MASTER

Underground buildings

van Dronkelaar, C.

Award date:
2013

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 Eindhoven University of Technology
Department of the Built Environment

Master’s thesis
Underground buildings

February 2013

Author: Advisors:
Chris van Dronkelaar prof. dr. ir. J.L.M. Hensen
Building Physics and Services dr. ir. D. Cóstola
R.A. Mangkuto MSc
 CONTENT
I. Underground buildings - Comparative analysis using literature
Size: 15 pages

This paper summarizes the many potential benefits and drawbacks associated with underground buildings, while
discussing the effects different functions and underground building concepts have on them. Some design
strategies are identified to alleviate the negative psychological and physiological effects. The main objective of
this literature study is to perform as a fundamental basis for the practical part of the research, which involves
building performance simulation to assess the sunlight penetration and quantification of the thermal advantages
concerned with underground buildings.

II. Underground buildings - Potential in terms of energy reduction

Size: 13 pages

Underground buildings are pointed out as an alternative to conventional aboveground buildings for reducing the
total energy requirements, while alleviating land use and location problems. This paper investigates the potential
in reducing the energy demand of underground buildings compared to aboveground buildings. Monthly
calculations based on EN-ISO 13790 are performed to obtain the annual energy demand of an aboveground
building and underground building. By comparing the annual energy demands for different climates, building
functions and underground depths, deductions can be made to quantify the energy reduction potential of
underground buildings. Introducing variable input parameters allows identification of the influence of design
options on the annual energy demand of a building. Results identify that a variety of the underground building
cases can almost be considered to be zero-energy buildings (annual energy demand below 10 kWh/m2a). In
contrast to the aboveground counterpart where the energy demand is up to 100 kWh/m 2a higher. The low annual
energy demand for these underground building cases originates from the balancing energy flows. The
transmission losses of the underground building are at a stable value annually in comparison to the aboveground
situation, where it varies with seasonal weather changes. Underground buildings can help to reduce the energy
demand in comparison to a conventional aboveground building by using beneficial soil temperatures and large
amounts of earth cover as insulation. Energy reduction is achievable for all climates and functions, but the
magnitude is related to the combination of different design elements. Sensitivity analysis shows that building
functions with high internal gains induce an inefficient balance in tropical to warm climates for underground
buildings, but strongly reduce the heating demand in cold climates. Furthermore, ground properties have a small
influence on the energy demand of an underground building.

III. Underground buildings - BESTEST Case study

Size: 6 pages

To verify the energy reduction potential of underground buildings in the former study and to investigate the
daily patterns of the energy performance of the aboveground- and underground building, the BESTEST Case
900 is simulated using the software program TRNSYS.

IV. Underground Buildings - Underground building examples

Size: 76 slides

Informative presentation of 71 examples of existing underground buildings around the world.

 I. Underground buildings
Comparative analysis using literature
 Underground buildings
Comparative analysis using literature
C. van Dronkelaar, J.L.M. Hensen, D. Cóstola and R.A. Mangkuto

Building Physics and Services, Eindhoven University of Technology,

Den Dolech 2, Eindhoven 5600MB, The Netherlands

ABSTRACT: This paper summarizes the many potential benefits and drawbacks associated with underground buildings,
while discussing the effects different functions and underground building concepts have on them. Some design strategies
are identified to alleviate the negative psychological and physiological effects. The main objective of this literature study is
to perform as a fundamental basis for the practical part of the research, which involves building performance simulation to
assess the sunlight penetration and quantification of the thermal advantages concerned with underground buildings.

KEYWORDS: earth scrapers, subterranean, underground, building, architecture, earth sheltered, subsurface, earth-
sheltered.

1. INTRODUCTION typological overview. Using this classification an

The pressing problems that mankind are faced with
this century and perhaps the following centuries are
the energy crisis and the increasing housing demand
caused by the continuous growth in the world’s
population. Innovative solutions such as building
underground are identified as an alternative to
conventional aboveground buildings for reducing the
total energy requirements, while alleviating land use
and location problems. When designing these
structures, it is important to recognize the potentially
negative psychological and physiological effects
associated with underground spaces.
This literature study summarizes the potential
benefits and drawbacks of underground building and
how functions and different building types can affect
them. Several design techniques are also identified
to alleviate negative psychological and physiological
concerns. While a framework is created that will
assist in the practical part of this research, where
building performance simulation is used to assess
the sunlight penetration and quantification of the
thermal advantages of underground building.
2. UNDERGROUND BUILDING
CONCEPTS
A wide variety of approaches exists within the
concept of underground building. At one extreme, a
building can be erected on the original surface of the
ground (i.e. at grade) and then be covered by earth to
shelter the building partially or completely. At the other
extreme, the building is constructed in a completely
excavated site (i.e. below grade) [1]. In between
there are several different other types of
underground building concepts that can be
distinguished as shown in Figure 1, this does not
include every design possibility, but gives a
evaluation can be made on their effectiveness of
energy reduction while maintaining indoor
environmental quality. For example, a higher energy
reduction can be achieved with a fully underground
building, but this makes it more difficult to maintain
the indoor environmental quality. The relationship
between the underground building concept and these
two factors is also highly dependent on the function
of the building and the climate in which the building
exists.
Figure 1: Classification of different underground building
concepts [1].
2.1. Fully underground spaces
These spaces have little or no contact with the
outside world. They can be either deep under the
earth or just below the surface. Generally, only the
entrance will be aboveground. In principal, these
spaces have a mechanical supply of light and air.
The absence of natural light and views makes
prolonged stays underground less appealing.
Fully underground buildings are comparable to
buildings without sunlight above ground, and there
are several examples of those. People love to shop in
the familiar closed boxes of Ikea, department stores
and do-it-yourself shops. Many people also work in
such introverted environments. Most industrial
estates, where the working population spends much
of its time, are full of enclosed buildings [2].

