies a double bond, and a triple dash is a
triple bond
covalent bonds are much stronger than ionic bonds,
however, the intermolecular forces are weaker
a molecule is made up of two or more atoms
a compound is made up of two or more atoms from
different elements
Rules of sharing
Share as many electrons as you need
For every electron shared, you get one back
Electrons for sharing should be unpaired
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The case of water and polar covalent compounds
oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen →
oxygen trys to pull electrons to itself
partial charges are formed → dipoles have developed
dipole-dipole attraction
it is an electrostatic force
covalent compounds with dipoles have higher melting
and boiling points
ionic character forms
the strength of the ionic character depends on the
electronegativity difference
the higher the electronegativity difference, the
stronger the ionic character
if hydrogen is also present, it is called a hydrogen
bond
in polar compounds, there is an arrow added pointing
to the more electronegative element
water acts are a solvent because of its v-shape
Properties of covalent compounds
low melting and boiling points
there are weak intermolecular forces, hence with a
little bit of heat, attraction can be overcome easily
nonconducting nature
there are no charges on the compounds
insoluble in water
slow reactions
covalent compounds take part in reactions as
molecules and their molecular reactions are slow
isomerism
covalent compounds can have different
arrangements in space
isomer - each of two or more compounds with the
same formula but a different arrangement of
atoms in the molecule and different properties.
don’t conduct electricity
soft/brittle in solid form
VSEPR Theory - Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
Theory
it explains the crooked shape of molecules
the lone pair repels a lot
bond pairs don’t really repel
applies to all molecules
Large Covalent Networks/Molecules
allotropes - different forms of the same substance
catenation - property by which carbon forms blocks
linear vs. cyclic
carbon is tetravalent - has a valency of four
they have high melting
diamonds
tetrahedral arrangement
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every carbon is connected to four other carbons
boiling point is super high because it is just one
gigantic elemental molecule
it is held together by many covalent
bonds/intramolecular forces
don’t conduct electricity because all four valence
electrons are used for bonding
it is just one huge molecule
graphite
breaks the octet rule
only bonds with three other carbons
all of this is planar/a sheet
a bunch of these sheets are held together by the
Van der Waals force
this is why graphite is slippery and hollow
it is the only form of graphite with a free electron
graphite conducts electricity because of the free
electron
graphite is the most commonly used electrode
fullerenes
a sheet of graphite with the ends rolled together
has medical application
graphene
single sheet of graphite
used as a lubricant
Van der Waals Force - holds neighboring molecules with no
charges together
increases with increase in surface area and size of the
atoms and molecules
if the Van der Waals force is great enough, it becomes a
liquid or a gas
the melting point is low because there is enough
attraction to keep it a solid, but the attraction breaks
easily
ex: Bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid
Metallic Bonding
metal-metal bonding
metals are eager to give electrons
they are solid
how it works
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loose electrons are kept in interatomic spaces
the rest of the atom is referred to as the metal kernel
and it is positively charged
kernels float in the sea of electrons
because the kernels are positive, they want free
electrons → they all want to grab random electrons
attraction of kernels to free electrons is the bond
more electrons → greater the metallic bond
metals can easily be beaten into sheets because they are
sheets with lubrication of electrons in between
the layers slide past each other
photoelectric effect - electrons interact with light to shine
alloys are stronger than pure metals because the regular
lattice of atoms is distorted by the presence of different
sized atoms
2.2. Comparing the Types of Bonding
Electronegativity Difference Type of Bond Formed
0.0 to 0.2 nonpolar covalent
0.3 to 1.4 polar covalent
>1.5 ionic
Higher the intermolecular forces, the greater the melting
points
Ionic compounds and polar molecular compounds tend
to be soluble in polar solvents such as water and
insoluble in nonpolar solvents
Non-polar molecular substances tend to be soluble in
non-polar solvents and insoluble in polar solvents
Intramolecular forces: metallic > ionic > polar covalent >
nonpolar covalent
Intermolecular forces: hydrogen > dipole > london
2.3. Organic Compounds
Compounds from living organisms
Now, all of carbons compounds
Allotropes aren’t included
Hydrocarbons - hydrogen + carbon
fossil fuels
Alkanes - carbon atoms connected by single bonds
saturated
homologous series
general formula: $C_n H_(2n+2)
physical properties change with chain length
longer chains = stronger Van Der Waals force
longer chains are more viscous
1 - 4 carbons = gas; 5 - 50 carbons = liquid; 51+
carbons = solid
methane, ethane, propane, butane, pentane, hexane,
heptane, octane…
properties
combustion
substitution reactions
photochemical
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won’t stop until all of the hydrocarbons are
replaced
only the initiation requires light
alkenes - when there are double bonds present
test: alkenes turn bromine water colorless
alkynes - where there are triple bonds present
alkynes and alkenes are unsaturated
when hydrogen or other substances are supplied,
they undergo an addition reaction
Markownikoff’s Rule
when adding an asymmetrical adding reagent to an
alkene, the negative part goes to that carbon with less
hydrogen
minor vs. major product
cycloalkanes - carbon atoms are joined up in a ring
Nomenclature
1. Choose the longest chain as the parent chain
2. Identify the branches and name it as the alkyl group
1. number of carbons + yl
2. alkyl groups should be reported in alphabetical
order
3. many branches should be reported by
numbers, separated by commas
4. a hyphen should separate the numbers from
the rest of the name
3. Number the parent chain from the end which gives a
smaller set of numbers to the carbons holding the
branches
Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil
Crude oil is a mixture of all types of alkanes
Can be separated by fractional distillation
Propane butane, and ethane stay gaseous and are
pumped into cylinders as LPG
the heater converts the crude oil into a vapor
the vapors travel up the fractionating column
heavier fractions condense lower down the column
we need to allow the particles to cool down
enough/travel so that we can separate them
methane → CNG, it oozes out from the ground
fractions of crude oil - RFD KNGR
3. How do We Shift Balance
of Reactions?
3.1. The Rate of a Chemical Reaction
reaction rate - the amount of reactants changing to
products in a certain unit of time
collision theory - between a certain set of molecules, they
need to exceed a certain energy threshold in order to
form products, else, no products are formed
every collision leads to energy transfer
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when molecules under the threshold collide, one of
the molecules may receive enough energy to collide
and form a product
this only works if both molecules have crossed the
threshold
also only applicable if threshold is low
reaction pathway
the reactants
the activated complex - the activated complex is an
intermediate phase where the reactant particles’
bonds are breaking but the products’ bonds are yet to
form
the products
activation energy - the amount of energy that reacting
particles must have to form the activated complex
the minimum amount of energy required for particles
to react and produce products
Factors Affecting the Rate of Reaction
1. Heat
2. Concentration
3. Surface Area
4. Pressure (gases only)
5. Presence of a Catalyst
Catalysts and Inhibitors
catalyst - a substance that speeds up the reaction rate by
lowering the activation energy
does not appear on either side of the equation as it
does not get used up during the equation
inhibitors - slow the effects of catalysts
3.2. Chemical Systems in Equilibrium
irreversible reactions - one way chemical reactions
reversible reactions - reactions that can go forwards or
backwards
exothermic reactions - give off heat; warm up
surroundings
endothermic reactions - absorb heat; cool
surroundings
if a reaction is endothermic in the forward direction,
then it is exothermic in the backwards direction and
vice versa
you can never complete a reversible reaction
equilibrium - when the forward reaction is taking place at
the same rate as the backward reaction
amount of product and reactant at equilibrium
position depends on factors such as heat and
pressure
constant ratio of reactants to products
equilibrium position - the relative concentration of
reactants and products at equilibrium
ex: 2NO2N2O4
NO2 is a dark brown and N2O4 is a pale yellow
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when heated, the reaction turns dark, and hence
increase of NO2
when cooled, the reaction turns a pale yellow and
hence increase of N2O4
the equilibrium constant
denoted by “K”
how far the reaction will reach before reaching
equilibrium
for the reaction A+B → C+D, Kc= [C][D]/[A][B]
[C] is the concentration of C
[C][D] means concentration of C times
concentration of D
if [C][D] = [A][B], K = 1
if [C][D] > [A][B], K > 1
if [C][D] < [A][B], K < 1
to find K for a given reaction, raise each part to the
power of of their coefficient
ex:2H2 O2 <->2H2 O + O2
​ ​ ​ ​
(H O)2
K = (H22O2 )2
4. Redox Reactions
​
​ ​
Le Chatelier's Principle
4.1. Redox Reactions
if a change is applied to a system in equilibrium, the
system changes to counteract that stress or change
the aim is to keep the K value constant
does so by either rushing the reaction in the
forward or backward direction if you change the
conditions
factors: pressure, temperature, concentration…
temperature
if heat is applied to a system in equilibrium, then it
will favor the endothermic reaction
if heat is taken away from a system in equilibrium,
then it will favor the exothermic reaction
keep in mind that an increase in temperature causes
the reaction to speed up as a whole and that
equilibrium is achieved more quickly at higher
temperatures
H - the change in heat of the reaction
if negative, it is an exothermic reaction
if positive, it is an endothermic reaction
concentration
to increase the products, increase the reactants and
vice versa
pressure ( gases only )
if you increase the pressure, the reaction will try to
decrease the pressure by tending towards the
reaction that has fewer molecules/less volume
if you decrease the pressure, the reaction will try to
increase the pressure by tending towards the reaction
that has more molecules/volume
if the number of molecules on both sides of the
equation are the same, pressure has no effect
** \n **
3.3. The Haber Process and Ammonia
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nitrogen + hydrogen <-> ammonia
at room temperature, almost no ammonia is produced
Fritz Haber tried to change the conditions so that the
forward reaction was favored
temperature - 450 degrees celsius
low enough that the forward reaction is favored
high enough that reaction is still fast
pressure - 200 atm
high enough to increase forward reaction rate
low enough that it is safe
catalyst - iron
uses of ammonia
used to make fertilizers, and explosives
used in the textile, paper, polymer and
pharmaceutical industries
ammonia solutions are effective in cleaning glass,
steel and ovens
redox reaction - a reaction in which both oxidation and
reduction takes place
old definitions of redox
oxidation - gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen
reduction - loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen
ex: CuO(s) + H2 (g) Cu(s) + H2 O (l)
​ ​
copper is losing electrons → reduced
hydrogen gains oxygen → oxidised
redox in terms of electron transfer
oxidation - loss of electrons
reduction - gain of electrons
oxidising agent - is reduced and aids in oxidation
reducing agent - is oxidised and aids in reduction
oxidation numbers
when an element is oxidised, the oxidation number
increases
when an element is reduced, the oxidation number
decreases
rules
oxidation number on a pure element is zero
the oxidation number of each oxygen atom in all
compounds (except peroxides, superoxides and
F2 O) is -2
​
the oxidation number of each hydrogen atom in
all compounds of hydrogen (except metal
hydrides) is +1 and in metal hydrides it is -1
the total of the oxidation numbers of the atoms in
an uncharged molecule is zero
the total of the oxidation numbers of the atoms in
a polyatomic ion is the charge on the ion
key elements - elements which undergo a change in
oxidation number
increase in oxidation number → species in which it is
present has been oxidized
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decrease in oxidation number → species in which it is