1
2.2. Submerged spaces
Submerge spaces are those lying just under the
surface of the ground. They can extend deep into the
ground but they always have direct contact with the
aboveground world and with natural light. To admit
daylight, the surface of the ground is perforated by
patios, atriums and domes. An atrium can transport
daylight to great depths, providing not only natural
light, but also some external views. In any event, a
view of the sky provides contact with the seasons,
the weather and the time of day.
2.3. Earth-covered spaces
An earth-covered building is not underground, but
rather at grade, with a surface laid over it. This
building type is free of the technical disadvantages
of underground building, while enjoying its spatial
advantages. Daylight can penetrate normally and
views are usually unimpaired. The elevated ground
level can be laid out as a park, landscape, or urban
environment. In the majority of cases, earth-covered
buildings can be constructed in the traditional
manner. Only the roofing and cladding of one or
more facades is essentially different [2].
Constraints such as a high water table, expansive
clay soils, rock strata, or flat rural sites have often
been overcome with an at grade concept [1].
In practice, all three types are found in all kinds of
combined forms as shown in Figure 1. Underground
buildings are generally connected in one way or
another with aboveground buildings, may it be for
the entrance to the building or a larger part of the
building that is situated aboveground, in the latter
the underground part is generally referred to as its
cellars or basement [2].
As indicated, underground buildings have widely
varying characteristics and are therefore very
dependent on the building type. Some basic
assumptions about the most important characteristics
of underground buildings must therefore be made
when discussing the advantages and disadvantages.
They are discussed below, followed with a summary
in Table 1, where a division is made between major
issues and is grouped in categories.
3. Benefits of underground building
The benefits offered by underground structures are
based on certain specific qualities of underground
space and the fact that they are isolated from the
surface to some extent.
3.1. Benefits with regard to energy use
In general, the greater the percentage of surface area
in contact with the earth and the deeper the structure
penetrates into the earth, the more the structure will
benefit in terms of energy conservation [3].
However, for many functions direct access to the
surface and window openings are required for a
variety of psychological, physiological, and safety
reasons. Energy related benefits are therefore
constrained by the requirement for these openings,
as well as by the structural costs of supporting
extensive earth loads at greater depths [3]. Some
assumptions and measurements on the energy
consumption can be found in the literature, but are
not coherent and vary in large amounts due to the
different underground building concepts.
3.1.2. Reduction of conduction
A popular misconception about earth is that it is a
good insulator. However, earth is a poor insulator,
particularly when compared to commonly available
insulating materials used in building constructions.
But even a poor insulating material can insulate
effectively if it is massive enough. The fact that heat
loss must flow vast distances makes earth a suitable
blanket in which to wrap a building [4].
3.1.3. Heat storage capacity
The heat storage capacity of an underground
building, due to the high thermal mass of the
structure and the surrounding earth, is another
important characteristic. The thermal mass of a
structure is a function of the density and quantity of
the building materials combined with their ability to
store heat. Any building with a large thermal mass
absorbs heat from the air or from direct solar
radiation and releases it back into space at night,
when there is a net heat loss. In an underground
building, which has a high thermal mass this process
can be slow enough to “carry” the house for several
hours without any heating from an additional source.
In contrast, conventional dwellings can store very
little excess heat and lose whatever heat they have
relatively fast when the source is interrupted [5].
3.1.4. Stability ground temperatures
Due to the relatively stable temperature of the soil,
the underground building in summer loses heat to
the cool earth rather than gaining heat from the
surrounding air, and in winter the relatively warm
soil offers a much better temperature environment
than the subzero air temperatures [5]. Energy is
needed only to overcome the difference between the
earth temperature and a comfortable temperature,
thus flattening the peak energy requirements for
space conditioning. In essence, the earth moderates
the environment in which the building is located [4].
The potential to save energy depends on the ground
temperatures surrounding a building which is
affected not only by climate, but other factors such
as ground cover, soil moisture content, and heat
from adjacent buildings [3]. The greater the depth
the more stable the soil temperatures become, while
peak temperatures occur after a considerable delay
[3]. Insulation, which separates the interior space
from the earth, reduces the cooling effect, but also
the effective release of heat to the ground.
3.1.5. Control on air infiltration
Another factor in saving energy through earth
sheltering is the reduction of infiltrated outside air.
With the earth covering most of the envelope of a
building, the building can be made more airtight. In
surface structures, up to 35% of heat loss can often
be attributed to air infiltration [4], while for building
surfaces in contact with the earth, infiltration is
completely eliminated resulting in both heating and
cooling load reduction. However, too "tight"
construction can cause the build-up of indoor air
pollutants, which some experts say can be far
unhealthier than the worst outdoor urban smog. An
underground building offers greater opportunity to
control the rate of outside air supply to the interior
of a building [4].
3.1.6. Reduction of heat gain
Earth-covered roofs and walls reduce radiant heat
gain from the sun. The massive earth can absorb a
considerable amount of radiation before it reaches
the envelope. While window area of most
underground buildings is minimized by design, a
major source of heat gain in many aboveground
buildings is reduced considerably [3]. Another very
important component in reducing heat gain from
radiation is the use of plant materials. In the process
of evapotranspiration, plants can effectively cancel
out most of the incoming radiation from the sun.
This requires a sufficient level of moisture in the
ground to enable the plants to grow [3].
3.1.7. Impact of occupancy patterns on
energy related benefits
Many of the energy related benefits are associated
with heat transfer through the exterior skin of the
building. The relative importance of the exterior
envelope of the building in terms of heating and
cooling loads depends on the occupancy patterns and
use of the structure. For functions with a relatively
high number of people, ventilation requirements are
greater and usually internal heat gain from lights,
people, and machines are increased as well. Thus,
the functions that can benefit to the greatest extent
by being underground are those with low to
moderate occupancy levels. These include
warehouses, cold storage, archives, laboratories,
3
recreational facilities, parking, and some offices and
libraries. An overview of different functions and
their impact on characteristics of underground
buildings is given in Table 4. However if heat
transfer through the exterior envelope of a building
is not large relative to ventilation and internal heat
gains, it may still represent a substantial amount of
energy [3]. In addition, as ventilation and lighting
systems become more energy efficient, the relative
importance of energy transfer through the exterior
skin will increase.
Not only the number of people in a space but also
the patterns or timing of that occupancy, affect
energy usage. Some buildings must be operated 100
percent of the time, whereas others have sporadic or
intermittent use.
3.2. Benefits with regards to land use and
location
In many cases, underground spaces result from a
lack of surface space or location problems, several
benefits are mentioned.
3.1.1. Limited visual impact
Partially or completely underground buildings are
less visible than above-grade buildings, which can
be an advantage in a number of situations. For
example an underground building can preserve the
character of sensitive sites with natural beauty,
where man-made structures may be undesirable. Or
in a similar way, an underground building is often an
appropriate solution for an area with a special
historical character where an above ground
contemporary building would be disruptive [3].
Many other buildings are unwanted above ground
due to their physical appearance and therefore are
necessarily placed underground, for example; public
utilities, storage of less-desirable materials and car
parks.
3.1.2. Preservation of surface space
By placing a building underground and by allowing
the roof to remain as a park or plaza area, no open
space is lost. This is very beneficial for compact
building areas with limited remaining open space.
Not only is this space desirable for recreation, but it
can also relieve the feeling of density and allow
greater access to sunlight and view for above ground
buildings [3].
3.1.3. Efficient use of scarce land
The use of underground space allows a building to
be built in a location where this is not possible on
the surface, either because of lack of space or
because it is not acceptable to the community.
Extensive amounts of space can be created without
requiring additional land, while unique and efficient
functional relationships could be developed, such as
housing on the surface with workplaces in the mined
space below, or commercial uses on the surface with
manufacturing, storage, and service below. Such
relationships can create compact, efficient
development patterns within urban areas while
preserving agricultural and recreational land by
reversing the trend toward sprawling development
[3].
3.1.4. Topographic reasons
In hilly or mountainous areas, the use of tunnels
improves or makes feasible various transport options
such as roads, railways, canals, etc. Tunnels are also
an important option in river, streets and harbor
crossings. Generally speaking, underground space
use offers many advantages with regard to the layout
of facilities and infrastructures. These advantages
derive essentially from the freedom (within
geological, cost, and land ownership limitations) to
plan a facility in three dimensions and from the
removal of physical barriers on the land [6].
3.1.5. Preservation of natural
vegetation/scenery
A well designed earth sheltered building can blend
with the surrounding earth and become part of the
natural landscape. In addition to the positive
aesthetic effect on the environment, underground
buildings provide the opportunity to improve or
enhance the natural environment, particularly in
urban areas [3]. Another benefit is the revitalization
of the natural landscape that results simply from the
increase in the amount of plant and animal habitat in
a given area. Water and air quality are enhanced and
the soil is enriched by allowing the natural
ecological processes to occur within the boundaries
of a built environment [3].
3.1.6. Fire protection
Underground structures are mostly built of concrete
surrounded by soil or, in the case of mined space,
rock caverns. These fireproof materials provide a
great degree of fire protection and prevent the spread
of any fires to or from other buildings [3]. In spite of
the fireproof nature of underground buildings,
materials within the buildings may still be
combustible. Since these structures often have fewer
openings to the surface and the path of exit for
occupants is upward rather than downward, some
unique life safety problems may arise. Careful
design and consultation with building code
authorities is necessary [3].
3.1.7. Protection from surface noise and
vibration
Small amounts of earth cover are very effective at
protecting from the transmission of airborne noise.
Similarly, if the vibration sources are at or near the
ground surface, levels of vibration will diminish
rapidly with depth below ground and distance of the
source [7]. This could be desirable for two reasons.
First the function to be enclosed may require quiet
and isolation from the surrounding environment.
Where a second reason is that the function itself
creates undesirable noise and the outside
environment would benefit from any reduction in the
noise. Manufacturing facilities or transit systems are
examples of such undesirable functions [3].
3.1.8. Provide security
Because of its isolation from the surface substantial
fireproof construction, and limited points of access,
underground space can be considered more secure
than above ground buildings. With limited points of
entry, surveillance is easier, resulting in fewer break-
ins. This is a particularly appealing feature for the
storage of important records, manuscripts or critical
materials such as emergency food and fuel supplies
[3].
3.1.9. Protection from natural disasters
Underground structures are naturally protected from
severe weather (hurricanes, tornadoes,
thunderstorms, and other natural phenomena).
Underground structures can also resist structural
damage due to floodwaters, although special
isolation provisions are necessary to prevent
flooding of the structure itself [7]. Moreover,
underground structures have several intrinsic
advantages in resisting earthquake motions; they are
less affected by the surface seismic waves. The
structural oscillation effects are limited, since they
are constrained to move with the ground motion.
Besides, as they are designed to support important
ground loads, they often can better resist earthquake
loadings [7].
3.1.10. Protection from cold or hot climates
Although advantages can be achieved for reducing
the energy demand when building underground,
people may also benefit largely from the fact that do
not have to endure extremely high or cold
temperatures during the day and night, when
infrastructure and other facilities are also being
provided for underground.
3.3. Benefits with regards to Life Cycle Costs
3.1.1. Reduced maintenance
Reduced maintenance is needed for underground
buildings in comparison to conventional buildings at
grade. This premise is based on the earth sheltering
effect on much of the exterior building envelope.
Therefore, the building is less likely to be weathered
by various climatic elements. Consequently, all
earth-contact components of the structure will be
protected from wind, rain, heat, hail, freezing,
thawing, and other natural causes. This entails no
shingles blown off in a storm, very little painting
required, water pipes never freezing, and
permanently clean gutters. Aboveground buildings
are also exposed to intense heat and ultraviolet solar
radiation in hot climates, which causes surface
fading and discoloration of exterior painting [8].
Ultraviolet radiation also degrades roofing materials
such as the waterproofing membrane [9].
3.1.2. Building and building material
durability
The daily extreme temperatures and temperature
differences existent in extreme climate can be
destructive to buildings and building materials
because of the daily expansion and contraction of
the exposed surfaces. Especially where there are
different expansion rates [9]. The benign conditions
under soil cover increase the structural longevity of
building materials, which are protected from the
various exposed conditions in harsh climates and its
weathering effects.
3.1.3. No need of external cladding
Dependent on the amount of surface area in contact
with the air, the need for external cladding is
reduced. Cladding and finishes typically account for
about 15% of a building’s cost and providing a
watertight exterior is usual one of the key milestones
in the construction program, on which many other
activities rely [10].
4. Disadvantages of underground
building
The fact that underground buildings are more
isolated from and less exposed to the surface
presents some design problems. The extra cost of
resolving these difficulties along with other
technical problems can present drawbacks compared
with above ground construction [3].
It is interesting to see that some of the greatest
drawbacks are not physical or technical in nature but
are psychological [3].
5
4.1. Disadvantages with regard to energy use
Energy related benefits discussed in the former
paragraph have in addition potential limitations.
These limitations are very much dependent on the
individual design of the underground structure and
specific climate conditions.
4.1.2. Impact of ventilation rate
One of the basic characteristics relating to energy
use in buildings is the ventilation rate required by
the building code to provide a healthy, pleasant
environment. The amount of fresh air to be brought
into the buildings is a function of the number of
people occupying it and therefore related to the
function of the building. Although large benefits are
obtained from minimizing both transmission and
infiltration losses through the exterior skin of the
building, in building with high ventilation rates, the
energy saving is somewhat diminished when large
amounts of outside air are to be introduced into the
building [3]. No use can be made of natural
ventilation, while ventilating mechanically at a
larger depth consumes more energy.
4.1.3. Requirement for openings
A windowless underground space is unsuitable for
many functions. The various requirements for
access, window openings, and other exposed
portions of the building envelope diminish the area
of the envelope in contact with the ground, which
break the continuity of the earth mass surrounding
the building, thereby diminishing the energy-
conserving benefits related structure-earth benefits.
4.1.4. Slow response
Although the mass of the concrete structure
surrounded by the earth mass are beneficial in many
ways, they result in a structure that cannot respond
quickly to changed conditions. This means that some
strategies, such as night setback, may not work
effectively or may work only with an unsatisfactory
time lag. This gives also problems for situations
where extreme loads such as overheating from a
large crowd in a theater or auditorium.
4.1.5. Lack of useful ground temperatures
Underground buildings in climates needing the most
heat have the lowest ground temperatures and
buildings in climates that need cooling have the
highest ground temperatures. The influence on the
ground temperature is more significant for extreme
temperature fluctuations and therefore most benefits
are likely to be obtained in climates with great daily
and seasonal fluctuations [3]. It should be noted that
the ground temperature deficit is less significant at a
greater depth, which will create a more stable indoor
environment.
4.1.6. Heating/cooling compromises
Although an underground building offers potential
benefits in both the heating and cooling seasons,
maximizing these benefits requires insulation in the
heating season, but direct earth contact with no
insulation in the cooling season. In some cases the
necessary compromise prevents optimizing for either
condition alone [3].
4.2. Disadvantages with regards to land use and
location
4.1.1. Water problems
An underground building has a greater potential for
water leakage problem than a typical aboveground
structure. This is particularly true if the underground
structure is partially beneath the subsurface water
table [3]. All underground buildings therefore
require a high-quality waterproofing system
regardless of the site drainage or depth of the water
table.
4.1.2. Protection of the underground
environment
The use of underground space is irreversible. Unlike
constructions aboveground, that can be demolished
and rebuilt differently. This irreversible aspect of
using underground space is a major consideration
when developing this space and explains its
specificity. It is therefore important to avoid
"consuming" it in an uncontrolled and unplanned
manner [7]. The vulnerability of ground water tables
is the most characteristic aspect of the fragility of
underground space. Any use of underground space
that affects formations located below the ground
water level can have an impact on the quality of
underground water tables or their flow, or on both
[7].
Any underground excavation has effects on the
surrounding geological environment, whose natural
constraints are inevitably altered. The geological
environment is permanently marked by
developments made in it, and there is no way of re-
establishing its initial conditions. Moreover, if this
phenomenon of "decompression" is not controlled, it
can have harmful consequences for the stability of
adjacent structures [7].
4.1.3. Lack of available data on the energy
performance
There is a lack of available data on the energy
performance of underground buildings, which makes
it difficult to support the advantages of it in a
concrete way. As predicting the overall performance
of underground buildings is difficult due to the
behavior of unknown, long-term soil temperature
changes in some regions and heat flow through walls
and soil [9], [3].
4.3. Psychological and Physiological
considerations
4.1.1. Lack of natural light
The lack of natural light is one of the most often
mentioned negative characteristics of underground
space. Access to natural light is important to users of
a building even if the proportion of daylight to
artificial lighting for work tasks is relatively low.
The feeling produced by daylight to artificial
lighting for work tasks is relatively low. The feeling
produced by daylight, its variability, and the sense of
contact with the outside world are important reasons
for its desirability. Another important positive
psychological association of natural lighting is that
sunlight connotes warmth [11].
4.1.2. Lack of exterior view
The lack of exterior view from an underground
space is another reason for dissatisfaction with this
type of building. In addition to providing natural
light and sunlight, windows provide a direct view
for observing weather conditions, create a sense of
contact with the environment, and giving visual
relief from immediate surroundings [11].
4.1.3. Lack of spatial orientation
A windowless building also induces a lack of spatial
orientation since exit points are not visible, creating
a fear of not being able to escape in an emergency.
4.1.4. Negative psychological reactions
Some people have a strongly adverse reaction when
underground buildings are mentioned. They have
subconscious negative feelings about them [3].
Several reasons have been suggested for this
phenomenon:
 Association with death and burial;
 Fear of collapse or being trapped;
 People also associate underground spaces
with poorly designed and ventilated
basements which are damp and unpleasant;
 Feelings of claustrophobia may occur due to
the absence of windows for direct contact to
the outside environment and the subsequent
lack of stimulation from the variety of
changing weather conditions and sunlight.
4.1.5. Lack of fresh air/indoor air pollution
The earth covering the underground buildings
eliminates most of the causes of air-infiltration
because of its tight construction. A well designed
underground building should therefore include a
ventilation system so that stale air can be exhausted
and fresh air is added at a sufficient rate.
4.1.6. High humidity/Condensation
Surrounding earth is almost always cooler than the
indoor air temperature, condensation on interior
surfaces may occur. Problems are dependent on the
local climate as well as on the manner in and degree
to which outside air is introduced into the building
[3].
4.1.7. Excessive noise or lack of noise
Due to the mass of the earth sound insulation is
exceptionally high; the only significant sound
transfer is via entrances and exits into buildings and
ventilation installations. This causes noise from
equipment inside to be a nuisance.
4.1.8. Lack of public acceptance
A great hindrance to the consideration of
underground building is that planners think the
public will not accept living in underground building
[12]. However, it is thought that the public will
accept underground building if they are educated on
the benefits of these structures [12].
4.1.9. Radon concentration
No style of building is more vulnerable to radon
penetration than one built with total contact with the
soil. Radon-proofing is possible both before and
after construction, but no underground buildings
should be built in any radon risk area without
anticipating radon problems.
4.4. Disadvantages with regards to Life Cycle
Costs
4.1.1. Increased structural (cost)
requirements
The relatively great weight of earth on roofs with
lateral earth pressures on underground walls, require
heavier and more expensive structures.
For all sub-surface constructions, it is particularly
important to predict the properties of the ground,
because misjudgments can have serious
consequences for a project as regards completion
dates and additional costs. Geological surveys are
7
therefore vital and include the development of
systems for the mapping of geological, hydrological
and seismologic conditions, and to make up plans
for pre-investigations (seismic and other geophysical
measurements, core drilling and determination of
physical properties of rock) [7].
However it is not conclusive that the construction
cost of every underground building will be higher
than its aboveground counterpart. This area
maintains a high controversy as the increased costs
that occur out of necessity can often be offset by
reduction in other areas [9]. For example, since
underground buildings have lower heating, cooling
and peak load demands, the mechanical systems can
be smaller and are consequently less expensive to
install, although costs for ventilation may increase.
Furthermore, reduction in a thermal load also results
in less cost for thermal insulation requirements.
With much of the building’s facades in contact with
soil, exterior finishing costs are also reduced. Even
if there is some doubt in the literature as to the initial
cost of underground building, there is no disputing
that there are large savings in the long term [13],
[14].
5. Efficient designing
As shown in Figure 1 underground buildings are not
limited to any fixed design solutions. There are
many different concepts that can be applied, where
one is preferred over the other dependent on the
climate, function and location of the building. To
make a comparison between the advantages and
disadvantages concerning different underground
building concepts, a matrix is created as shown in
Table 2. It should be mentioned that the effects of
different climates and functions are not taken into
account here and will be discussed later on. Ratings
are given based on an analytical review of existing
literature to note the differences.
For example, the greater the percentage of surface
area in contact with the earth and the deeper the
structure penetrates into the earth, the more the
structure will benefit in terms of energy
conservation, while this has negative effects on
psychological and physiological aspects [3]. In this
way of thinking, it is clear that a fully underground
building is better suited for reducing energy than an
underground building with site penetrations.
 Table 1: Benefits and drawbacks of underground facilities (adjusted from [15]).
ISSUES CATEGORY POTENTIAL BENEFITS POTENTIAL DRAWBACKS
Relief from severe climate (coolness in Lack of spatial orientation
hot-climates) Negative psychological reactions
PSYCHOLOGICAL &

association death and burial,

PHYSIOLOGICAL

PSYCHOLOGICAL
claustrophobia, fear of
collapse/entrapment
Lack of public acceptance
Isolation from surface noise and Excessive noise or lack of noise
vibration Lack of fresh air/indoor air pollution
Stable indoor temperatures High humidity/condensation
PHYSIOLOGICAL
Lack of natural daylight and view
Higher radon concentration
Requirement for openings
Reduction conduction Impact ventilation rate
ENERGY

Heat storage capacity Slow response

Stability ground temperatures Lack of useful ground temperatures
ENERGY USE
Control on air infiltration Heating/cooling compromises
Reduction of heat gain Lack of available data on the energy
performance
Provide security Degradation underground environment
limited access
LAND USE AND LOCATION

PROTECTION Fire protection

Protection from severe climate
Protection from natural disasters
Visual impact Aesthetics
Preservation of surface space skillful design, building services
Lack of surface space Uncertain geology
LOCATION
Preservation of natural vegetation Unfavorable geology
scenery/ecology
Efficient use of scarce land
Topographic freedom Access limitations
Sewage removal
LAYOUT
Water problems
Adaptability
No need of external cladding Increased structural cost requirements
Land cost savings Ground excavation
LIFE CYCLE

INITIAL COST No structural support, Cost uncertainty

COSTS

Weather independent Confined work conditions

Ground support
Reduced maintenance Personnel access
Building and building material durability Ventilation and lighting
OPERATING COST
Energy use
Insurance

6. Functions
6.1. Living
Underground functions are becoming increasingly
“Habitation is the most difficult function to place
diversified. Spaces for working, shopping, leisure
underground. Contact with the upper world, with
and even living are appearing alongside traditional
light and air is so important that rules concerning
storage and transport functions. The demands made
such aspects are generally specified legally. With a
on the space vary for each individual function,
little ingenuity, submerged buildings are able to
whereby the length of time spent underground plays
comply with such regulations. Underground homes
an important role.
are introverted by definition, and are comparable
with patio homes, which appeal only to a limited
group of consumers. There are more points of
contact with earth-covered homes. The relationship Certain parts of a housing program, such as storage
with the outside world and the quality of life are space, garages and sanitary rooms, can be built
entirely comparable with the accepted manner of underground without much difficulty” [2].
house building, even where views are concerned.