present has been reduced
if no elements in the redox reaction undergo a change
in oxidation number, then it isn’t a redox reaction
spectator ions - ions that have not taken part in the
reaction because they have not been changed at all

Half Equations

half equations - write the reduction part and oxidation

part of the equation separately

How to Write Half Equations

1. Write a separate equation for each reactant, with Acid Name of salt
electron gains or losses. HCl chloride
2. Add these two half equations to make the overall
Nitric acid nitrate
redox equation. However, ensure that there are the
Sulfuric Acid sulfate
same number of electrons in each half equation
3. Cancel out the electrons, and obtain the full redox
reaction. displacement reactions of metals - a more reactive metal
4. ex: will displace a less reactive metal from its compound
ionic equation - the equation of a reaction involving ions,
after only the ions that take part in the reaction are
remaining
ex:

4.2. Reactivity Series of Metals

Elements that are easier to oxidize are more reactive
Elements that are harder to oxidize are less reactive
Metals generally react with water to produce a metal
hydroxide and hydrogen gas
the greater the difference in position between
hydrogen and the metals, the more violent the
reaction
More reactive elements displace less reactive elements
because they have a higher tendency to remain in the
oxidized stat
Reactions of metals with acids Types
metal + acid → salt + hydrogen gas precipitation reactions
naming of salts acid + metals
neutralization
In solids as well, more reactive metals displace less
reactive metals
ex: when heating copper with oxygen, if iron is
introduced, the iron will displace the copper

Thermal Decomposition of Metals

Thermal decomposition - breakdown on heating strongly

Ex: carbonates - sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate,
magnesium carbonate, copper carbonate

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Extracting iron
iron ore is extracted in a blast furnace
ingredients
iron ore - most commonly haematite (Fe2O3)
mixed with sand and other impurities
coke - a form of carbon made from coal
action on nitrates and hydroxides limestone - calcium carbonate, to get rid of
impurities
Reactivity Series Action on OH- Action on NO3 the three ingredients are crushed and heated
Potassium, Stable - does not Decompose to together in a blast furnace
Sodium, Calcium, decompose on metal nitrate + air is blasted in at the bottom
Magnesium heating oxygen after a series of reactions, iron is collected at the
bottom of the furnace
Decompose to
Decompose to this is also called smelting
metal oxide +
Zinc, Iron, Copper metal oxide + reactions
oxygen + nitrogen
steam coke burns and reaches temp can reach up to
oxide
1800 degrees celsius
carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide
ex of hydroxide:
the carbon then reacts with with hot cole to give
off carbon monoxide
carbon dioxide + carbon → carbon monoxide
carbon monoxide is then used in the reduction of
the iron oxide
iron(III) oxide + carbon monoxide → iron +
carbon monoxide
the limestone reacts with the sand (silica) to form
slag
the slag floats on top of the molten iron ore
and is taken off separately
it is used for building roads, and in the cement
and building industry

ex of nitrate:

4.3. Extraction of Metals

Most metals in Earth’s crust are compounds
these metal compounds are mixed with rock and this
is called ore
Highly reactive metals are harder to extract than low
reactive metals Extraction of Zinc
Potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium and
aluminum are extracted via electrolysis Extracted from Zinc Ore - Zinc Blende
Carbon extracted using the carbon reduction process
cheap reducing agent Step 1: crushing and pulverization - big lumps of ore are
used for extracting zinc, iron, tin and lead crushed by a jaw crusher
carbon displaces the metal from the oxide Step 2: concentration - float flotation process

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pulverized ore is kept in large tank containing water the crude metal obtained is zinc spelter which has
and pine oil 3% impurities
mixture is agitated by passing compressed air
ore forms froth and comes to the surface while
impurities are left in water

Step 3: roasting - concentrated ore is roasted in the

excess of air over 900 C in the hearth of reverberatory
furnace
zinc sulphide → zinc oxide
2ZnS +3O2 2ZnO +2SO2
small amounts of ZnS may become zinc sulphate, but
zinc sulphate decomposes to form ZnO
Zns + 2O2 ZnSO4
ZnSO4 2ZnO +2SO2 +O2(above 900 C)
Step 5: purification - spelter zinc contains Fe, Pb, As, Sb,
and Cd → purified via electrolysis
pure zinc = cathode; impure zinc = anode
mixture of ZnSO4 and H2SO4 is used as an electrolyte
pure zinc from anode is deposited at cathode
Steel

alloy steels - alloys of iron that contain specific amounts

of carbon and certain metal elements
high carbon steel - strong and brittle; used for
construction due to strength
low carbon steel - softer, more easily shaped; car
body panels because of malleability
stainless steel - chromium and nickel instead of
carbon; hard and rust resistant; cutlery due to not
rusting
other uses include in industries (chemical plants),
automotive and aerospace parts, and surgical
volatile impurities are removed as oxides
instruments
Step 4: reduction - roasted ore is mixed with coke and making steel - impurities (C, S, Si, and P) still need to be
heated strongly so that the zinc and oxides are converted
removed
into zinc
ZnO is obtained during roasting, and is mixed with
coke and heated strongly where ZnO is reduced to Zn
by carbon
vertical retort press is used
roasted ore is mixed with coke in a 2:1 ratio →
passed through the charging door
retort is heated by the producer gas (CO + N2)
Zinc vapor + CO are led to the condenser by
applying suction and forcing producer gas from
below
ZnO + C → Zn + CO
molten zinc is taken out from the condenser from
time to time

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\ reducing it
4.4. Electrolysis
Solid compounds can’t conduct electricity because ions
are locked in place
When ionic compounds are melted or dissolved in water,
these ions are free and can conduct electricity
Electrolysis - a process of breaking down a compound by
electricity
Electrolysis is essentially using electricity to make a
chemical change happen that wouldn’t happen otherwise
A battery is used to force this change to happen
The positive side of the battery pulls in electrons
The negative side of the battery pushes out
electrons
Electrolyte - a liquid that conducts electricity
Discharge - the loss of charge on ions at the electrodes
Electrolytic cell
the electrodes maintain contact between the solution
and the circuit
the electrodes are often made of graphite because
it is cheap
does not interfere with reaction
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easy to shape
has a higher temperature in comparison to the
operating temperatures
the electrolytic solution allows for the movement of
electrons
the solution must remain electrically neutral
cations are positive and anions are negative
the anode is positive
oxidation happens at the anode
pulls in electrons
the cathode is negative
reduction happens here
pushes out electrons
the cations are attracted to the cathode because the
cations are positive and the cathode has electrons
the cathode gives electrons to the cation, hence
the anions are attracted to the anode because the
anions are negative and the anode is positive
the anion gives electrons to the anode, hence
becoming oxidized
electrolysis in a molten solution
anions move to the anode to become oxidized
cations move to the cathode to become reduced
electrolysis of aqueous ionic compounds
electrolysing aqueous ionic compounds involves 4
ions
2 from the ionic compound, as well as H+ and OH-
for the positive ions
the one that gets discharged at the cathode is the
least reactive one because less reactive elements
have higher tendencies to be an atom and the
more reactive one has a higher tendency to
remain in the oxidized state
for the negative ions
oxygen from OH- is always discharged at the
anode unless the other negative ion is a halide
if the other negative ion is a halide, there are two
possibilities
oxygen from OH- gets discharged at the anode
the halide ion gets discharged at the anode
in a concentrated solution, the halide ion gets
discharged
in a dilute solution, the oxygen from OH- gets
discharged
polyatomic ions never get discharged except for OH-
electrolysis doesn’t work for solutions with covalent
compounds like sugar
actual steps of electrolysis
ionization - the breaking down into two ions of an
ionic compound when dissolved in water; charges are
present
decomposition - breaking down of a compound with
the final charge of zero
electrolytic cells can also be set up between non-metal
and metal
electrons flow from metal to nonmetal
IB MIDDLE YEARS PROGRAM CHEMISTRY
Extraction of Aluminum From Aluminum Oxide
Al2O3has a high melting point
cryolite is added to lower the melting point of Al2 O3​
the Al( 3+) is attracted to the walls of the casing
it accumulates and sinks
it is pumped out
( also known as galvanic and voltaic cells
O 2−) is attracted to the carbon and it burns
this is why the anodes need to be replaced
Electrolysis of Brine
Electrolysis of NaCl solution
Na+, Cl-, H+, and OH- ions
Chlorine gas is discharged at the anode, and hydrogen
gas is discharged at the cathode
Sodium hydroxide is formed
Products: hydrogen, chlorine, sodium hydroxide
2NaCl + 2H2 O -> 2NaOH + H2 + Cl2
​ ​ ​
chlorine is used for sterilizing water and for bleaching,
weed killer, refrigerating materials, etc…
sodium hydroxide is used for household cleaning
This process happens across a membrane cell
the membrane separates both electrodes and
separate Cl- from OH- ions
the Na+, H+ and OH- ions get passed the the cathode
chamber and the Cl- stays in the cathode chamber
OH- can’t pollute the Cl-
H+ gets discharged and collected at the cathode
Na+ and OH- bond to form sodium hydroxide
Electroplating
a process where you take an object made of one type of
metal and cover it with a thin layer of another type of
metal
it is a type of electrolysis
the cathode is the metal to be plated
the anode is the metal that is being used to coat the
other metal
the electrolyte is a salt solution of the metal to
electroplate with
the electrolytic solution must remain neutral
ex: copper being coated in silver
Note
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the object to be electroplated must be rubbed and
cleaned with sandpaper to remove any stains that
won’t let the metal cover the whole object firmly
​ the object to be electroplated must be dipped
completely in the electrolyte and rotated continuously
to make sure all the object gets covered uniformly
the object to be electroplated must be made of an
electrical conductor
Electrorefining
cathode is the pure metal
anode is made of the impure metal
electrolyte is a solution of that metal
impurities settle at the bottom of the cell
4.5. Electrochemical Cells
devices that use a chemical reaction to create electricity -
specifically, a redox reaction
ex: with zinc sulphate and copper sulphate
take two cells, one with zinc sulphate solution and one
with copper sulphate solution
put a zinc rod in the zinc sulphate cell and a copper rod in
the copper sulphate cell
attach a wire to both of the rods
copper is the cathode and zinc is the anode
in an electrochemical cell, the anode is negative
and the cathode is positive
the electrode which is negative is the site of
oxidation and the electrode which is positive is the
site of reduction
the negative electrode is the more reactive metal
the positive electrode is the less reactive metal
the electrons start flowing through the wire
copper has a strong pull for the electrons compared
to zinc
zinc gives two electrons to copper and zinc is oxidized
the zinc ions dissolve in the solution and the
solution becomes positive
copper gains two electrons so an ion of copper from
the solution is attached to the copper rod and is
reduced
the solution becomes negative
the zinc part is the oxidation half cell and the copper
part is the reduction half cell
over time, the piece of zinc begins to dissolve and the
copper begins bigger and bigger
net ionic equation: Zn + Cu2+ Zn2+ + Cu
a salt bridge connects the two solutions
the salt bridge helps balance the charges and
maintain electrical neutrality
electrical neutrality must be maintained or else
the current will stop flowing
the oxidation half cell becomes positive and the
reduction half cell becomes negative
IB MIDDLE YEARS PROGRAM CHEMISTRY
the salt bridge is filled with NaCl and there are cotton
plugs at the end
the ions slowly move through the cotton plugs
the Na+ ions move into the reduction half cell in order
to balance the negative charge
the Cl- ions move into the oxidation half cell in order
to balance the positive charge
We can connect this entire thing up to an electrolytic cell
and use this electrochemical cell as a battery
attach the zinc anode (which is negative) to the
cathode (negative)
attach the copper cathode (which is positive) to the
anode (positive)
Voltage
voltage is the push or pull of electrons
the push/pull is greater if the tendency to undergo
oxidation is greater
potential difference
the greater the relative tendencies, the stronger the push
or pull and the higher the voltage
the further apart the metals are in a series
4.6. Electrochemical Cells
also known as galvanic and voltaic cells
devices that use a chemical reaction to create electricity -
specifically, a redox reaction
ex: with zinc sulphate and copper sulphate
take two cells, one with zinc sulphate solution and one
with copper sulphate solution
put a zinc rod in the zinc sulphate cell and a copper rod in
the copper sulphate cell
attach a wire to both of the rods
copper is the cathode and zinc is the anode
in an electrochemical cell, the anode is negative
and the cathode is positive
the electrode which is negative is the site of
oxidation and the electrode which is positive is the
site of reduction
the negative electrode is the more reactive metal
the positive electrode is the less reactive metal
the electrons start flowing through the wire
copper has a strong pull for the electrons compared
to zinc
zinc gives two electrons to copper and zinc is oxidized
the zinc ions dissolve in the solution and the
solution becomes positive
copper gains two electrons so an ion of copper from
the solution is attached to the copper rod and is
reduced
the solution becomes negative
the zinc part is the oxidation half cell and the copper
part is the reduction half cell
over time, the piece of zinc begins to dissolve and the
copper begins bigger and bigger
net ionic equation: Zn + Cu2 → Zn( 2+) + Cu
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a salt bridge connects the two solutions
the salt bridge helps balance the charges and
maintain electrical neutrality
electrical neutrality must be maintained or else
the current will stop flowing
the oxidation half cell becomes positive and the
reduction half cell becomes negative
the salt bridge is filled with NaCl and there are cotton
plugs at the end
the ions slowly move through the cotton plugs
the Na+ ions move into the reduction half cell in order
to balance the negative charge
the Cl- ions move into the oxidation half cell in order
to balance the positive charge
We can connect this entire thing up to an electrolytic cell
and use this electrochemical cell as a battery
attach the zinc anode (which is negative) to the
cathode (negative)
attach the copper cathode (which is positive) to the
anode (positive)
Voltage
voltage is the push or pull of electrons
the push/pull is greater if the tendency to undergo
oxidation is greater
potential difference
the greater the relative tendencies, the stronger the push
or pull and the higher the voltage
the further apart the metals are in a series
4.7. Batteries
alkaline cells
aka dry cells
do not use liquids, but instead have a moist paste
anode is made of zinc (inner case), cathode is a
graphite rod and the paste is MnO2 and NH4Cl
once the chemicals have reacted inside the alkaline
cell, the cell is finished and cannot be recharged
the reaction is irreversible
rechargeable batteries
reactions are reversible
applying a voltage to the battery produces an
electrical current that causes the batteries to return to
their original states
more economical in the long run
mobile phones, and computers use lithium ion
batteries
developments
cycle life
faster charge
thin, flexible batteries
lithium triangle
Chile, Bolivia, Argentina
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products
5. Energetics of Chemical bond energy - the amount of energy absorbed or
released as a chemical bond is formed or broken
Reactions by convention, (+) represents energy that is absorbed
and (-) represents the energy released
measured in kilojoules and are measured per mole of
5.1. Heat
substance
heat - the total energy of all of an object’s particles calculating energy changes
bond energy - the amount of energy needed to break
thermal energy
depends on one mole of a particular covalent bond
steps
mass of the material
type of material add together the bond energies for all the bonds
temperature - the measure of the average kinetic energy in the reactants “energy in”
of the particles add together the bond energies for all the bonds
in the products “energy out”
Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions energy change = energy in - energy out
activation energy is needed to break and form bonds
exothermic reaction - reaction in which heat is given out first, the bonds are broken, then reformed
temperature rises the greater the strength of the bonds, the higher the
ex: combustion, charcoal burning, candle burning activation energy barrier
endothermic reaction - reaction in which heat is taken in the higher the barrier, the longer the line on the
temperature drops graph
ex: photosynthesis energy gained by either by collisions or increase in
uses of exothermic and endothermic reactions temperature and the initial bonds are broken
hot packs kinetic theory of matter
it is an exothermic reaction
mixture = damp iron filings, salt and charcoal;
mixture reacts with oxygen
salt speeds up the exothermic reaction
between iron and oxygen
mixture = calcium oxide and water
mixture = sodium ethanoate
flameless reaction heaters
magnesium + iron → add water
self-heating cans for coffee and variety of foods
cold packs - make use of endothermic reactions
ammonium nitrate and water
useful for athletes treating sprains