Table 2: Comparison of different underground building concepts and their effect on several benefits and drawbacks.
LEVEL OF IMPACT* BENEFITS DRAWBACKS
REFERENCE

Response to changed indoor conditions

HIGH HIGH

Lack of view and natural daylight

Protection from natural disasters
Stability of ground temperatures

Protection of the underground

MODERATE MODERATE

Protection from surface noise

Preservation of surface space
Reduction of solar heat gain

Building material durability

Control on air infiltration
Reduction of conduction

LOW LOW

Provide security

Water leakage
Building type

Visual impact

Maintenance
Above grade

"True" Underground
At grade

Atrium or Courtyard
Berm Elevational
Side Penetrations
"Non-earth" roof

"True" Underground
Below grade

Atrium or Courtyard
Hillside Elevational
Side Penetrations
"Non-earth" roof
*Level of impact scaled from high to low with reference to an conventional above grade building.

periods of work in environments without sunlight

6.2. Working are permitted. Submerged and earth-covered
“Work areas can be located underground more companies working space can comply with this
readily than homes. That is why earth-covered and legislation relatively easily. The demands users
submerged companies and offices from diverse make of their working environment are also subject
sectors, such as services, government, education, to change. For people working on computer screens
research, trade and production can be found in particular daylight may be disturbing. Those
everywhere. Their market values seem not to be working in modern offices therefore prefer not to sit
adversely affected by being situated underground. by the window, except when reading, during coffee
Working areas have to comply with requirements breaks and in meetings. The options for entirely
related to indoor climate, daylight, safety, health and underground working environments are limited.
working hours, all laid down by law. Only limited unsightly closed boxes in industrial estates for labor
9
intensive functions such as logistics, storage,
automated production, utility facilities, transport and
distribution can very well be built underground” [2].
6.3. Shopping
“It is much harder to move consumers vertically
than horizontally. For underground shops, this
means the need for a stronger crowd-puller to tempt
consumers downward: what is referred to as
goal0oriented shopping. Supermarkets, department
stores, do-it-yourself shops and home furnishing
shops are such attractions. Such large-scale retail
trades can also be situated quite well entirely
underground. Sufficient parking facilities in the
immediate vicinity are a hard and fast precondition,
while daylight is not. A combination of less
compelling attractions can also succeed in enticing
consumers, meaning more recreational shopping.
Shops must have sufficient collective critical mass,
however. Bookshops, boutiques, chemists and gift
shops are not attractive enough to be situated singly
underground, but in conjunction, they are. A direct
connection to a metro or train station is ideal, as
consumers can be drawn from passenger flows.
Integration of aboveground and underground
shopping levels can result in sophisticated
complexes, where consumers are hardly aware of
where they. Visibility, safety and appeal are,
naturally, important factors, but this is not specific to
underground shops” [2].
6.4. Leisure
“Many people want to be entertained in their leisure
time. Sports stadiums, cinemas, museums, theatres,
libraries, amusement arcades and theme parks are
just a few examples from the wide and varied range
of activities available. People enjoy visiting such
buildings regularly, and spend relatively long
periods of time in them. From that point of view,
one might assume that leisure activities offered few
opportunities for using underground space. In fact
since by their very nature many of these activities
render daylight superfluous, if not undesirable, they
offer great opportunities. Daylight is undesirable for
many forms of entertainment. The emergence of the
experience economy, in which people are focused on
‘collecting’ experiences, makes the layout of the
physical space extremely important. A specific,
often thematic atmosphere has to be created in the
interior, for which artificial light is much more
suitable than sunlight, especially when staging
evocative experiences. Amusement arcades,
discotheques, cinema complexes make good use of
this tool. For this function, all forms of underground
building are, in principle, perfectly good alternatives
to building aboveground, and the easy limitation of
noise nuisance can be an additional advantage.
Many museums also avoid daylight. Collections are
often so light sensitive that daylight is kept to a
minimum in exhibition halls” [2].
6.5. Storage
“Cellars and basements have traditionally been the
storage spaces where perishable goods, wine and ice
could be kept for long periods. These days,
basements are used primarily for parking cars. In
addition to transport, parking is the most common
underground function. Public spaces are relieved of
all vehicles and laid out as attractive leisure areas.
Parking is not the only form of underground storage.
All kinds of goods, hazardous substances, chemicals,
waste, water, oil and gas are also stored here. Spatial
advantages and environmental and safety aspects are
often more decisive than economic considerations”
[2].
6.6. Transport
“The minor infrastructure consists of cables and
pipes for transporting information, energy and
liquids, and has long been installed underground.
Only when the street is dug up are we confronted
with it. The major infrastructure, consisting mostly
of roads and railway lines, is far more visible. In fact
its dominance in our environment has made it a
loaded subject” [2].
 Table 3: Classification of underground space use in primary functions and function types.
Primary functions Function type Example of use
Residential Urban/rural residential Dwellings, Hotel, Pension
Industrial Manufacturing Sewage treatment plant, Fresh water Plant, Print shop,
Research Laboratory, Hydro-electric power house, Ammunition plant,
Assembly plant, Repair shop
Commercial Office space Office
Retail Shopping mall, Stores, Restaurant, Gas service station
Educational Classroom, Laboratory, Library
Medical Hospital room, Operating theatre
Religious Church, Mosque, Synagogue
Leisure Sports Swimming pool, Sports facility, Mine visit, Theatre,
Recreation / Culture Cinema, Museum, Bar, Disco, Library, Theme park,
Amusement arcade
Storage Hazardous material Radioactive waste, chemicals
Food Wine cellar
Natural resources Gas, oil
Other goods Bank vault, Fur vault, Museum vault, Warehouse, Cold
storage, Archives, Parking garage
Military Defensive Fallout shelters, Submarine nests, Missile silo, Strategic
defense center, Prison
Utility Passenger transport Pedestrian tunnel, Train tunnel, Car tunnel
Vehicular goods Car tunnel, Train tunnel, Subway tunnel
transport
Non-vehicular transport Aqueduct, Waste water pipes, Gas, electric, Telephone
wires and Digital data (by cabling, piping, tubing), District
heating system, Pneumatic system
Agriculture Plant nursery, Mushroom growing
To analyze the use of underground space on the 7. Measures to improve living in the
development of the built environment, it is necessary underground environment.
to differentiate possible functions of underground
Providing an underground environment that is as
structures. In Table 3 primary functions and
attractive as the surface environment will help
function types are listed with several examples of
eliminate psychological estrangement, resulting
use for underground structures.
from being below grade, and will shorten the time
In the same way as for different underground
required to adjust to the new surroundings. In short,
building concepts, a matrix has been created that
the design should create a state of comfort and
will rate different functions dependent on the level
satisfaction for both human vision and psyche [16].
of requirement for different advantages and
Design strategies and the application of technology
disadvantages as shown in Table 4.
can help alleviate the negative characteristics to
For example, there is a high requirement for improve living in the underground environment. The
utilities/storage to be underground so that they have most important considerations fall into different
categories.
limited visual impact, while residential buildings are
designed well and are therefore aesthetically 7.1. Physiological
preferred. Another example is the high ventilation
rate that is needed for functions that have a high 7.1.1. Natural light and view
occupancy rate, such as theatres, where storages Probably the most important physiological drawback
require only a small amount of ventilation. in underground spaces is the lack of natural light. To
replace day lighting and its effects, it is most
desirable to replicate the spectral compositions of
daylight as closely as possible.
Some technical opportunities to alleviate the absence
of natural light in underground spaces are met,
simply by good architectural design, while the
introduction of a somewhat more complex
technology may be an effective measure. Other
solutions can be:
 Large deep atrium spaces or courtyards that
extend from the surface deep into the
underground.
 The use of solar optics, which is the practice of
projecting light into underground spaces by
employing mirrors and optical lenses that track
the sun and direct sunlight deep into the interior
[17].
 Replicating the spectral compositions of daylight
as closely as possible, using full-spectrum
artificial light.
 The application of Virtual Natural Lighting
Solutions (VNLS), which is a not-yet-existing
system that artificially provides natural light and
view with all of its qualities [18], [19].
7.1.2. Indoor air quality
The provision of fresh, clean air at comfortable
temperature and humidity levels should not be more
difficult underground than it is in conventional
aboveground buildings. As there are some
differences in the temperature and humidity
conditions, the system has to be properly designed.
The underground space users may be quite sensitive
to ventilation, temperature and humidity problems.
To offset negative reactions, strategies include the
following [11]:
 Provide ventilation in a manner that is
perceptible of the occupants.
 Provide a flexible mechanical system that
can control both humidity and temperature
to satisfy the function of each space as well
as the comfort of the occupants.
 Proper use of air purification techniques to
reduce the air pollution.
7.2. Appealing design techniques
In addition to providing a sufficient indoor
environmental quality, entries, spaciousness and
interior elements of underground buildings should
be designed with particular sensitivity to offset the
negative psychological effects.
7.1.3. Sense of space and orientation
Some applications of underground spaces provide
minimal to no opportunities for exterior views.
Small rooms and narrow corridors underground
could contribute to many negative effects, such as
claustrophobia, lack of orientation and lack of
connection with the outside world. Techniques to
alleviate this include the following [11]:
 Glass partitions between spaces as much as
possible.
 Ceilings should be higher than dimensions
in conventional buildings.
 The use of multi-level spaces to create
spaciousness.
 Large deep atrium spaces or courtyards that
extend from the surface deep into the
underground.
 Make use of dissimilar columns (i.e. carved,
designed, and marked in different ways)
makes it possible for people to confirm the
direction in which they are heading [16].
 Provide a variety of activities in the
buildings and/or promote creative visual
designs that will satisfy the need for visual
variety.
7.1.4. Interior design elements
The sense of space created by high ceilings and glass
partitions as well as the provisions of natural light
proves the basic framework for the interior design
elements. Certain elements generally contribute to
creating a positive interior environment
underground. These include [11]:
 The use of warm, bright colors, as opposed
to dark colors or completely unfinished
surfaces.
 Extensive use of green plants.
 Use of water in pools or fountain in
appropriate locations.
 Variations in lighting in special areas, i.e.
very bright light over a plant-filled area, or
spotlight illuminating artwork.
 Artwork that serves as surrogate windows.
Table 4**: Comparison of different functions and how they affect benefits and drawbacks.
BENEFITS DRAWBACKS
N
LEVEL OF REQUIREMENT* MAJOR MODERATE NO MAJOR MODERATE NO
O

Protection from noise and vibration

Impact occupancy on internal gains

Large spans and height in spaces

Spatial orientation / Evacuation

Natural light and exterior view
Precise indoor climate control

Lack of public acceptance

PRIMARY FUNCTION

Limited visual impact

EXAMPLE OF USE

Energy use reduction

High ventilation rate

Provide security

Public visibility
Residential Dwelling
Hotel
Industrial Manufacturing
Laboratory
Commercial Office
Restaurant
Shopping mall
Educational Classroom
Library
Medical Hospital room
Operating theatre
Religious Religious building
Leisure Swimming pool
Theatre
Cinema
Disco
Storage Wine cellar
Bank vault
Oil storage
Military Fallout shelter
Prison
Utility Pedestrian transport
Goods transport
Waste water pipes
Agriculture Mushroom growing
Plant nursery
*Major requirement in most or all cases / Only applies in some cases or to a moderate degree / No requirement.
**Rating primarily based on [3].

13
14 C. van Dronkelaar / Underground Building (2012) – Eindhoven University of Technology
8. Climate
Although ground temperatures are often more
favorable than the outside temperatures through the
year, they can be less favorable at certain points in
the seasonal cycle [3]. In a cold climate, the ground
at a certain depth reaches its lowest temperature in
spring. Although this time lag is beneficial in the
summer, it is detrimental in the spring because the
air temperatures, which are warming faster than the
ground, would result in a lower heating requirement
for the building if it were above grade. While in a
warm climate, benefits from cooler fall air
temperatures are greater than those from the ground,
which has been warmed to its peak by the end of
summer and early fall [3].
Different climates are therefore considered, as it
directly influences a building’s design to cope with a
certain climate. Three types will be discussed and
associated climate data should be used for
simulation purposes.
8.1. Hot-arid climate
In general, the hot-arid zone is where the greatest
amount of solar radiation is encountered, perhaps the
only regions where there is too much sun. This
climate has a very high temperature in the daytime,
and little or no precipitation. The climate is stressful
with extremely high temperatures, dust-laden winds,
and intense radiation together with ground
reflection, all of which are detrimental to human
comfort and health. These daily extremes of
temperature can be destructive to building and
building materials because of the daily expansion
and contraction of the exposed surfaces, especially
where there are different expansion rates [9].
For inhabitants of these areas, psychologically
speaking the darker the room, the cooler it seems
and minimal daylight seemed welcome by the
population. Therefore, it is generally best to keep
sunshine from entering the building in these regions
[19].
The hot-arid climate is understandably the primary
cause of large cooling energy consumption.
However, the subsurface climate is much milder
than the extremities of the aboveground
environment. Being cooler than the ambient air for
parts of the year, the soil enclosing an underground
building has the potential to lessen the cooling
energy needs of a building by reducing the heat
transfer from its surrounding [9].
Ground temperatures in Kuwait are measured to be
24- 32˚C at a depth of 3m and 26- 29˚C at a depth of
6m [20].
8.2. Cold climate
Cold climates are characterized by long, usually
very cold winters, and short, cool to mild summers.
It offers extreme seasonal temperature variations
where in winter, temperatures can drop to -40˚C and
in summer, the temperature may exceed 30˚C.
Because of consecutive months where the average
temperature is below freezing, all moisture in the
soil freezes solidly to a few meters into the ground.
As for the hot-arid climate, this climate is stressful
with freezing temperatures through the year which is
uncomfortable and requires high insulation values
for conventional aboveground buildings to stabilize
indoor temperatures.
The primary energy consumption is from heating.
By enclosing the building with soil or building
underground will reduce this consumption.
Ground temperatures in southern Finland are
measured to be 3-8 ˚C at a depth of 3m and 5-6 ˚C at
a depth of 7m [21].
8.3. Moderate climate
This climate generally features warm, but not hot
summers and cool, but not cold winters, with a
narrow annual temperature range. It typically lacks a
dry season, as precipitation is more evenly dispersed
through the year.
Ground temperatures in South West England are
derived from the Labs [22] equation, which is a
theoretical equation that estimates below ground
temperatures for given surface temperatures and soil
thermal properties. This gives temperatures of 8-
17˚C at a depth of 3m and 12-14˚C at a depth of 7m
[23].
9. Conclusion
Underground buildings help to reduce the energy
consumption in comparison to a conventional above
grade building by using beneficial soil temperatures
and large amounts of earth cover as insulation.
However some psychological and physiological
effects discussed represent major drawbacks to a
windowless, underground space.
It is difficult to assess all of the characteristics,
because both the advantages and disadvantages are
influenced by the function of the building and the
underground building concept. Further, some of the
important drawbacks, such as the absence of natural
light and view induce a certain psychological
unacceptability where the requirement varies per
individual. Due to the lack of information on some
of these topics it is impossible to draw definite
conclusions. Many of these negative aspects can
however be alleviated by measures involving
appropriate designing to improve underground
living.
The lack of available data on the energy
performance of underground buildings, calls for a
more detailed study, which includes different
underground buildings concepts and evaluates their
performance in several different climates.
This literature reviews provides a short overview of
the available knowledge from previous studies
involving underground building, and forms the basis
of a subsequent study on the energy performance of
underground buildings.
10. Works Cited
[1] L. Boyer, "Earth Sheltered Structures," Energy,
vol. 7, pp. 201-219, 1982.
[2] E. von Meijenfeldt, Below Ground Level,
Basel: Birkhauser - Publisher for Architects,
2003.
[3] J. Carmody and R. Sterling, Underground
Building Design, Minnesota: Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company Inc., 1983.
[4] M. Barker, "Using the Earth to Save Energy:
Four Underground Buildings," Tunneling and
Underground Space Technology, vol. 1, no. 1,
pp. 59-65, 1986.
[5] A. El-Hamid and M. Khair-El-Din, "Earth
Sheltered Housing: An Approach to Energy
Conservation in Hot Arid Areas," Architecture
and Planning, vol. 3, pp. 3-18, 1991.
[6] R. Sterling and J. Godard, "Geoengineering
considerations in the optimum use of
underground space," 2000.
[7] J. Godard, "Urban Underground Space and
Benefits," in World Tunnel Congress 2004 and
30th ITA General Assembly, Singapore, 2004.
[8] T. Allison, "Building in the Kuwait Climate,"
Kuwait Insittue Scientific Research, 1975.
[9] A. Al-Temeemi and D. Harris, "A guideline for
assessing the suitability of earth-sheltered mass-
housing in hot-arid climates," Energy and
Buildings, vol. 36, pp. 251-260, 2004.
[10] F. Chow, T. Paul, I. Vähäaho, B. Sellberg and
L. Lemos, "Hidden Aspects of Urban Planning:
Utilisation of Underground Space," Zurich,
2002.
[11] J. Carmody and R. Sterling, "Design Strategies
to Alleviate Negative Psychological and
Physiological Effects in Underground Space,"
Earth Shelter & Architecture, vol. 2, no. 1, pp.
59-67, 1987.
[12] G. Golany, Earth-sheltered Habitat, New York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1983.
15
[13] M. Jannadi and S. Ghazi, "Earth-sheltered
housing: the way of the future," Journal of
Urban Planning and Development, vol. 124,
no. 3, pp. 101-115, 1998.
[14] R. Behr, "Suitable thin shell structural
configuration for earth sheltered housing,"
Texas Tech University, Texas, 1982.
[15] J. Carmody and R. Sterling, Underground space
designs, A guide to Subsurface Utilization and
Design for People in Underground Spaces, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1993.
[16] H. Xueyuan and S. Yu, "The Urban
Underground Space Environment and Human
Performance," Earth Shelter & Architecture,
vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 193-200, 1988.
[17] H. Parker, "Underground Space: Good for
Sustainable Development, and Vice Versa,"
Singapore, 2004.
[18] R. Mangkuto, M. Aries, E. van Loenen and J.
Hensen, "Lighting performance of virtual
natural lighting solutions with a simplified
image in a reference office space," in
Proceedings of Experiencing Light 2012,
Eindhoven, the Netherlands, 2012.
[19] R. Mangkuto, M. Aries, E. v. Loenen and J.
Hensen, "Properties of Performance Indicators
of Virtual Natural Lighting Solutions," in
Proceedings of CISBAT, Lausanne, September
2011, Lausanne, Switzerland, 2011.
[20] J. Reynolds, "Passive cooling and courtyards in
Colima, Mexico," Passive and Low Energy
Alternatives, vol. 1, no. 13, pp. 15-22, 1994.
[21] A. Al-Temeemi and D. Harris, "The effect of
earth-contact on heat transfer through a wall in
Kuwait," Energy and Building, vol. 35, pp. 399-
404, 2003.
[22] R. Lemmelä, Y. Sucksdorff and K. Gilman,
"Annual variation of soil temperature at depths
20 to 700 cm in an experimental field in
Hyrylä, South Finland during 1969 to 1973,"
Helsinki, 1973.
[23] K. Labs, "Underground Building Climate,"
Solar Age, vol. 4, no. 10, 1979.
[24] D. Harris, "Ground temperatures in Britain,"
International Journal of Ambient Energy, vol.
27, no. 3, pp. 149-159, 2006.
 II. Underground buildings
Potential in terms of energy reduction
 Underground buildings
Potential in terms of energy reduction
C. van Dronkelaar, J.L.M. Hensen, D. Cóstola and R.A. Mangkuto