Energy Level Diagrams \n

heat of reaction - the amount of heat energy absorbed or

given off during a reaction
bond breaking requires absorption of heat
bond making releases energy
in an endothermic reaction, the total energy released by
making bonds is less than the energy required to break
bonds
ex: N2 + O2 → 2NO
​ ​

in an exothermic reaction, the total energy released by

making bonds is greater than the energy required to
break bonds
ex: 2H2 + O2 →* 2H2 O
​ ​ ​

5.2. Bond Energies and Energy Changes to calculate the energy used up or released in a chemical
reaction, find the sum of all of the bonds made, and the
when a chemical reaction takes place, chemical bonds are sum of all of the broken, sum those up together, and get
broken and new chemical bonds are formed to create the your result

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H = Ein - Eout universal indicator

specific heat capacity - the capacity of a substance to
absorb heat 6.2. Strength of Acids and Bases
C=q/(m*T)
PV = nRT; R = 8.314 strong acids produce lots of H+ ions and weak acids
produce few H+ ions
6. Impacts of Chemical the strength of an acid is a measure of how quickly it will
lose its H+ ions

Industries acetic acid -

CH ∗ 3COOH →* CH3 COO− + H + ​

reversible reaction
6.1. Acids & Bases dissociation constant of acid
weak acid → K < 1
Properties of Acids strong acid → K > 1
produce H+ ions in water
tastes sour 6.3. Reactions With Acids and Bases
corrodes metals
pH < 7 acid + metal → salt + hydrogen; ex: nitric acid + calcium →
turns litmus paper red
calcium nitrate + hydrogen
provide metal ions
acid + metal carbonate → salt + H2O + CO2; ex: CaCO3 +
Properties of Bases H2SO4 → H2O + CO2 + CaSO4
produce OH- ions in water
acid + metal oxide → salt + water; ex: MgO + H2CO3 →
feel soapy to the touch H2O + MgCO3
can corrode
base + ammonium salt → ammonia + salt + H2O; ex:
turn litmus paper blue NH4Cl + NaOH → H2O + NH3 + NaCl
taste bitter
provide non-metal ions
6.4. Preparation of Salts
Defining Acids and Bases:
soluble
Arrhenius Filtration - Solution + Solid: add the solid slowly to the
acid - hydrogen containing compounds which solution, stir, filter the excess solid
dissociate to produce H+ ions heat the remaining solution gently + cool down →
base - OH containing compounds which dissociate to crystals appear
produce OH- ions slower crystallization → larger crystals
problem: some bases don’t have OH- ions Titration: Solution + Solution; use an indicator
water must be present phenolphthalein - pink in base, clear in acid
when polar covalent compounds dissociate, the more methyl orange - yellow in base, red in acid
electronegative atom will gain an electron and both insoluble
atoms turn into ions precipitation (solution + solution)
ex: HCl → H+ + Cl- ex: nitric acid + lead oxide → lead nitrate + water
Bronsted-Lowry [ Conjugate-Base Pair Theory ] add potassium iodide to the lead nitrate
acid - proton donor potassium iodide + lead nitrate → potassium nitrate +
base - proton acceptor lead iodide
a proton is a hydrogen atom that has lost its electron
base-conjugate acid; acid-conjugate base
+
6.5. Tests
ex: N H3 + H2 O → N H4 + OH −
​ ​ ​