Building Physics and Services, Eindhoven University of Technology,

Den Dolech 2, Eindhoven 5600MB, The Netherlands

ABSTRACT: Underground buildings are pointed out as an alternative to conventional aboveground buildings for reducing
the total energy requirements, while alleviating land use and location problems. This paper investigates the potential in
reducing the energy demand of underground buildings compared to aboveground buildings. Monthly calculations based on
EN-ISO 13790 are performed to obtain the annual energy demand of an aboveground building and underground building.
By comparing the annual energy demands for different climates, building functions and underground depths, deductions
can be made to quantify the energy reduction potential of underground buildings. Introducing variable input parameters
allows identification of the influence of design options on the annual energy demand of a building. Results identify that a
variety of the underground building cases can almost be considered to be zero-energy buildings (annual energy demand
below 10 kWh/m2 a). In contrast to the aboveground counterpart where the energy demand is up to 100 kWh/m 2a higher.
The low annual energy demand for these underground building cases originates from the balancing energy flows. The
transmission losses of the underground building are at a stable value annually in comparison to the aboveground situation,
where it varies with seasonal weather changes. Underground buildings can help to reduce the energy demand in comparison
to a conventional aboveground building by using beneficial soil temperatures and large amounts of earth cover as
insulation. Energy reduction is achievable for all climates and functions, but the magnitude is related to the combination of
different design elements. Sensitivity analysis shows that building functions with high internal gains induce an inefficient
balance in tropical to warm climates for underground buildings, but strongly reduce the heating demand in cold climates.
Furthermore, ground properties have a small influence on the energy demand of an underground building.
KEYWORDS: underground buildings, energy balance, energy conservation, Monte Carlo analysis, sensitivity analysis.

1. INTRODUCTION
Pressing problems that mankind is currently faced with, are the energy crisis and increasing demand for
buildings caused by the continuous growth in the world’s population [1] [2] [3] [4]. Solutions such as building
underground are pointed out as an alternative to conventional aboveground buildings for reducing the total
energy requirements, while alleviating land use and location problems [5] [6] [7] [8]. Although research is done
on various aspects of underground building heat transfer [2], [9], [10], no study has been found that investigates
the relationship between different design elements of an underground building and its regional climate, which
determine its energy performance. A comparative analysis is needed to quantify the difference in the annual
energy demand between an aboveground building and underground building [11]. This study incorporates such
an analysis by including different climates, functions and depths to assess the energy reduction potential of
underground buildings. By applying variable input parameters the influence of design options on the annual
energy demand of a building can be investigated.

This paper presents results of a comparative study on the annual energy demand of an underground- and
aboveground building. The scope of the study includes 15 different climates, 6 building functions and 3
underground depths and the annual energy demand is calculated using 11 variable building input parameters.

2. METHODOLOGY
The building’s energy need for space heating and -cooling is calculated using the monthly method described in
EN-ISO 13790 [12]. The procedure for the investigation is visualized and described in a flowchart (Figure 1)
and follows three steps; pre-processing, calculation and post-processing. In the pre-processing stage, the
building functions, weather data and variable input parameters are defined. The variable input parameters are
obtained from literature and are processed into samples using Latin hypercube sampling (LHS). In the
calculation stage, the annual energy demand for the aboveground- and underground building is calculated with
200 different combinations of input variables. This is done for 15 different climates, 6 building functions and 3
depths, which totals to 540 different cases. In the post-processing stage, the annual energy demand and
influence of the variable input parameters are analyzed using uncertainty and sensitivity analysis.

1
 Pre-Processing Calculation Post-processing

6 Uncertainty parameters: Sample size: 200

Internal gains 540 different Annual energy
Ventilation rate
cases demand analysis
Infiltration rate
15 climates
Ground properties: LHS
Thermal conductivity /
6 Functions
Density / Specific heat capacity EN-ISO 13790
Domestic, Education,
Hospital, Industrial, Building’s
5 Design parameters: annual energy
Conductivity of walls / windows Office, Sport Sensitivity
demand
Solar transmittance analysis
3 depths calculation
Window to wall ratio
10m, 5m, 2m
Internal heat capacity

Figure 1: Flowchart of the investigation procedure.

2.1. Climate- and building specifications
The Köppen-Geiger climate classification is used to differentiate climates [13]. Weather data for each climate is
obtained using TMY2 data for a city located in a corresponding climate. Although the main weather
characteristics are maintained between different locations in the same climate, certain deviation exists between
the raw values. In total 15 of the 30 climates are chosen with a corresponding location on earth (Figure 2). Only
15 have been chosen due to the large amount of data acquired with calculating every climate. For every climate
group (A to E) at least one climate is chosen. Climate descriptions are shown in Table A. 1 in Appendix A.
Af Singapore
Aw Bangkok
BWh Phoenix
BSh San Antonio
BSk Colorado Springs
Csa Seville
Cwb Johannesburg
Cfa Jacksonville
Cfb Amsterdam
Dsb Great Falls
Dwb Minneapolis
Dfa Kansas City
Dfb Helsinki
Dfc Sodankylae
ET Inukjuak

Figure 2: Köppen-Geiger climate classification map of the world [13], with the chosen climates and corresponding cities.
The annual energy demand is examined for 6 different building functions (Table 1). Building characteristics for
different functions are obtained from the U.S. building stock [14].
Table 1: Building characteristics for different building functions
Domestic Education Hospital Industrial Offices Sport
2
Occupancy density [m /pp] 60 10 30 20 20 20 [12]
Floor area [m2] 120 19592 22422 5000 46320 1500 [14]
Number of floors 3 2 5 1 12 1 [14]
Height per floor [m] 2.8 4 4.3 8.5 4 7.6 [14]
Aspect ratio [EW / NS] 1.2 1.3 1.3 2.2 1.5 1.2 [14]
Dimensions for the domestic building function are assumed.
Education is based on the size of a secondary school, industrial on a warehouse and offices on a large office.
Sport building function is based on a 33m x 18m x 7.6m four-court hall, with attachments.

2
The variable input parameters evaluated in this study can be divided into uncertainty- and design parameters.
The uncertainty parameters internal gains and ventilation rate are normally distributed around a mean with a
standard deviation (Table 2). The uncertainty parameters infiltration rate, ground properties and design
parameters are uniformly distributed to represent a range of possible values (Table 3). The range of occurrence
is determined by the use of published data or follows from assumed values. The value of the uncertainty
variables and design variable infiltration rate are dependent on the size of the building and occupancy density.
Therefore the size and accordingly the level of impact of these variables are considered during the evaluation of
the results. The variable input parameters are different for the aboveground- and underground building. For the
underground building it is assumed that there are no windows nor is there any infiltration. Calculations for the
aboveground building do not take into account the changing ground properties. A total of 8 input parameters are
therefore used for the annual energy demand calculations of the aboveground building and 9 for the
underground building.
Table 2: Normally distributed uncertainty variables
Domestic Industrial Education Hospital Offices Sport
Internal gains 1
μ 4.6 6.42 15.25 18.66 8.17 27.25 [12], [15]
[W/m2] σ 0.575 1.906 2.332 0.802 1.021 3.406 (25%)
Ventilation rate2 μ 42 14 7 30 14 14 [12], [15]
[m3/h.pp] σ 5.250 0.875 3.750 1.750 1.750 1.750 (25%)
Uncertainty variable distribution: Both uncertainty variables are normally distributed.
1
Gains are dependent of floor area. Internal gains include the combination of metabolic (people), lighting and
appliance gains multiplied by the fraction of time present, which depends on the building function.
2
The total ventilation requirement depends on the occupancy density and floor area of the building.
Table 3: Uniformly distributed variables
Minimum Maximum
1 2
Design Conductivity of walls [W/m K] 0.1 0.3 Assumption
variable Conductivity of windows [W/m2K] 0.5 1.5 Assumption
Solar transmittance (g-value) 0.3 0.7 Assumption
Window to wall ratio 0.3 0.8 Assumption
Internal heat capacity2 80,000 370,000 [12]
Uncertainty Infiltration rate3 [1/h] 0.15 0.25 [15]
variable GP 4: Thermal conductivity [W/mK] 0.9 3 [16]
GP 4: Density [kg/m3] 1500 2700 [16]
GP 4: Specific heat capacity [J/kgK] 700 2200 [16]
Uncertainty and design variable distribution: All variables are uniformly distributed.
1
The U-value of walls excludes the surface heat transfer coefficients, which are included in the calculation.
2
80,000 corresponds to a very light building and 370,000 to a very heavy building.
3
The range for the infiltration rate corresponds to a tight to very tight building.
4
GP stands for ground properties and includes variations of clay and sand soils.

2.2. Analysis and sampling techniques

A sample matrix for the input parameters is created by using Latin hypercube sampling (LHS). LHS has the
advantage that large amounts of input variable parameters can be presented by small sample sizes [10]. The
minimum number of samples depends on the number of variables and is determined by the accuracy of the
standard deviation in the annual energy demand. A sufficient accuracy can be achieved with 200 iterations. To
analyze the approximate distribution of possible results on the basis of variable input parameters, the global
analysis method Monte Carlo analysis is applied [17] [18]. It requires the sampling of multiple input parameters.
All variable inputs are assigned a probability distribution and are varied simultaneously to consider the
sensitivity due to the uncertainties in the input [17]. Subsequently uncertainty analysis obtains the variability in
the annual energy demand. And sensitivity analysis identifies the influence of variable input parameters on the
annual energy demand.

3
2.3. Energy calculation (EN-ISO 13790)
Calculations are made for a single-zone building being fully underground, therefore the assumption is made that
no infiltration or solar gains are existent. The building’s need for space heating and space cooling is calculated
using the monthly method described in EN-ISO 13790 [12]. In principle there is an energy need when the zone
needs heating to raise the internal temperature to the required minimum level (set-point for heating) or when the
zone needs cooling to lower the internal temperature to the required maximum level (set-point for cooling). The
total heat gains (internal- and solar gains) and heat losses (transmission- and ventilation losses) are calculated
for the heating and cooling mode with a corresponding utilization factor. The utilization factor is a function of
the heat balance ratio for both heating and cooling and requires a numerical parameter that depends on the
building’s thermal inertia [12]. The appropriate temperature difference compared to heat transmission to the
external environment, due to the large inertia of the ground, is taken into account by an adjustment factor that
adjusts the heat transfer coefficient instead of the temperature difference. The transmission losses to the ground
are calculated by using this factor in combination with calculated ground temperatures.

No energy consumption is calculated for lighting in an underground building compared to an aboveground

building as the method does not take into account energy required for the system’s electricity use. This also
means that there is no difference between the use of natural- and mechanical ventilation. In case a difference
could be made, it should be noted that many aboveground buildings do not use daylight or natural ventilation
efficiently. Thus no advantage is taken of these passive energy flows compared to underground buildings.
The aboveground building does not take into account any shading devices, as alternative measure the solar heat
gain coefficient (g-value) of the window ranges to a low value 0.3, which corresponds to a window that only
transmits a small amount of solar heat.