NH3 is the base

H2O is the acid
NH4+ is the conjugate acid
OH- is the conjugate base
amphiprotic - can either donate or accept a proton
amphoteric - reacts with both acids and bases
water is both amphiprotic and amphoteric
Indicators
phenolphthalein - acids = colorless; bases = bright
pink
litmus

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Ionic product of water

Kw = [H3 O+ ] [OH − ]
​ ​

ionic product of water - Kw = 1 x 10( ​ − 14)

+ −
Kw = [H3 O ] [OH ] at 25 degrees C
​ ​

[H+] = 1 x 10^-7
[OH-] = 1 x 10^-7
[H3 O+ ] [OH − ] = 1 x 10^-7 x 1 x 10^-7 = 1 x
​

10^-14
product of the ion concentration in water at room
temperature
in pure water, the concentration of [H3 O + ] = [OH − ]
​

the no. 7 is associated with neutrality

however, when we add a base to the water, H+ ions
from the water go to the OH- ions from the base and
hence the H+ ion concentration will decrease
[H + ] < [OH − ] → [H+] = 1 x 10^-8 and [OH-] = 1 x
10^-6
pH = -log[H+] → pH = 8
when we add acid to water, the H+ ion concentration
will increase
[H3 O+ ] > [OH − ] → [H+] = 1 x 10^-3 and [OH-] =
​

1 x 10^-11
pH = -log[H+] → pH = 3
pH = -log[H+]
ex: if H+ 1 x 10^-6; pH = 6
ex: if H+ 1 x 10^-9; pH = 9
note points
the sum of the powers must be 14 because the K
value wants to be constant
water is an equilibrium system
when acid is added, the reaction moves in order to
maintain equilibrium

6.6. Neutralization Reactions 6.8. Factors Affecting pH

acid + base acid/base strength (defined by the equilibrium constants
one of the products produced is neutral Ka and Kb )
​ ​

water and salt are generally produced acid/base concentration

ex: temperature of the solution (affects the equilibrium
NaOH +HCl → H2 O + NaCl
​
conditions)
N HO3 + KOH → KN O3 + H2 O
​ ​ ​
presence of common ions (will result in a buffer for weak
H ∗2 SO∗ 4 + M g(OH)2 → M gSO4 + 2H2 O
​ ​ ​ ​ ​
acids/bases) that can hydrolyze in water
pH is always going to depend on the final equilibrium
concentration of hydronium ions
6.7. Auto-Ionization concentration of acids
strong acids dissociate a lot and vice versa
H2 O + H2 O → OH − + H3 O+
if you have a lot of a weak acid and a little bit of a
​ ​ ​

Because water has ions, it should produce electricity
However, there are very few ions
This is because the reverse reaction happens to a very
large extent
Water is neutral because the no. of positive and
negative ions are equal
strong acid, the pH may be the same as the H+ ion
concentration
6.9. Solubility and Salts
neutralization: A + B → Salt + H2O

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1. insoluble salt → precipitate: particles won’t shine
2. soluble salt
evaporation
crystallization
evaporate/boil → immediate cool down
crystals will start to form
solubility rules
1. all states of K, Na, and NH4 are soluble in water
2. all nitrates are soluble in water
3. most sulphates are soluble in water except those
of Pb, Ba and Ca
4. most chlorides are soluble in water except of Pb,
Ag and Hg
preparation of salts
1. method of preparation depends on the solubility
of the base and that of the salt
2. solubility increases with the increase in
temperature
3. titration
nature of salts
1. if both acid and base are strong, salt is neutral
2. if base is strong and acid is weak, the salt will be
basic and vice versa
** \n **
6.10. Titration
when a solution of a precisely known concentration is
reacted with a solution of unknown concentration
when a complete reaction occurs and the exact volumes
of each solution are known, the concentration of the
second solution can be calculated
end point can be found using indicator or a pH meter →
indicates when neutralization is complete
6.11. Misc
when a carbonate is involved, CO2 is always produced
complexes - all are soluble in water
ex: 2NaAlO2
the process of dilution is exothermic
add acid to water instead of water to acid to handle
the amount of heat evolved
add acid slowly
water of crystallization
as the crystal is being formed, water gets trapped
inside
ex: CaSO4 . 0.5 H2O
the water burts the crystal and evaporates
the crystal turns into a powder
gypsum: CaSO4 . 2H20
6.12. Applications of Acids and Bases
pH soil of plants - slaked lime (CaOH) is used to reduce
the acidity of soils, and fertilizers such as ammonium
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sulphate make soil less alkaline
antacids contain NaHCO3 which is a weak base to combat
stomach acidity
treating bee stings (which are acidic) with weak bases
such as calamine or toothpaste, and wasp stings (which
are alkaline) with vinegar
7. Stoichiometry
concentration - amount of solute
7.1. Stoichiometric Calculations
relative molecular mass is used more often for covalent
compounds
covalent compounds are usually gases or liquids
ex: each molecule of CO2 is its own entity
relative formula mass is used more often for ionic
compounds
they cluster together and stay together
ex: N a ∗1 000Cl∗ 1000 is one entity
​ ​
NaCl is the formula for the molecule but not the
molecular formula
individual molecules do not exist → this is called the
formula mass
percentage composition - the amount per one hundred
that an element contributes to a molecule
atom economy -
atom economy = mass of useful product / mass of
total product * 100
Magnesium Ribbon Burning Experiment
Finding the mass of the MgO (experimentally)
find mass of crucible → mass of crucible with
ribbon → mass of crucible with MgO
When we plot the graph of Mg vs Oxygen, we get a
straight line
Conclusions
The graph is a straight line showing the ratio of
magnesium with oxygen
A definite compound is formed by a chemical
reaction
Each compound has elements always present in
the same proportion by mass
It doesn’t matter where the compound is formed
or how it is made
Law of constant proportion and law of
conservation of mass
7.2. Molar Calculations
moles - amount of substance in grams per molecular
mass or molecular formula
no. of moles = mass (g)/molecular mass
empirical formula - the ratio of atoms in large covalent
networks and all organic compounds
IB MIDDLE YEARS PROGRAM CHEMISTRY

ex: Silicon dioxide is a giant molecular structure. A
sample of silicon oxide has 47% by mass of silicon and
hence oxygen is 53%
mass in 100 g → 47 g Si and 53 g oxygen
molar mass: Si = 28 g and Oxygen = 16 g
no. of moles → 47/28 = 1.68 moles of Si and 53/16
= 3.31 moles of oxygen
this gives us a 1:2 ratio, hence the empirical
formula of silicon dioxide is SiO2
Avogadro's constant - 6.023 x 10^23
number of units present in 1 mole of substance
Chemical Foot Bridge
Calculations
Reaction amounts
% yield
a reaction may not be complete; errors may
happen in weighing or materials may be lost in
transferring or separating the product
the yield of the reactions in reality is often less
than expected
% purity
limiting reagent - the chemical that limits the reaction
from continuing further
name the branches and indicate the number of the
branches
methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl…
prefixes - di, tri…
indicate the position of the branches with a number,
numbering from the end closest to the functional
group
for more than one branch, the branches are identified
in alphabetical order, ignoring any prefixes
branches need to be numbered individually, even if
they are attached to the same carbon
commas between numbers, dashes between numbers
and letter
first letter is capitalized
for alkenes
position of double bond must be identified
ex: 3-methylbut-1-ene
cycloalkanes - begin with cyclo-, and end with -ane
Cn H( 2n)
​ ​

ex: cyclopentane
7.3. Working Out Amounts of Gases as
Reactants and Products
the volume of any gas at standard rtp (room temperature
and pressure - 25 degrees and 1 atm) is 24 liters or 24
dm^3
number of particles present = N; (6.023 x 10^23)
molar volume (Vm)
3 3
no. of moles = volumedm /molarvolumedm
1 dm^3 = 1000 cm^3 = 1 liter alcohols end with -ol
carboxyllic acids end with -oic acid
7.4. Concentrations
Alkanes
mass concentration = mass of solute(g)/volume of
saturated
solvent(dm3)
unit: g/dm^3 useful hydrocarbons = C1 - C20
alkanes - parent compounds
standard: amount of solute in 1 dm^3/liter of solvent
come from nonrenewable fossil fuels such as crude
molar concentration = no. of moles of solute/volume of
oil, natural gas, coal and oil
solution(dm3)
undergo combustion
if volume is given in cm^3
all have the same general rule and chemical
mass conc = mass(g) * 1000/volume(cm3)
molar conc = n * 1000/volume(cm3) properties
physical properties vary
gradation is seen
8. Organic Chemistry viscosity
density
soft/hard solids
8.1. Naming Organic Compounds
state: solid, liquid, gas
longest unbranched chain containing the functional depends on the Vanderwaal’s force (surface area
group = parent molecule and size)
indicate the position of the functional group with a all liquids come from crude oil
number, numbering from the end closest to the all solids come from coal
functional group homologous series

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alkanes: Cn H( 2n + 2)
alkenes: Cn H( 2n)
​ ​
ex: ethene + water → ethanol
​ ​
C2 H4 + H2 O → C2 H5 OH
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

alkynes: Cn H( 2n − 2) ​ ​
addition polymerization - monomers add together to
melting points form a polymer
alkanes with an odd number of carbons don’t pack a monomer is a repeating unit
well → requires less energy to move them use catalysts that block one end to prevent a cyclic
doesn’t affect boiling point because they are already structure from forming
liquid naming: if the monomer is ethene, the polymer will be
combustion - burning in the presence of oxygen poly(ethene)
ex: CH4 +2O2 → CO2 +2H2 O + Heat +Light
​ ​ ​ ​
use unsaturated monomers
bigger molecules are harder to ignite no byproducts formed
don’t vaporize easily
less complete combustion
we see a yellow/sooty flame
when there is complete combustion, we see a
blue flame
substitution reactions
halogenation - light initiated
one it starts, it’s a chain reaction
ex: CH4 + Cl2 (light) → CH3 Cl + HCl
​ ​ ​

Fluorine reacts even in the cold and dark

CH4 +2F2 → C + 4HF ​ ​

iodine doesn’t react with alkanes

bromine reacts
isomers - same molecular formula; different structural
formula

Alkenes

cracking - bigger hydrocarbons are broken down

C6 H( 14) →C_4H_(10) + C2 H4 (alkane → alkane +
​ ​ ​ ​

alkene)
match the supply of fractions with demand
produces alkenes, which are useful feedstock in the
petrochemical industry
hydrate = alcohol
hydrogenate = alkane
easily undergo addition reactions
ex: C( 16)H( 34) →C_(10)H_22+C_6H_(12)$
​ ​

breaking can be targeted with catalysts to write out a cluster, use parenthesis: CH(CH3 ) ​ =
high heat and pressure → random breaking CH2 ​

in air, they burn like alkanes, but are usually not burnt
because they are more reactive Alcohols
C2 H4 +3O2 →2CO_2+2H_2O$
​ ​ ​

addition reactions are possible because the double bonds functional group - a chemical structure responsible for
can be replaced with new single bonds many of its chemical properties
hydrogenation - alkenes react with hydrogen to produce hydroxyl group: -OH
alkanes attaches directly to a carbon atom in the alkane chain
ex: C2 H4 + H2 C2 H6
​ ​ ​ ​ ​
general formula: Cn H( 2n + 1)OH
​ ​

testing for alkenes fermentation produces alcohols from glucose

add bromine water to an unsaturated hydrocarbon distillation - alcohol denatures enzymes
if unsaturated, the orange color of bromine propyl alcohol: propan-2-ol; 2-propanol; propanol-2
disappears
hydration - alkenes react with steam to produce alcohol
high temperature and pressure OR in the presence of
concentrated sulfuric acid
general formula: $C_nH_(2n+1)OH

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free OH and COOH groups → H from OH and OH

from COOH are freed
O=C-O : ester linkage
polyester: alternate system of carboxylic acid and
alcohol by an ester linkage
naming polyester:
alcohol part comes first in name but second in
formula
combustion
carboxylic acid comes second in the name
useful fuels
concentrated sulfuric acid is added to remove water
ethanol is a clean fuel → no pollutants
as it forms
can be made by fermentation (renewable)
encourage the equilibrium to shift to the side of
ex: C2 H5 O H + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2 O
the products
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

equation for fermentation: glucose → ethanol + CO2 polyamides

C6 H( 12)O∗ 6 → ∗2C2 H5 OH + 2CO2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

amine and carboxylic acids

yeast cells divide and reproduce in anaerobic
CH∗4 → ∗CH3 OH
conditions
​ ​

methane: replace H with OH = alcohol →

can also be made through fractional distillation methanol
ethanol from ethene: ethene + water ⇔ ethanol
CH4 → CH3 N H2
reversible and exothermic
​ ​ ​

methane: replace H with NH2 = amine →

oxidation of alcohol -
methanamine
ethanol can be oxidised by reacting it with oxidising
CONH = amide linkage
agents or leaving it open to the air → ethanoic acid
in proteins, this is known as a peptide bond
C ∗2 H∗ 5OH + [O] → CH3 COOH
​ ​ ​

Carboxylic Acids

COOH group nylon

potassium dichromate is the oxidising agent commonly discovered in 1934
used to produce carboxylic acids declared “strong as steel, fine as a spider web”
dicarboxylic acid = 2 carboxyl groups 1,6-Hexanediamine; Hexan-1,6-diamine
used to make fishnets, carpets, seat belts and
Condensation Polymerization ropes