2.4. Ground temperatures

Ground temperatures are calculated using an analytical equation developed by Labs [19] that predicts the long-
term annual pattern of soil temperature variations as a function of depth and time for different soils and soil
properties. The average monthly surface ground temperature is assumed to be equal to the monthly air
temperature, which is the starting point of several building energy simulation programs [20].

The equation is as follows [19]:

√
T( t) Tm se cos { [t t ( ) ( √ )]}

Where:
T (x,t) = temperature of soil at depth and on day t of the year in ˚C
Tm = mean annual ground surface temperature ˚C
x = depth below surface in m
t = time of year in days (Jan 1 = 1)
t0 = the phase constant, corresponding to the day of minimum surface temperature (days)
= the thermal diffusivity of the soil (m2/day)
As = amplitude of surface temperature wave
The cosine is expressed in radians.

This analytical equation does not take into account the precipitation and ground properties for every unique
spot, which are dissimilar at different locations and depths. The thermal diffusivity of the soil is based on its
density, thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity. The thermal diffusivity depends on the type of soil and
because this differs per location, it has been chosen to make the ground properties variable to include the range
of probable soil types.

The ground temperature is calculated for 15 climates with different ground properties. The ground temperature
profiles have a sinusoidal diurnal pattern, which follow the same pattern as the air temperature. Larger
amplitudes between the different depths exist in climates where the seasonal temperature difference is larger. In
the tropical climates (Af, Aw), the annual temperature can have a variation of only a few degrees Celsius,
therefore also the ground temperatures have a small fluctuation throughout the year. For the BSh, Cfb and Dfb

4
climates the amplitudes are larger than those of the tropical climates. The sinusoidal pattern of the temperature
dampens with an increase of depth. For the calculation of the energy demand of the underground building, three
depths (2m, 5m and 10m) have been chosen with their corresponding ground temperatures. Underground
temperatures at a depth of 2m have a larger fluctuation than at a depth of 10m, which is almost stable, but still
fluctuates less than the outdoor temperature.

2.5. Post-processing annual energy demand

For each case, with altering climate, function and depth, 200 calculations provide 200 different values for the
annual energy demand for both the aboveground building and underground building. Due to the variability of
the input, a standard deviation exists in the annual energy demand. This makes it possible to analyze and show
the frequency distribution of the annual energy demand per case. But due to the large amount of cases, these
plots do not give a good overview of the results. Therefore comparison will be done on the mean and standard
deviation of the 200 resulting outputs per case.

Spearman’s rank correlation [21] is applied to identify whether the input variables and annual energy demand
relate in a monotonic function, meaning that if an input variable increases or decreases, the annual energy
demand increases or decreases. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient is a non-parametric measure of
correlation as it does not try to make any assumption about the nature of the relationship between two ranks.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results are presented by showing the absolute values and value differences of the annual energy demand for the
aboveground building and underground building for different climates and functions. Total uncertainties are
defined by the standard deviation. And the sensitivity of the input variables on the output is shown using
Spearman’s rank correlation.

3.1. Annual energy demand comparison

A first analysis of the results shows that the differences in annual energy demand between the underground
depths are relatively small and that for most cases an underground depth of 10m performs best. Therefore
comparisons will be made between the aboveground building and an underground building which is calculated
using temperatures at a depth of 10m.

Due to the large amount of different cases the mean values of the annual energy demand (kWh/m 2a) are
compared by subtracting the total annual energy demand of the aboveground building with those of the
underground building (Table 5). Summing the values from both tables shows the annual energy demands of the
aboveground building (AB) (= Table 4 + Table 5 or AB = (AB-UB)+UB)). This gives the possibility to quickly
see potential sources of energy reduction by using colors, and it shows the climates and functions that have a
low annual energy demand in Table 5 (green to red – small to large energy demand). In Table 4 a larger
difference induces a higher energy reduction, as is indicated by the colors (green to red – large to small
difference). A negative value indicates that the aboveground situation performs better than the underground
situation and is therefore colored red. A comparison to the actual values is necessary to show the relevance of
the energy reduction.

5
 Table 4: Difference between mean annual Table 5: Mean annual energy demand
energy demand (kWh/m2a) of the aboveground (kWh/m2a) of the underground
building and underground building for building for different climates and
different climates and building functions. building functions.

Education

Education
Industrial
Domestic

Industrial
Domestic
Hospital

Hospital
Offices

Offices
Sport

Sport
Singapore Af 122 22 24 56 84
33 46 136 166 246 61 73
Bangkok Aw 143 28 39 64 95
65 56 142 172 255 72 77
Phoenix BWh 138 10 21 71 74
97 13 116 147 206 24 60
San Antonio BSh 106 -1 0 61 53
67 3 101 136 181 8 53
Colorado Springs BSk 61 24 76 74 277 46 57 46 85 76 30 24
Seville Csa 88 -9 -11 46 42
64 1 92 127 163 3 47
Johannesburg Cwb 33 -21 -31 15 27
65 5 78 117 137 0 38
Jacksonville Cfa 95 -4 -9 52 49
47 2 102 134 179 7 52
Amsterdam Cfb 53 -2 43 53 245 14 53 49 87 79 25 24
Great Falls Dsb 80 41 104 81 330 69 73 39 78 59 45 23
Minneapolis Dwb 97 55 118 99 346 95 72 42 81 61 45 26
Kansas City Dfa 107 22 58 96 216 58 27 64 103 108 8 32
Helsinki Dfb 92 48 132 81 410 71 97 31 69 43 71 19
Sodankylae Dfc 123 92 223107 579 124 145 22 54 21 121 22
Inukjuak ET 143 127 314134 732 150 197 30 50 31 174 30
green to red green to red
large to small difference in energy demand small to large energy demand
Results show that a variety of the underground building cases can almost be considered zero-energy buildings as
the annual energy demand is near zero (below 10 kWh/m2a), in contrast to the aboveground counterpart where
the energy demand is up to 100 kWh/m2a higher (Table 4). The low annual energy demand for these
underground building cases, which can be seen in a large range of climates, originates from balancing energy
flows. Due to the building being underground, the transmission losses are stable throughout the year in
comparison to the aboveground situation, where it varies due to the seasonal weather changes.
Table 4 and Table 5 also show that there can be a large difference between the aboveground- and underground
buildings for different functions in the same climate. This difference is largely dependent on the size of the
building in combination with the internal gains. Building functions with low internal gains have a higher energy
demand in colder climates, while building functions with high internal gains have a high energy demand in
warm climates and vice versa. Warm to temperate climates (Af to BSh and Csa to Cfb) show a low energy
reduction (up to 30%) for the education, hospital and sport building functions, and in some cases are even less
efficient (down to -30%) than its aboveground counterpart.
3.2. High potential case
An example of balancing energy flows is given subsequently for a specific climate (Cfa) and building function
(domestic). Figure 3 shows that the underground building (right graph) has an underground temperature (UB
temperature) at the lower level of the set-point temperature interval. The balance of the energy losses and gains
will decide whether a comfortable temperature can be maintained without any requirements for heating or
cooling. On the other hand an aboveground building (left graph) has fluctuating annual outside temperatures
(AB temperature). This causes the temperature to be inside the interval for several months (April, May and
September), but to be outside the interval for the remaining months. Furthermore, the transmission and
ventilation losses are higher in the winter resulting in a larger energy need for heating. In contrast to
underground buildings, aboveground buildings can make use of solar gains. The annual energy demand
difference between the aboveground building and underground building for this specific climate and function is
88 kWh/m2a. However, for the same climate, a hospital building function with higher internal gains causes
overheating in the underground building and subsequently requires more energy for cooling, this result is also
visible in Table 5. In the Cfa climate, a domestic underground building function is much more energy efficient
than the aboveground building, but for a hospital building function it performs worse by a margin of 9
kWh/m2a.

6
 (annual energy demand: 95 kWh/m2a) (annual energy demand: 2 kWh/m2a)
30 30 30 30
25 25 25
25

Energy (kWh/m2 )
Temperature (˚C)
20 20
Temperature (˚C)

Energy (kWh/m2)
20 15 20 15
15 10 15 10
10 5 5
10
0 0
5 -5 5 -5
0 -10 0 -10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Month Month
Set-point cooling AB temperature Set-point cooling UB temperature
Set-point heating Transmission losses Set-point heating Transmission losses
Ventilation losses Internal gains Ventilation losses Internal gains
Solar gains
Figure 3: Energy balance of an aboveground building (left) and underground building (right) show the cause of the
difference in annual energy demand, for the Cfa climate and a domestic building function.

3.3. Energy loss due to infiltration

In Table 5 high values of energy reduction can be seen for the office building function in the colder climates
(BSk, Cfb to ET) and for the very cold climates (ET and Dfc). The large difference is solely caused by the
infiltration rate (1/h) of the aboveground building (Figure 4, left graph), where a comparison is made between
different values of the infiltration rate for an office building in the ET climate. The annual energy demand of the
aboveground building without infiltration is 56 kWh/m 2a (for comparison the energy demand of the
underground building (right graph) is 42 kWh/m2a). A drastic increase of the ventilation losses due to the
increase of the infiltration rate is visible (infiltration rate (1/h) = 0.1, 0.15, 0.2 corresponds to an annual energy
demand of 406, 590, 775 kWh/m2a respectively. Ventilation losses are named infiltration “value” in the graph,
as infiltration is considered to be part of the ventilation losses)). The effect is significant for the colder climates,
as cold outside air seeps into the building and subsequently, the building requires more energy for heating. An
explanation for this is that the infiltration rate (1/h) depends on the volume of the building and the annual energy
demand (kWh/m2a) is calculated for the floor area of the building. This means that the building functions with a
high volume to floor area ratio (offices and hospital) have a proportionally larger infiltration and therefore
require more energy in the colder climates.
140 10
Energy (kWh/m2 )

Energy (kWh/m2)

120 9
8
100 7
80 6
5
60 4
40 3
20 2
1
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Month Month
Transmission losses Ventilation losses Transmission losses Ventilation losses
Internal gains Solar gains Internal gains Solar gains
Infiltration = 0 Infiltration = 0.05
Infiltration = 0.1 Infiltration = 0.15
Infiltration = 0.2
Figure 4: Energy balance of an aboveground building (left) and underground
building (right) in the ET climate for the office building function.

7
3.4. Rationale of the energy balance of a building
Understanding the energy balance of a building is very important to comprehend the results and their
relationship between different combinations of climates and functions. The rationale for the energy balance is
that the annual energy need of a building depends on the deviation from the interval between the heating and
cooling set-point temperatures. As derived from the presented results, there are some underground building
cases that show an almost zero-energy demand. The prime reason for this is that the underground temperature
maintains a stable value inside the set-point interval throughout the year. This signifies that no energy is
required to maintain the internal temperature at a comfortable level, unless the internal gains cause an
imbalance. Therefore the underground temperature is very important to achieve a high energy reduction. In
contrast, the aboveground building is exposed to outside temperatures with larger daily and seasonal
temperature fluctuations that deviate from the interval and require more energy to maintain a comfortable
internal temperature. Furthermore, certain climates have underground temperatures that are below the heating
set-point. Depending on the range of this deviation, extra energy for heating is required to maintain the
comfortable internal temperature. In these cases it can be advantageous to have a building function with high
internal gains that nullify large amounts of transmission losses to balance the equation. In warm climates (high
underground temperatures) internal gains are therefore superfluous and would only increase the cooling
demand. In contrast to cold climates, internal gains are useful to reduce the heating demand. A sports building
function (high internal gains) is therefore inefficient in a warm climate, but efficient in a cold climate, but for a
domestic building function (low internal gains) the situation is reversed. These results are calculated without
using hourly user schedules (such as for the temperature set-points and occupancy pattern) throughout the day.
This may cause a day and night time fluctuation that could influence the energy demand for a building in certain
climates.

3.5. Uncertainty analysis

The distribution of the annual energy demand per case can be shown by using a frequency distribution (Figure
5). In this particular case, the annual energy demand of the underground building has a much lower mean than
the aboveground building, but also shows that its standard deviation is much smaller.
70 0
Frequency / Probability

Aboveground
60 0 Underground
0
50
0
40
0 53 kWh/m2a 34.1% 34.1%
30 0
13.6% 13.6%
20 0
2.1% 0.1%
10 0
0 0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240
-3σ -2σ -1σ μ 1σ 2σ 3σ
2
Energy (kWh/m a)
Figure 5: Frequency distribution and probability distribution of the annual energy demand for the Af climate and domestic
building function, for 200 different combinations of variable input parameters.
An important observation is made when comparing the best case (lowest energy demand) of the aboveground
building with the worst case (highest energy demand) of the underground building. The mean and standard
deviation values of the annual energy demand for the aboveground- (AB) and underground (UB) buildings in
the previous example are B (μ 1 7 σ 8) and UB (μ 4 σ 7). The best aboveground building is then
167-28 = 139 kWh/m2a, while the worst underground building is 46+7 = 53 kWh/m 2a, this differs by 139-53 =
86 kWh/m2a. For 2 standard deviations, there is therefore a ~95% (0.9762) chance that the difference in the
annual energy demands of the aboveground- and underground building is 53 kWh/m2a or more. The best
aboveground building case will thus perform worse than the worst underground building case by a large margin.
The same comparison is made for every climate and building function. In most cases the worst underground
building performs better than the best aboveground building (positive interval value). Except for the Af to Cfb
and Dfa climates for the education, hospital and sport building functions. In these cases the 2 standard deviation

8
interval value between the worst and best case is negative. In some of these cases this already follows from the
negative difference in the mean and almost equal standard deviation.

3.6. Sensitivity analysis

By analyzing the influence of design and uncertainty parameters on the annual energy demand, strong
correlations can be identified. This can be helpful to determine which level of design is required to attain the
highest performance.

Figure 6 shows Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients for the sport building function in a tropical (Af) and
polar climate (ET). It can be seen that in the tropical climate, the internal gains indicate a very strong positive
correlation to the annual energy demand of an aboveground- and underground building. In the polar climate on
the other hand, the internal gains correspond to a negative correlation for both an aboveground- and
underground building.
Spearman's rank correlation coefficient Spearman's rank correlation coefficient
-1 -0,5 0 0,5 1 -1 -0,5 0 0,5 1
U-value walls U-value walls
Internal gains Internal gains
Ventilation rate Ventilation rate
Internal heat capacity Internal heat capacity
Infiltration rate Infiltration rate
U-value glazing U-value glazing
Solar transmittance Solar transmittance
Window to wall ratio Window to wall ratio
GP: Thermal conductivity GP: Thermal conductivity
AB GP: Density AB GP: Density
UB GP: Specific heat capacity UB GP: Specific heat capacity

Figure 6: Spearman’s correlation coefficient on the annual energy demand of an aboveground- (AB) and
underground building (UB) with sport function, for the tropcial climate Af (left) and polar climate ET (right).
The correlation coefficients of the 5 most important variable parameters on the annual energy demand for an
underground- and aboveground building for all building functions and climates are shown in Table 6. The
correlation is visualized by using a color scale, -1 very strong negative correlation (red) to 1 very strong positive
correlation (green), 0 (white) means there is no correlation.