** \n **
condensation polymerization
byproducts are formed
polyester = alcohol + carboxylic acid 8.2. Changing Properties of Plastics
polyamide
polyesters hardness is based on density
hexane → cyclohexane → benzene → addition of branching can be used to make a hard plastic soft
carboxyl groups → terephthalic acid when layers are closely packed, they are dense
when they are branched, the layers are less close and
less dense
addition mechanisms

terylene PET
UV rays can penetrate so it can be used for
disinfection

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plasticizers - adding plasticizers between the layers

prevents close packing → less dense → soft
if you have a repeating unit of glycine and alanine,
amorphous/crystalline regions
keep one glycine and one alanine in brackets
cystallines is a systematic
carbohydrates
amorphous is not systematic arrangement
starch and cellulose are polymers
haphazard manner
starch is a chain of glucose
amorphous = less dense
glucose alcohol → open chain structure
permeable to water
add water → cyclization
light
carbons are planar → molecule bends
ex: used for eye lenses

** \n **

8.3. Biological Polymers

Proteins
acidic group + amino group → amino acid

starch:

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fats and oils

triesters: alcohol + carboxylic acids
higher carboxylic acids = bulkier groups with lots
of carbons
3 ester linkages
trihydric alcohol = 3 OH groups

if the chains are unsaturated (some double bonds

present) then the chains become crooked
close packing is not possible → liquid at room
temperature

fats are solid at room temperature; oils are liquid at

room temperature
fats pack very closely, oils do not
if the alkyl group is saturated in chains, then the
molecules pack up closely

if the alkyl group is of the formula CnH2n+1then it is

saturated
if the alkyl group is not of the formula, then it is
unsaturated
high vs low viscosity
layers are stacked on top of each other more double bonds = low viscosity
fewer double bonds = high viscosity
bromine water = test for saturation
titration method
potassium permanganate
lysis - hydrolysis in the presence of acid or alkali

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dual nature of a soap molecule
emulsification
soap
hydrophobic end stays away from the water and
embeds itself into the dirt
the hydrophilic end is pulled by the water
while the water pulls the head, it pulls the tail
with it
the tail drags the dirt with it
stabilizers all have the same basic structures and
principles
8.4. Sols
sol - a solid dispersed in a liquid
dispersion medium = liquid
lyophobic - don’t like liquids
easily coagulated and precipitated
lyophilic - stable sol; affinity for dispersion medium
true solutions; particles are not seen
ferric hydroxide sol
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particles of Fe(OH)3 have a tendency to adsorb
water is accumulated on the surface
ex: chalk in water
Fe(OH)3 either adsorbs Fe3+ ions or OH- ions
they become similarly charged
they can’t join/form a bigger particle
Fe3+ ions attract the OH- ions around it
this is a second layer
attraction/clustering between molecules will
happen
after the second layer forms → dialysis
colloidal particles are stopped by the semipermeable
membrane but ions are let out (this happens via
osmosis/diffusion)
dialysis of blood is done by a similar process
when kidneys can’t filter blood, this procedure
takes place
to destabilize a sol add ions
alum is swirled in muddy water
alum = Al2(SO4)3; aluminium sulphate
Al3+ and SO4-- ions
colloidal particles are already charged because of
impurities
ions neutralize this charged layer
these particles coagulate and settle down
(clump together)
add a lyophilic sol to a lyophobic sol
the lyophilic coating stabilizes the lyophobic sol
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test the efficiency of a lyophilic sol with the addition of
ions
add 1 mL of starch
add i mL of 10% NaCl solution → sol breaks and
particles settle/breakdown
add 2 mL of starch and 1 mL of NaCl, then repeat
with 3 mL of starch…
3 mL to 1 mL protection power
1 mL of gum + 1 mL of 10% NaCl
repeat
stable with 2 mL to 1 mL 10% NaCl
gum is the better protector
gold number: the minimum amount in mg which is
just sufficient to prevent the coagulation of 10 mL of a
gold sol on the addition of 1 mL of 10% NaCl solution
properties of sols
Tyndall effect - if you direct a beam of light through a
colloidal solution, you can see the path of light
particles are big enough to scatter light
amount of scattering depends on
density: as the density increases, there is more
scattering
frequency of light: higher frequency = more
scattering
Brownian movement - colloidal particles move
randomly
carry electric charge - electrophoresis
used in electrostatic chimneys
before releasing gas, pass through
electrostatic precipitator
negatively charged particles are attracted to
the positively charged metal plates
solid dispersed in air = aerosol
gel - colloidal system in which a liquid is dispersed in a
solid
starch + water → initially a lyophilic sol
glucose molecules make a network
now the liquid is trapped in the starch
thixotropy - reversible sol-gel transformation
property of non-newtonian fluids
ex: ketchup
change viscosity on stress/strain
this doesn’t happen in most liquids
viscosity either increases or decreases
elastic vs. non elastic gels
gastronomy
foam = gas dispersed in a liquid
ex: whipped cream (air in cream)
spherification - liquid turns into small balls or spheres
ex: mix fruit juice with sodium alginate → put
mixture into cold solution of calcium chloride →
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small balls of juice forem
liquid nitrogen may be used for flash freezing
when food is quickly cooled to very low
temperatures, it freezes on the surface and
remains liquid in the center
used to make semi-frozen desserts with crunchy
surfaces and creamy centers
ex: frozen mango puree
9. Designing New Materials
9.1. Polymers
Kevlar - strong polyamide chain COOH + NH2
5x as strong as steel
Long, straight, inflexible molecules that can pack
closely together → strong bonding
Lightweight + strong
Can make sturdy, lightweight objects and materials
Ex: used in canoes, bulletproof vests, brake pads on
cars, bicycle helmets
Lycra - stretchable and elastic
Has a rigid part and a small rubbery segment
Rubbery segment is a sub-repeating unit
Elastic - can be stretched to 600x its length and will
return to original shape
Fibe is coiled
Popular for swimsuits are body clinging reduces drag
and gives bounce to the person
2008 Olympics - many high performances → new
rules that swimmers can’t wear swimsuits that
increase performance
Gore-tex - breathable fibe/fabric
Can be used to make raincoats
Waterproof but allows sweat to escape → person
doesn’t feel uncomfortable
Used in shoe lining
Millions of tiny holes - big enough for sweat to escape
but too small to let water to enter
Thinsulate - thermal insulation
Ski jackets, divers dry suits
Very fine fibres
Air is trapped between the fibres
Heat is reflected back to body
9.2. Non-Polymers
Carbon fibre - composite material
Crushed graphite filings
You need a binder → plastic epoxy resin
Strength + lightness
Titanium-metal - high strength + low density
Doesn’t get weaker over time → low fatigue resistance
Used as a shock absorber and to deal with stress
Used in golf clubs
Expensive → only used as a coating
It is the ideal metal
IB MIDDLE YEARS PROGRAM CHEMISTRY
9.3. Smart Materials
Behave in response to stress from the environment
Chromogenic - electrical/thermal changes
Silver bromide is used in color changing glasses →
silver + bromine
Thermochromic - change color as temp changes
Photochromic - ex: light sensitive sunglasses, which
darken on exposure to bright sunlight
Electrochromic - change color when voltage is applied;
liquid display crystals
Non-Newtonian fluid - doesn’t follow laws of normal fluids
Oobleck (inspired by Dr.Seuss)
Generally respond to stress by change in viscosity; sol-
gel transformation
In oobleck, the viscosity increases and particles
take fixed positions
When you shake ketchup, it becomes less viscous
Piezoelectric - change when voltage is applied
Shape-memory alloys - can return back to original shape
with a temperature change
Have two different crystal structures
One is stable at a higher temperature and the
other is stable at lower temperatures
Cold temp → soft + easy to bend
High temp → hard and springy
hydrogels (type of polymer)
Absorb a lot of water
Used in diapers
Cross-linked polymers - polymer with a carboxylic acid
group
Oxygen has a negative head which attracts the
water molecules
No bond → electrostatic attraction
Dipole-dipole hydrogen bond
Water retention capacity depends on the no. of
carboxyl groups on the polymer chain
Can absorb up to 500x own weight of water as
negative ions attract water molecules
Changes in pH or addition of salt solution can
cause the hydrogel to lose water
Sodium ions are attracted to negative ions
Shape-memory polymers
Two different crystal structures at two different
temperatures
Change in temperature = change in shape
Ex: nitinol rivet
Flexible glasses
Thermoplastic
Liquid at high temperature and solidifies on
cooling
During the cooling process, it is mechanically
stretched into a sheet
It solidifies in the stretched position
Polymer threads are far from each other
Ex: shrink wrap
Microspheres - sticky side of Post-it notes
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Only a small amount of surface actually sticks → can
be removed easily
Active packaging
Chips bags are actually filled with inert gases such as
nitrogen
To create oxygen-free atmospheres in bottles of fruit
juice or wine, a mixture of nitrogen and 5% hydrogen
is added
9.4. Nanoparticles
1-200 nanometers; 1 nm = 1*10^-9 m
Zinc oxide, titanium oxide - protect from UV rays
Make on a nanoscale to make clear and not white
sunscreen
Quantum dots - useful in oncology
DNA is a nanoparticle
Cancerous cells absorb the dye in a higher
accumulation → bond is formed
Traditional dyes are not safe and have to be
filtered by the kidneys
Respond to UV light by getting illuminated
Color depends on size
Scientists are trying to figure out how to attach
biological binding sites to the outside of quantum
dots so that they are specifically attracted to cancer
cells
Nanotubes - carbon tubes
Sheets of rolled graphene
Carry drugs to be delivered to cancerous cells
Ensures that drug doesn’t affect normal cells
Light → heat (produced by nano bullets) →
cancerous cells are killed
Gold nanoshells - nanoparticles of silica covered in gold
Carry anticancer drugs - nano bullets
Anti-aging cosmetics
Zinc cream
Used to block UV rays, but leaves a white finish on the
skin
Mix of ZnO and titanium dioxide (TiO2) particles in
an oil-based emulsion
These particles scatter light → looks white
Scientists decided to grind up the particles → still
block UV rays, but no white cast
Also block 2x the UV radiation
Graphene - single sheet of graphite
Computing, solar cells, touch screens, sports
materials and biological applications
Flexible phone
Cheaper way of desalinating water
Nanogold
Colloidal gold - nanoparticles of pure gold suspended
in water or a solution
When a laser beam is shone through the solution,
the particles scatter light
Color varies depending on shape and size of the
particle
Can be good catalysts
IB MIDDLE YEARS PROGRAM CHEMISTRY
They are semiconductors
Stained glass windows made in medieval times
contain gold and silver nanoparticles
Different colors are produced
Dichroic glass - when viewed in daylight for example,
is one color, but when additional/different light is
shone onto it, the color changes
Future of nanotechnology
Carbon nanotubes - resemble a rolled up layer of
graphite
100x strength of steel, and better at conducting
heat than diamonds
Flexible as body fibres
Light; half the density of aluminium
One layer as thick as cling wrap would be
bulletproof
1000x more electrical current than equal sized copper
wire
High performance lithium batteries
Can be used to make ridiculously tiny circuits
(imagine a computer the size of a sugar cube)
Can be used to make high quality flat-screen TVs;
better than liquid crystal displays; fraction of the cost
Potential to store hydrogen to fuel cars
Can be turned into nanogears → attach small
molecules along the outside of the tube
Scientists think we can build nanosized machines
based on nanotubes
Ethical issues
Should be used safely
Nanoparticles are finding their way into the
environment
Can cross cell membranes and possible interfere with
the normal functions of cells
We don’t know about the long term effects
Especially for cosmetics
Who will have access
Military interests?
Who will control it?
10. The Atmosphere
10.1. Air Composition
78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.03% CO2, 0.9% argon, 0.07%
other
Layers of the atmosphere
Troposphere - life forms
Stratosphere - contains the ozone layer
Mesosphere - shooting stars burn up here
Thermosphere - satellites
Exosphere
CFCs - chlorofluorocarbons
Aerosols and refrigeration units
CFCs don’t break down → rise up into stratosphere
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Sun can break a carbon-chlorine bond → free
radical of chlorine
A free radical has an unpaired electron → highly
reactive → one can destroy up to 100,000 ozone
molecules
NO2 -
Causes: road traffic (motor vehicles), fossil fuel
combustion
Plays a role in formation of acid rain
Effects: respiratory illness
SO2 -
Causes: burning of fossil fuels, smelting of mineral
ores that contain sulfur, volcanoes
Effects: acid rain
SO2 combines with water and air → sulfuric acid
Deforestation, aquatic life damage, corrodes
building materials and paint
Effects: respiratory damage, irritate eyes
CO -
Causs: fuels containing carbon are burnt in low
oxygen conditions
Effects: ground level ozone, neurological damage,
death
10.2. Water
Potable water - water that is safe for humans to drink
Almost always contains dissolved impurities but must
have sufficiently low levels of dissolved salts and
microbes as salts may be harmful to humans and
microbes may cause illness
Uses
Domestic - cooking, washing, drinking, cleaning,
bathing
Industry - livestock, restaurants, maintenance, golf
courses/water parks, oil production (water pumped
down, oil comes up), power generation, pulp and
paper industry
Tests
Evaporation - if pure, no residue is left
Boiling point - if impurities are present → melting
point goes down, boiling point goes up
Purification
Filtration - layers of sand and gravel → insoluble
solids are removed
Sedimentation - chemical is added which causes tiny
solid particles to clump together into larger particles
→ settle or filter out
Chlorination - chlorine gas is injected into the water to
sterilize it → chlorine kills microbes
Pollutants
Nitrate fertilizers from surface runoff →
eutrophication
Lead compounds from pipes
Pesticides
Hard water - contains magnesium and calcium ions
Temporary hardness - calcium hydrogencarbonate
Can be removed by boiling water → decomposes
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Ca(HCO3 )2 -> CaCO3 + H2 O + CO2

​ ​ ​ ​ ​
the cathode of an electrochemical reaction
Permanent hardness - calcium sulfate
Soft water lather with soap, hard water does not
To investigate harness of water
Take X ml of water into a boiling tube
Add soap solution one drop at a time
Measure the number of drops needed to form a
later
More drops → harder water
Softening water
Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) - soluble in water →
form a precipitate of calcium carbonate
Ca( 2+) + CO3( 2−)− >CaCO_3$
​

Ion exchange resin

The ion-exchange resin starts with sodium ions
stuck to it. As the hard water passes through the
column, sodium ions come off the resin and go
into the water, while calcium ions come out of the
water and stick to the resin. In effect, calcium ions
that cause hardness are swapped for sodium ions
that do not cause hardness.

10.3. Rust
10.4. Carbon Cycle
Only iron and steel can rust
4Fe + 3O2 -> 2F e2O3
​ ​

Iron atoms fuse with oxygen and hydrogen atoms →

oxidation → rust
Protection
Paint - physical barrier that prevents moisture and
oxygen from entering
Sacrificial protection - protection of iron or steel
against corrosion by using a more reactive metal
Zinc or magnesium alloys
Physical barrier
Even is a part of the zinc scratches away, it is more
reactive than the iron so it will react instead of the
iron
Cathodic protection - a technique to prevent
corrosion of a metal surface by making that surface

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Chemistry

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