No single parameter seems to have the highest influence in every situation, although there are some parameters
that have a higher influence in most cases. The ground property parameters are not shown for the underground
building as their influence on the annual energy demand is very small, which is also observed in a former study
[22]. Furthermore, 3 parameters for the aboveground building are not shown as they only have a strong
influence for the domestic building function. The U-value of the windows has a strong negative influence in the
colder climates, while solar transmittance and window to wall ratio have a strong negative influence in the
warmer climates.

9
 Table 6:Variable parameter analysis on annual energy demand (negative (-1 “green”) to positive (1 “red”) correlation).
Internal heat
U-value walls Internal gains Ventilation rate Infiltration rate
capacity
Education

Education

Education

Education

Education
Industrial

Industrial

Industrial

Industrial

Industrial
Domestic

Domestic

Domestic

Domestic

Domestic
Hospital

Hospital

Hospital

Hospital

Hospital
Office

Office

Office

Office

Office
Sport

Sport

Sport

Sport

Sport
Af
Aw
BWh
BSh
BSk
Aboveground

Csa
Cwb
Cfa
Cfb
Dsb
Dwb
Dfa
Dfb
Dfc
ET
Af 1
Aw 0
BWh -1
BSh
BSk
Underground

Csa
Cwb
Cfa
Cfb
Dsb
Dwb
Dfa
Dfb
Dfc
ET

The annual energy demand is strongly influenced by several parameters, and there exists a large difference in
correlation between the climates and building functions.
 An increase in the U-value (lower resistance) will almost always increase the energy demand of an
aboveground building, stronger so in the colder climates. On the contrary, the energy demand of an
aboveground building in the warm climates increases when the U-value is decreased (higher resistance).
 Higher internal gains increase the energy demand in warm climates and reduce the energy demand in
cold climates for both the aboveground- and underground building. But for the underground building,
the parameter is much more sensitive and has a larger negative effect in most of the climates. It is the
most important parameter for the underground building.
 A decrease in the internal heat capacity of a building has a positive influence on the energy demand in
almost all cases.
 For larger aboveground buildings the infiltration rate has a strong negative correlation with the energy
demand, for the remainder of the buildings, the correlation is also existent in the colder climates. Much
energy is saved in the underground building due to the absence of this unwanted air infiltration.
From the sensitivity analysis it follows that the combination of parameters in a certain climate and building
function can have a large influence on the energy demand of both an underground and aboveground building.
Thus to achieve the highest possible energy reduction through optimization, a dissimilar combination of
parameters is required for every different climate and building function.

10
4. CONCLUSION
The energy reduction potential of underground buildings has been investigated by performing monthly
calculations on the annual energy demand. A comparative analysis between aboveground- and underground
buildings is applied for different climates, building functions and depths. This made it possible to quantify the
differences and assess the energy reduction potential. A sensitivity analysis is performed by analyzing variable
input parameters and their correlation on the annual energy demand.

Underground buildings have the potential to reduce the energy demand in comparison to a conventional
aboveground building by using beneficial soil temperatures and large amounts of earth cover as insulation. But
the magnitude of this potential is related to the combination of different design elements. The energy reduction
potential starts with underground buildings that require almost no energy to maintain a comfortable indoor
temperature, as can be seen in several climates. The prime reason for this is that the underground temperature
maintains a stable value inside the set-point interval throughout the year. This signifies that no energy is
required to maintain the internal temperature at a comfortable level, unless the certain parameters, such as the
internal gains cause an imbalance. Therefore the underground temperature is very important to achieve a high
energy reduction. In contrast, the aboveground building is exposed to outside temperatures with larger daily and
seasonal temperature fluctuations that deviate from the interval and require more energy to maintain a
comfortable internal temperature. According to the calculation of different ground depths (2m, 5m and 10m), it
is concluded that their mutual effect on the annual energy demand of an underground building is negligible.
Furthermore, variable ground properties show only a very small influence on the energy demand of an
underground building.
Certain climates have underground temperatures that are below the heating set-point. Depending on the range of
this deviation extra energy for heating is required to maintain a comfortable indoor temperature. In these cases it
can be advantageous to have a building function with high internal gains that nullify large amounts of
transmission losses to balance the equation. In warm climates (high underground temperatures) internal gains
are therefore superfluous and would only increase the cooling demand. In contrast to cold climates, internal
gains are useful to reduce the heating demand.
A high energy demand is perceived for large aboveground buildings in cold climates due to infiltration. This
consequently creates a high potential case for the underground building to reduce the energy demand, due to the
absence of this infiltration.

For every case 200 calculations are made that provide a mean and standard deviation of the annual energy
demand. Uncertainty analysis of the results show that in most cases the worst underground building performs
better than the best aboveground building.

Based on the reviewed results and methodology, some recommendations can be made for future work
concerning identification of the energy reduction potential of underground buildings compared to aboveground
buildings.
 A higher accuracy can be obtained by performing calculations using simulation software which contain a
more accurate ground heat transfer calculation. More knowledge can be obtained on the daily pattern by
performing hourly calculations and by providing occupancy schedules. Also, a better understanding of the
local microclimate in underground buildings is necessary to identify whether lower peak heating and cooling
is required.
 The method of applying weather data from a location that corresponds with a certain climate should also be
reconsidered, as the difference in weather data between different locations in the same climate can be very
large and therefore one location does not accurately represent a climate. Average values for more locations in
one climate can make a better representation.
 More quantitative information on the annual energy demand of semi underground buildings is required, as
these buildings can benefit from the thermal advantages of the ground while also allowing daylight to enter
the building.

11
5. REFERENCES

[1] J. Godard, "Urban underground space and benefits of going underground," in World Tunnel Congress 2004
and 30th ITA General Assembly, Singapore, 2004.
[2] J. Admiraal, "A Bottom-up Approach to the Planning of Underground Space," Gouda.
[3] E. Horvat, "Going beyond the frontier of urban space, use of the subsurface space".
[4] F. Chow, T. Paul, I. Vähäaho, B. Sellberg and L. Lemos, "Hidden Aspects of Urban Planning: Utilisation
of Underground Space," in Conference on Soil Structure Interaction in Urban Civil Engineering, Zurich,
2002.
[5] M. Khair-El-Din and Abd-El-Hamid, "Earth Sheltered Housing: An Approach to Energy Conversation in
Hot Aird Areas," Architecture and Planning, vol. 3, pp. 3-18, 1991.
[6] F. Wang and Y. Liu, "Thermal environment of the courtyard style cave dwelling in winter," Energy and
Buildings, vol. 34, pp. 985-1001, 2002.
[7] L. Boyer, "Earth Sheltered Structures," Ann. Rev. Energy, vol. 7, pp. 201-219, 1982.
[8] R. Sterling and J. Godard, "Geoenengineering considerations in the optimum use of underground space".
[9] B. Todorovic and B. Despotovic, "Development of calculation procedure for heat losses of underground
spaces," in Proceedings of the Transactions of the 30th HVAC Congress, Belgrade, 1999.
[10] A. Anselm, "Passive annual heat storage principles in earth sheltered housing, a supplementary energy
saving system in residential housing," Energy and Buildings, vol. 40, pp. 1214-1219, 2008.
[11] A. Al-Temeemi and D. Harris, "A guideline for assessing the suitability of earth-sheltered mass-housing in
hot-arid climates," Energy and Buildings, vol. 36, pp. 251-260, 2004.
[12] EN-ISO 13790, "Energy performance of buildings - Calculation of energy use for space heating and
cooling (ISO 13790:2008)," European Committee for Standardization, 2008.
[13] M. Peel, B. Finlayson and T. McMahon, "Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate
classification," Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., vol. 11, pp. 1633-1644, 2007.
[14] M. Deru, K. Field, D. Studer, K. Benne, B. Griffith and P. Torcellini, U.S. Department of Energy
Commerical Reference Building Models of the National Building Stock, Colorado: National Renewable
Energy Laboratory, 2011.
[15] CIBSE, CIBSE Guide A: Environmental design, Norwich: CIBSE, 2006.
[16] S. Ocaña and I. Guerrero, "Comparison of analytical and on site temperature results on Spanish traditional
wine cellars," Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 26, pp. 700-708, 2006.
[17] C. Hopfe, "Uncertainty and sensitivity analysis in building performance simulation for decision support and
design optimization," Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, 2009.
[18] K. J. Lomas and H. Eppel, "Sensitivity analysis techniques for building thermal simulation programs,"
Energy and Building, vol. 19, pp. 21-44, 1992.
[19] K. Labs, "Underground Building Climate," Solar Age, vol. 4, no. 10, 1979.
[20] Solar Energy Laboratory, "TRNSYS 17.1. A transient systems simulation program," Solar Energy
Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, 1990.
[21] J. Myers, Research design and statistical analysis, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003.
[22] M. Staniec and H. Nowak, "Analysis of the earth-sheltered buildings' heating and cooling energy demand
depending on type of soil," Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, vol. XI, no. 1, pp. 221-235,
2011.
[23] T. McKnight and D. Hess, Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation, Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2000.

12
 Appendix A – CLIMATE DESCRIPTIONS

Table A. 1: Description of the Köppen-Geiger climate classifications [13], [23].

GROUP A: Tropical/megathermal climates
Singapore Af Singapore Tropical rainforest
Am Tropical monsoon
Thailand Aw Bangkok Tropical wet and dry or savanna
GROUP B: Dry (arid and semiarid) climates
U.S.A. BWh Phoenix Low latitude desert
BWk Middle latitude desert
U.S.A. BSh San Antonio Low latitude steppe
U.S.A. BSk Colorado Springs Middle latitude steppe
GROUP C: Temperate/mesothermal climates
Spain Csa Seville Dry summer subtropical
Csb Mediterranean
Cwa Humid subtropical
South Africa Cwb Johannesburg Temperate highland tropical with dry winters
Cwc Temperate highland tropical with dry winters
U.S.A. Cfa Jacksonville Humid subtropical
The Netherlands Cfb Amsterdam Maritime Temperate or Oceanic
Cfc Maritime subartic or Subpolar Oceanic
GROUP D: Continental/microthermal climates
Dsa Hot Summer Continental
USA Dsb Great Falls Warm Summer Continental or Hemiboreal
Dsc Continental Subartic or Boreal (Taiga)
Dsd Humid Subartic
Dwa Hot Summer Continental
U.S.A. Dwb Minneapolis Warm Summer Continental or Hemiboreal
Dwc Continental Subartic or Boreal (Taiga)
Dwd Continental Subarctic with extremely severe winters
U.S.A. Dfa Kansas City Hot Summer Continental
Finland Dfb Helsinki Warm Summer Continental or Hemiboreal
Finland Dfc Sodankylae Continental Subartic or Boreal (Taiga)
Dfd Continental Subarctic with extremely severe winters
GROUP E: Polar climates
Canada ET Inukjuak Tundra
EF Ice Cap
Climates with a corresponding country and location are used in the calculation.

13
14
III. Underground buildings
BESTEST Case study
 Underground buildings
BESTEST Case study
C. van Dronkelaar, J.L.M. Hensen, D. Cóstola and R.A. Mangkuto

Building Physics and Services, Eindhoven University of Technology,

Den Dolech 2, Eindhoven 5600MB, The Netherlands

1. INTRODUCTION
To verify the energy reduction potential of underground buildings in the former study described in Chapter I,
and to investigate the daily patterns of the energy performance of both buildings, the BESTEST Case 900 is
simulated using the software program TRNSYS [2]. The building is simulated for the aboveground situation and
corresponding underground situation.

2. METHODOLOGY

2.1. BESTEST Case 900 characteristics

For simulation of an aboveground- and underground building, the BESTEST Case 900 is used [3]. Several of
the original parameters are adjusted, such as the infiltration rate and conductivity of the constructions (Table 1).
The changed values correspond to a good insulated building with a very small amount of infiltration. These
changes will lessen the energy reduction potential of underground buildings, but take into account the advances
that are made for aboveground buildings and their increase in energy efficiency.
Table 1: BESTEST Case 900 Characteristics
BESTEST C900 AB* UB* AB* UB*
Floor area [m2 ] 48 48 Ground floor [W/m2K] 0.205 0.205
Heating set-point 20 on / 15 off External wall [W/m2K] 0.21 0.21
Cooling set-point 24 on / 100 off Roof [W/m2 K] 0.16 0.16
Ventilation rate [1/h] 0.2 on / 0 off U-value window [W/m2K] 1.43 x
3
Infiltration rate [1/h] 0.1 0 Solar heat gain coefficient 0.605 x
Internal gains: radiative [kJ/hr] 432 432 Thermal conductivity ground [W/mK] x 1.95
Internal gains: convective [kJ/hr] 288 288 Density ground [kg/m3] x 2075
*Aboveground building / Underground building Specific heat capacity ground [J/kgK] x 1450

2.2. Climates
Calculations are made for three different climates (Table 2). Ground input parameters for the three climates are
calculated using the Labs equation [4]. A desert climate (BWh, location: Phoenix), maritime temperate climate
(Cfb, Amsterdam) and hemiboreal climate (Dfb, Helsinki) are simulated to show differences in the energy
performance in different climates.
Table 2: Three different climates with corresponding ground characteristics.
BWh Cfb Dfb
Deep earth temperature [˚C] 22.46 9.46 4.44
Amplitude of surface temperature [˚C] 10.97 7.14 11.89
Day of minimum surface temperature 350 16 45

2.3. TRNSYS simulation

Building energy simulation is carried out using TRNSYS. The BESTEST Case 900 is modeled using an
integrated module inside Google SketchUp [5], which allows easy 3D modeling. Both the aboveground- and
underground buildings have the same dimensions, but the underground building excludes windows. A
visualization of both the models can be seen in Figure 1. Further information on the BESTEST Case can be
found in [3].

1
 Figure 1: Model of the aboveground- and underground building in Google SketchUp.

2.4. Ground heat transfer calculation

Inside TRNSYS, the module “Type 1244: Multizone basement model” models the heat transfer from a
horizontal or vertical surface (typically, but not limited to a basement) to the surrounding soil. The heat transfer
is assumed to be conductive only and moisture effects are not accounted for in the model. The model relies on a
3‐dimensional finite difference model of the soil and solves the resulting inter‐dependent differential equations
using a simple iterative method. The model takes the heat transfer into or out of the building at the outside
surface for each zone, calculates the fully 3‐D soil temperature profile, and then gives as output the average
under floor surface temperature for each zone. The near‐field soil temperatures are affected by the heat transfer
from the slab. The far‐field soil temperatures are only affected by the surface conditions (time of year) and
depth. The model in return calculates the slab/ground interface temperature, which is passed back to the building
model as an input [6].

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The aboveground- and underground building situation of the BESTEST case 900 are simulated using TRNSYS
for three different climates. The energy demand for heating and cooling of the different cases are shown in
Figure 2 .
100
90 Heating
Annual energy demand

80 Cooling
70
(kWh/m2a)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
AB UB AB UB AB UB
BWh (Phoenix) Cfb (Amsterdam) Dfb (Helsinki)
Figure 2: Annual energy demand of the aboveground- and underground situation
of the BESTEST case 900 for three different climates.
In all cases the underground building performs better than the aboveground counterpart. Nonetheless, it can be
seen that there exist large differences in energy demand of the aboveground- and underground building for
different climates. The desert climate (BWh) shows a high potential in the energy reduction of the aboveground
building, by placing it underground. While the maritime temperate climate (Cfb) shows only a small reduction

2
in the annual energy demand. The hemiboreal climate (Dfb) shows a higher energy reduction than the maritime
temperate climate (Cfb), but smaller reduction than in the desert climate (BWh).

The explanation between these differences can be found when investigating the climate characteristics. In
Figure 3 to Figure 5, temperature profiles are shown for the ambient temperature, the zone temperature of the
underground building, and the boundary temperature of the underground wall in three different climates. The
high energy reduction potential of the desert climate follows from the high underground temperature of around
23˚C. The underground temperature lies between the heating- and cooling set points, which causes the
transmission losses to be very low. Therefore little energy is required to keep the building at a comfortable
indoor temperature in comparison to the aboveground building, where cooling is needed due to the high outside
temperatures.
40

30
Temperature (˚C)

20

10

0
226
451
676
901

2251
2476
2701
2926
3151

5401
5626
5851
6076
6301

8551
1126
1351
1576
1801
2026

3376
3601
3826
4051
4276
4501
4726
4951
5176

6526
6751
6976
7201
7426
7651
7876
8101
8326
1

-10

-20 Tambient
Tzone
-30 Tboundary
Hour of the year
Figure 3: Temperature profiles (outside, zone and boundary wall) of the underground building in the desert climate (BWh).

The underground temperatures of the maritime temperate and hemiboreal climates are much lower and therefore
much energy is needed for heating the underground building. This is also true for the aboveground situation,
where even more heating is needed during the winter due to even lower temperatures than the underground
temperatures. While during the summer temperatures are somewhat higher than the underground temperature
and therefore little cooling is also required for the aboveground building.
40
30
Temeprature (˚C)

20
10
0
221
441
661
881
1

1101
1321
1541
1761
1981
2201
2421
2641
2861
3081
3301
3521
3741
3961
4181
4401
4621
4841
5061
5281
5501
5721
5941
6161
6381
6601
6821
7041
7261
7481
7701
7921
8141
8361
8581

-10
-20 Tambient
Tzone
-30 Tboundary
Hour of the year
Figure 4: Temperature profiles (outside, zone and boundary wall) of the underground building in the maritime temperate climate (Cwb).

3
 40
30
Temperature (˚C)

20
10
0
221
441
661
881
1

1101
1321
1541
1761
1981
2201
2421
2641
2861
3081
3301
3521
3741
3961
4181
4401
4621
4841
5061
5281
5501
5721
5941
6161
6381
6601
6821
7041
7261
7481
7701
7921
8141
8361
8581
-10
-20 Tambient
-30 Tzone
Hour of the year Tboundary
Figure 5: Temperature profiles (outside, zone and boundary wall) for the underground building in the hemiboreal climate (Dfb).

Although the underground temperature is a very important factor in reducing the energy demand of the
underground building, there are several other energy flows that affect the energy reduction potential. To get a
better understanding of how the energy gains and losses influence the energy performance of an aboveground-
and underground building, the daily pattern of the energy flows is important. In Figure 6 and Figure 7, the
energy flows and temperatures of the aboveground- and underground building are shown for the desert climate
(BWh) on the 22th of July.
3,0 40 3,0 40

2,5 35 2,5 35

2,0 30 2,0 30
Temperature (˚C)

Temperature (˚C)
Energy (kW)

Energy (kW)

1,5 25 1,5 25
1,0 20 1,0 20
0,5 15 0,5 15
0,0 10 0,0 10
5
1
3

7
9
11

17

23
13
15

19
21

1
3
5
7
9
11
13

23
15
17
19
21
-0,5 5 -0,5 5
-1,0 0 -1,0 0
Hour of the day Hour of the day
Qinfiltration Qventilation Qinfiltration Qventilation
Qsolargains Qinternalgains Qsolargains Qinternalgains
Qtransmission Qheating Qtransmission Qheating
Qcooling Tambient Qcooling Tboundary
Tzone Tzone
Figure 6: Energy balance and temperatures of the Figure 7: Energy balance and temperatures of the
aboveground BESTEST case in a desert climate (BWh) on underground BESTEST case in a desert climate (BWh) on
the 22th of July. the 22th of July.
From the graphs it follows that the underground building has a boundary temperature of 23˚C and therefore the
transmission losses are very low. Only due to the ventilation gains and internal gains during the day, the
underground building requires only a small amount of energy for cooling. In comparison, the aboveground
building is adjacent to very high outdoor temperatures during this summer day. To establish and maintain the
maximum set-point temperature of 24˚C, a large amount of cooling is needed. But in this case, not only the high
outdoor temperatures are cause of the large difference in the cooling demand. Although the internal gains and
ventilation gains are equal to the underground building, the solar gains present during the day cause the cooling
demand to be much higher. The infiltration in this case has very little influence on the energy demand. For the
aboveground situation in the desert climate (BWh) the daily profile is almost the same throughout the year,
which means that the increase in energy demand is quite stable.

4
For the hemiboreal climate (Dfb) the outdoor temperatures are below 0˚C for a large time interval, while it is
somewhat warmer during the summer. In Figure 8 and Figure 9 the energy balance and temperatures are shown
of a particular summer day.
3,5 30 3,5 30

2,5 25 2,5 25

Temperature (˚C)
Temperature (˚C)
1,5 20 1,5 20

Energy (kW)
Energy (kW)

0,5 15 0,5 15

7
1

9
11

15

19

23

27
13

17

21

25
3

7
1

13

17

23

27
11

15

19
21

25
-0,5 10 -0,5 10

-1,5 5 -1,5 5

-2,5 0 -2,5 0
Hour of the day Hour of the day
Qinfiltration Qventilation Qinfiltration Qventilation
Qsolargains Qinternalgains Qinternalgains Qsolargains
Qtransmission Qheating Qtransmission Qheating
Qcooling Tambient Qcooling Tboundary
Tzone Tzone
Figure 8: Energy balance and temperatures of the Figure 9: Energy balance and temperatures of the
aboveground BESTEST case in a hemiboreal climate (Dfb) underground BESTEST case in a hemiboreal climate (Dfb)
on the 22th of July. on the 22th of July.
In comparison to the desert climate (BWh), the underground building requires a much larger amount of energy
to maintain a comfortable temperature. This is largely due to the much lower underground temperature of
around 7˚C throughout the year. A building with more internal gains would reduce the energy need for heating
in this case. The aboveground building on the other hand requires cooling during the summer due to the high
solar gains that are present during the afternoon.

The daily profiles of the maritime temperate climate (Cfb) are similar to the daily profiles of the hemiboreal
climate (Dfb). The only difference is that the transmission losses are somewhat larger in the hemiboreal climate
(Dfb) due to the lower outdoor- and ground temperatures.

The energy reduction potential of the hemiboreal climate (Dfb) is somewhat higher than for the maritime
temperate climate (Cfb). The reason for this is the relatively higher energy demand of the aboveground building
in the hemiboreal climate (Dfb). The lower outdoor temperatures during the winter seem to have a larger
negative effect on the energy demand than the lower ground temperature in the hemiboreal climate.

4. CONCLUSION
The energy reduction potential of underground buildings has been verified by simulating the BESTEST Case
900 with the software program TRNSYS. Although several building characteristics and inputs are dissimilar to
the calculations performed in the former study, high energy reduction is perceived between the energy demand
of the aboveground- and underground building. Furthermore, hourly calculations have allowed a better
understanding of the daily pattern of the energy performance of the aboveground- and underground building.

The underground temperature seems to be a very important factor for reducing the energy demand of the
underground building. An underground temperature that is near the heating- and cooling set-points is most
likely to result in a building with low energy requirement. A low energy demand can therefore be achieved in
climates that have beneficial underground temperatures. Nonetheless, the energy reduction potential of
underground buildings compared to aboveground buildings is not based on the low energy demand of
underground buildings, but on the difference between the annual energy demand of the aboveground- and

5
underground building. Therefore, it is not useful to build an underground building when the aboveground
building counterpart is very energy efficient and has a low energy demand.
Simulations should therefore be carried out if considering and underground building instead of an aboveground
building. The energy reduction potential depends on the location (climate) of the building, but also the other
building characteristics, such as internal gains and ventilation can have a large influence on the energy demand.

Some recommendations can be made, which follow from simulating and modeling underground buildings with
the software program TRNSYS.
 In the underground situation, it is impossible to model walls that are not perpendicular. This impossibility
causes an inaccuracy in modeling many buildings. The modeling method that is needed in TRNSYS should
therefore be adjusted to include the feature of modeling different angles in a building façade.
 The modeling of an underground building is very time consuming and unclear. Every surface of a zone has
to be connected several times throughout different module types. A more efficient way would be to let
TRNSYS do this automatically.

5. REFERENCES

[1] C. van Dronkelaar, J. Hensen, D. Cóstola and R. Mangkuto, "Underground buildings - Potential in terms of
energy reduction," Eindhoven University of Technology, 2013.
[2] Solar Energy Laboratory, "TRNSYS A Transient System Simulation Program," University of Wisconsin-
Madison, 2012.
[3] R. Judkoff and J. Neymark, "International Energy Agency Building Energy Simulation Test (BESTEST) and
Diagnostic Method," National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado, 1995.
[4] K. Labs, "Underground Building Climate," Solar Age, vol. 4, no. 10, 1979.
[5] Trimble Building, "SketchUp Pro," Trimble Navigation Limited, 2012.
[6] TESS Experts in Energy Modeling & Analysis, "TESS Component Libraries: General Descriptions".

6
 IV. Underground buildings
Underground building examples
# Peel, M. C. and Finlayson, B. L. and McMahon, T. A. (2007). "Updated world map of the Köppen–Geiger climate
classification". Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 11: 1633–1644. ISSN 1027‐5606. (direct: Final Revised Paper)

1
 %

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Leisure
Educational
Office
Residential
Retail
Recreational
Industrial
Religious
Infrastructure

Functions
Storage
Agriculture
Military
Industrial

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Atrium or Courtyard
True Underground
Berm Elevational
Nonearth Roof (b)
Nonearth Roof
Hillside Elevational
Building type

Atrium or Courtyard (b)

Side Penetration (b)

%
0
5
10
15
20
25

Australia
Brazil
China
Finland
Germany
Iceland
Italy
Mexico
New Zealand
Peru
Countries

South Korea
Sweden
Tunisia
U.K.

%
0
5
10
15
20
25
30

Aw
BWh
BSh
BSk
Csa
Csb
Cwb
Cfa
Cfb
Dsc
Climates

Dwa
Dwb
Dfa
Dfb
Dfc
ET
2
 Architect | Location | Year of completion Kohn Pedersen Fox and LPT Architects|Singapore, Singapore | 2000
Function(s) Climate description Retail Tropical rainforest
(Climate code) (Af)
≤ Disadvantages ≥ CityLink Mall is the unique retail component of the One Raffles Link
development. It provides around 60,000 sq.ft. of retail space in an
Below ground level ≈ % Below ground level ≈ 100%
≥ Advantages air‐conditioned subterranean mall, and links One Raffles Link to the
Surface to ground ≈ % Surface to ground ≈ 40%
City Hall and Esplanade MRT Station.
Depth ≈ m Depth ≈ 300m
≥ The stunning subterranean mall with over 50 shops, offers
international fashion names, exquisite gifts & accessories, home
accessories and some of the best eateries in Singapore.
≥ Daylight is delivered to the space by glazed pavilions sited on the
War Memorial gardens, which creates a bright and cheery feel.

Pictures of the building

Building type

# http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~igaur/
# Reference # http://www.citylinkmall.com/about

3
Oscar Niemeyer | Brasilia, Brazil | 1970 Matmata, Tunisia | knowledge of existence from 1967
Religious Tropical wet Residential Dry Desert
(Aw) (BWh)
≥ The cathedral is a hyperboloid structure constructed from 16 ≥ A large pit is dug, where around the perimeter of this pit artificial
concrete columns, weighing 90 tons each. caves are dug to be used as rooms, with some homes comprising
Below ground level ≈ 20% Below ground level ≈ 100%
≥ The exterior of the cathedral resembles the circular plan and ribbed Surface to ground ≈ 20%
multiple pits, connected by trench‐like passageways.
Surface to ground ≈ 60%
structure of Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral, but the latter is clad Depth ≈ 2m ≥ A tourist attraction, because filming is done in one such a troglodyte Depth ≈ 6m
in solid material, while the Cathedral of Brasília allows light in and home for the Star Wars movies.
out for almost the full height of the ribs.

# E. von Meijenfeldt, Below Ground Level, 2003

# http://chinablog.cc/2009/02/yaodong‐cave‐dwellings‐on‐loess‐plateau/
# http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_of_Bras%C3%ADlia
# http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaodong

4
Longhi Architects | Pachacamac, Lima, Peru| 2012 ‐ | Coober Pedy, Australia | 1800’s
Residential Dry Desert Residential Dry Desert
(BWh) (BWh)
≥ Because it is entirely constructed of stone, it will last thousands of ≥ This small town in the middle of nowhere, Australia, is home to some
years. It’s also almost entirely underground, which will make it able Below ground level ≈ 70% of the strangest houses on Earth. A combination of climactic Below ground level ≈ 100%
to withstand extreme climate change in the meantime. Surface to ground ≈ 70% conditions and the existence of opal mining in the region have Surface to ground ≈ 100%
≥ Locally quarried, smoothed and polished stone also is used inside to Depth ≈ 4m literally driven the residents underground. Everything from Depth ≈ 10m
construct the interior walls and even some shelving. For its longevity, residences to churches are carved out of the ground as the above
it will certainly win LEED points: it’s not going to the landfill any images show. The place is something of a tourist attraction, with
decade soon. Its energy use is moderated by being underground. So underground hotels as well as a golf course above ground – though
it’s green. golf is played at night due to the regional heat!
≥ For what amounts to a 10,000 square foot underground bunker, light
is able to get down into the entirely stone hewn space fairly well.
The dining room table is a huge singular stone set permanently in
place.

# http://www.homedesignfind.com/green/10000‐square‐foot‐underground‐
# http://weburbanist.com/2007/09/30/7‐underground‐wonders‐of‐the‐
bunker‐will‐remain‐forever/
world‐labyrinths‐crypts‐and‐catacombs/
# http://www.longhiarchitect.com/home.html

5
Matthew Fromboluti | Lavender Pit Mine in Bisbee, Arizona, U.S.A. | Concept Tadao Ando | Naoshima, Kagawa, Japan | 1995
Residential, Office, Agriculture, Leisure Dry Steppe Leisure, Residential Dry Steppe
(Bsh) (BSk)
≥ Through use of many simple, passive systems, the entire complex is ≥ The composition of the Museum’s main building consists of three
a sustainable, underground oasis in the desert, with the area above overlapping cubes and a circle, with a rectangular guest wing attached
Below ground level ≈ 95% Below ground level ≈ 100%
reclaimed for nature, and the space below a unique opportunity for at an angle to it. The simple geometrical volumes of the Museum are
Surface to ground ≈ 60% Surface to ground ≈ 60%
human use. built within the hillside so as not to disturb the beauty of the natural
Depth ≈ 50m Depth ≈ 10m
≥ The building is completely self‐sustaining, with its own power landscape but to become a part of it.
source, water recycling system, and mechanisms such as a solar ≥ Connected to this corridor is an oval shaped cut out volume of which
chimney to control the artificial climate. in the center is a pool of still water filled to its edges reflecting the
surrounding volume and the sky above.

# http://www.evolo.us/architecture/skyscraper‐or‐sustainable‐underground‐
# E. von Meijenfeldt, Below Ground Level, 2003
society/
# http://www.galinsky.com/buildings/naoshima/index.htm
# http://www.frombo.com/folio‐Evolo10.html

6
Walker McGough Foltz Lyerla architects | Spokane, Washington, U.S.A. | 1980 Cappadocië, Central Anatolia, Turkey | > 1000 B.C.
Leisure, Office Dry Steppe Residential Dry Steppe
(BSk) (BSk)
≥ The earth is used effectively in this project to achieve energy ≥ Cappadocia contains several underground cities (see Kaymaklı
conservation. Heat transfer by means of infiltration is virtually Underground City), largely used by early Christians as hiding places
Below ground level ≈ 60% Below ground level ≈ 0%
eliminated by the monolithic earth covering before Christianity became an accepted religion.
Surface to ground ≈ 70% Surface to ground ≈ 70%
≥ In Spokane, air temperatures vary between ‐23 and 48°C. Depth ≈ 6m ≥ 260km2 with 200+ underground villages and tunnel towns complete Depth ≈ ?m
Temperatures in the earth at a depth of 2 m vary from 5 to 16°C. with hidden passages, secret rooms and ancient temples
According to the architects
≥ 50% reduction in the amount of energy consumed, compared to a
conventionally constructed façade building of the same size and
function.

# Barker, M., 1986. Using the Earth to Save Energy: Four Underground
Buildings. Tunneling and Underground Space Technology # http://www.turkije‐info‐site.nl/capadocie‐turkije.html
# http://www.cprestress.com/projects/63/

7
‐ | Cortez, Colorado, U.S.A. | 12th Century
Residential
≥ It may be the most significant archeological preserve of Native
American culture in the United States. In the 12th century, the
Anasazi start building houses in shallow caves and under rock
overhangs along the canyon walls. Some of these houses were as
large as 150 rooms. The most famous of these are called Cliff Palace
and Spruce Tree House. By 1300, all of the Anasazi had left the Mesa
Verde area, but the ruins remain almost perfectly preserved.
# http://www.touropia.com/cave‐dwellings/
Mi5 + PKMN | Tereul, Aragón, Spain | 2012
Dry Steppe Leisure Dry Steppe
(BSk) (BSk)
≥ Teruel‐Zilla is a three‐story underground leisure and rec center for
Below ground level ≈ 0% the youth of Teruel, Spain. The spot was once home to a public Below ground level ≈ 95%
Surface to ground ≈ 30% market building, but it was becoming obsolete, so the town decided Surface to ground ≈ 90%
Depth ≈ ?m to make way for something more useful. Mi5 + PKMN designed a Depth ≈ 10m
leisure center to take the place of the market building, but buried it
underground in order to create open space in the public square. The
landscaped area on the ground floor is a series of stepped planes,
ramps and staircases which creates a new urban topology that
encourages interaction, activity and community. Burying the center
underground protects it from the warm climate and leaves the
ground floor for vegetation, thus helping reduce energy use and heat
island effect.
# http://inhabitat.com/teruel‐zilla‐is‐an‐underground‐leisure‐lair‐inspired‐
by‐dinosaurs‐in‐spain/teruel‐zilla‐mi5‐pkmn‐9/
# http://www.mi5arquitectos.com/mi5‐architects‐plaza‐teruel/
8
‐ | Israel| ‐ Mickey Muennig | Big Sur, California, U.S.A. | 1971
Residential Dry‐summer subtropical Residential Dry‐summer subtropical
(Csa) (Csa)
≥ “Bir al‐Id used to be home to 397 Palestinians. The village residents ≥ The structure of the home is so that it maximizes the views across
maintained a unique way of life, drawing water from wells and pits in Below ground level ≈ 100% the islands. Below ground level ≈ 80%
the area around their huts, tents and cave dwellings. Surface to ground ≈ 95% Surface to ground ≈ 70%
≥ “These people live in caves – some out of poverty, some out of Depth ≈ 4m Depth ≈ 3m
preference. They keep flocks like Bedouin do but they also practice
subsistence agriculture. They split their time between a town called
Yatta and the caves.

# http://www.rhr‐na.org/blog/?p=789 # http://www.hebhide.co.uk/

9
Emilio Ambasz | Sevilla, Spain | 1980 Petra, Jordan, Israel | 6th century B.C.
Residential Dry‐summer subtropical Residential Dry‐summer subtropical
(Csa) (Csa)
≥ An underground "canopy" of fiberglass panels extends horizontally ≥ The site remained unknown to the Western world until 1812, when
as a ten foot cornice from the wall's top to keep water from soaking it was introduced by Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt.
Below ground level ≈ 70% Below ground level ≈ 0%
the ground around the house.
Surface to ground ≈ 60% ≥ The area is visited by flash floods and archaeological evidence Surface to ground ≈ 70%
≥ All practical needs and services (kitchen, baths, storage, etc.) are Depth ≈ 5m demonstrates the Nabataeans controlled these floods by the use of Depth ≈ ?m
satisfied by geometric containers placed into the ground. Sleeping is dams, cisterns and water conduits. These innovations stored water
in either some of the living areas or in the sleeping alcoves for prolonged periods of drought, and enabled the city to prosper
contained within the sides. from its sale.

# http://www.emilioambaszandassociates.com/portfolio/portfolio.cfm?Pid=81
# http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/42241331
# http://www.pushpullbar.com/forums/showthread.php?4480‐USA‐Emilio‐
# http://www.aquiziam.com/petra_images2.html
Ambasz
# http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petra

10
decaArchitecture | Antiparos, Paros, Greece| 2008
Residential Dry‐summer subtropical
(Csa)
≥ The design of the Aloni House took a cue from these existing
natural‐stone walls. The architectural intervention is located in a
Below ground level ≈ 20%
hollow between two mountain slopes and creates a bridge, so to
Surface to ground ≈ 30%
speak, between two contours. The house's sides disappear into the
Depth ≈ 0m
ground, blending the structure into the landscape. To the front, the
land falls away, allowing one of the house's long elevations a view of
the sea. There are five internal courtyards, which flood the rooms
with light and shield windows and doors from stormy rainwater.
Emilio Ambasz | Castellaneta all Mare, Puglia, Italy | 2003
Residential Dry‐summer subtropical
(Csa)
≥ Nuova Concordia is a residential resort community including such
amenities as a shopping complex, international hotel, conference
Below ground level ≈ 20%
center, sporting facilities, golf course and health spa.
Surface to ground ≈ 80%
≥ To preserve the primal beauty of this site, the architect situated the Depth ≈ ?m
buildings and roadways within landscaped berms and flowering
trellises so they appear as undulating hills in the landscape. The
result is a medium density development turned into a park‐by‐the‐
sea

# http://www.emilioambaszandassociates.com/portfolio/portfolio.cfm?Pid=8
# http://www.architonic.com/ntsht/camouflage‐architecture‐underground‐ 1
buildings/7000497 # http://www.pushpullbar.com/forums/showthread.php?4480‐USA‐Emilio‐
# http://www.deca.gr/#/en/project/265 Ambasz

11
Bacchus caves | Napa, California, U.S.A. | 2007 BNKR Arquitectura|Mexico city, Mexico | Concept
Residential, Leisure Mediterranean Leisure, Retail, Residential, Office Temperate with dry winters
(Csb) (Cwb)
≥ In the hillside directly behind The Meritage Resort lies Spa Terra, a ≤ Would work much better in a dry area in a northern, colder climate,
luxury spa located entirely underground in our 22000 square foot where solid ground keeps you warm, and the glass top acts as a
Below ground level ≈ 100% Below ground level ≈ 100%
Estate Wine Cave. This Napa Valley treasure is experience unto itself. greenhouse. In a hot climate putting a building underground
Surface to ground ≈ 100% Surface to ground ≈ 40%
Spa guests experience the hushed serenity of the cave, with natural removes many ventilation opportunities.
Depth ≈ 3m Depth ≈ 300m
stone and copper water features combined with Florentine
architecture and furnishings. The cave itself took 18 months to bore, ≥ The enormous complex is intended to get round the city’s planning
plumb and construct and houses Spa Terra , an Entertainment Cave laws, which state that buildings can be no more than eight storeys
seating up to 240 guests and the Trinitas high.
≥ One advantage of the unusual structure is that it would create space
in the centre of Mexico City, which is full of historic buildings which
cannot be demolished.

# BNKR Arquitectura http://www.bunkerarquitectura.com/

# http://www.bacchuscaves.com/Featured_Meritage.asp # http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article‐2048395/Earth‐scraper‐Architects‐
design‐65‐storey‐building‐300‐metres‐ground.html

12
Busmann & Haberer | Cologne, Nordrhein‐Westfallen, Germany | 1986 Nikken Sekkei Co | Osaka, Japan | 1996
Leisure Temperate with dry winters Leisure, Office Humid subtropical
(Cwb) (Cfa)
≤ Footstep sounds from pedestrians with high heels or noise from ≥ This gymnasium consists of a main arena with seating for 10,000, a
skateboards or rolling suitcases are transmitted from vibrating sub‐arena, facilities for judo and kendo, conference rooms, and a
Below ground level ≈ 100% Below ground level ≈ 90%
beams inside the concert hall. The reason for this is among other sports information area.
Surface to ground ≈ 70% Surface to ground ≈ 80%
things the defective flooring. For this reason, the place above the
Depth ≈ 30m ≥ For the purpose of environmental preservation and effective use of Depth ≈ 30m
theater is closed during performances. the premises, most of the building including the main arena (30m
high, 110m diameter) was built underground. The roof is covered
≥ The concert hall is build in the building complex of the Ludwig with a 1m‐thick layer of soil and plants, realizing an undulating park
Museum. rich in vegetation. Natural daylight and air circulation in all dry areas
was insured with energy‐saving techniques, such as a ventilation
system that utilizes heat‐insulation and isothermal effects specific to
underground building

# http://www.bhbfh.de/index.php?id=139&tx_kbshop_pi1[folderId]=66&tx_k # http://nett21.gec.jp/ESB_DATA/EN/building/html/esb‐087.html
bshop_pi1[v]=41&cHash=b0502e7b7be691c38c500943d5fae8d2#images|1 # http://www.nikken.co.jp/en/projects/cultural/sports/post‐1.html
# http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6lner_Philharmonie

13
Fan Shuning, Zhang Xin| China | Idea Loess Plateau, Shaanxi province, China| from the Han dynasty 206 B.C.
Residential Humid subtropical Residential Humid subtropical
(Cfa) (Cfa)
≥ China extracts an average of 2 billion tons of coal each year to satisfy ≥ Generally carved out of a hillside or excavated horizontally from a
its energy demands. Apart from the environmental concerns, coal central “sunken courtyard”
Below ground level ≈ 100% Below ground level ≈ 100%
mining is an extremely dangerous profession which leads to more Surface to ground ≈ 100% ≥ Little building material is needed, which is scarce in the loess Surface to ground ≈ 60%
than 6000 deaths every year. Depth ≈ 500m plateau. Depth ≈ 8m
≥ The main concept behind this proposal is to make use of the ≥ An estimated 40 million people in northern China live in Yaodongs.
immense coal mines as an underground city where miners will have
access to a better quality of life through modern housing and
recreational areas. This underground metropolis will coexist with
regular cities and will integrate them through an exchange of goods
and services.

# http://chinablog.cc/2009/02/yaodong‐cave‐dwellings‐on‐loess‐plateau/
# http://www.evolo.us/architecture/underground‐metropolis/
# http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaodong

14
Takashi Yamaguchi | Kyoto, Japan | 1998
Religious Humid subtropical
(Cfa)
≥ To maintain the integrity of the historic building, the new temple
was placed underground, if not rendered entirely invisible.
Below ground level ≈ 80%
Surface to ground ≈ 70%
Depth ≈ 6m
Taisei Corporation | Tokyo, Japan
Residential, Office, Infrastructure, Education Humid subtropical
(Cfa)
≥ In their infrastructure areas, they plan power generation, regional
heating, waste recycling and sewage treatment facilities. As shown
Below ground level ≈ 80%
in the accompanying pictures such underground space can be
Surface to ground ≈ 70%
spherical or cylinder‐shaped.
Depth ≈ 100m
≥ Construction costs have been studied in considerable depth, a
12floor office space (80m deep) would cost about €440 million and a
80‐m diameter and 60m high infrastructure space placed on 110 m
underground would run about €530 million. Total cost for a city of
100,000 is estimated at €3 billion, roughly half the price of one high‐
priced surface acre on Tokyo's Ginza strip!

# E. von Meijenfeldt, Below Ground Level, 2003

# http://www.drtomorrow.com/lessons/lessons7/20.html
# http://www.architizer.com/en_us/blog/dyn/21616/a‐necessary‐courtesy‐
# http://www.zey.com/Featured_2.htm
the‐glass‐temple/

15
Bohlin Cywinski Jackson | New York, U.S.A.| 2010 Tadao Ando | Naoshima, Kagawa Prefecture, Japan | 2004
Retail Humid subtropical Leisure Humid subtropical
(Cfa) (Cfa)
≥ To ensure that the museum does not affect the beautiful scenery of
Naoshima, the majority of the building is located underground.
Below ground level ≈ 80% Below ground level ≈ 100%
Despite its positioning, it receives an abundance of natural light,
Surface to ground ≈ 80% Surface to ground ≈ 70%
changing the appearance of the artworks and the ambience of the
Depth ≈ 5m Depth ≈ 10m
space itself with the passage of the days and the seasons.

# http://www.benesse‐artsite.jp/en/chichu/index.html
# http://www.apple.com/retail/fifthavenue/gallery/gallery4.html
# http://www.vuw.ac.nz/architecture‐
# http://intransit.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/04/01/apple‐store‐most‐
onlineteaching/courses/arch403/assign1/matthew_colson_chichu.pdf
photographed‐in‐new‐york/

16
Tadao Ando | Tsuna‐gun, Hyogo, Japan | 1991 Emilio Ambasz | Fukuoka, Japan | 1994
Religious Humid subtropical Leisure, Office, Retail, Storage Humid subtropical
(Cfa) (Cfa)
≤ The roof of the building consist of a pool, which has different ≥ Underneath the park's fifteen one‐story terraces lies over one
thermal properties than an earth covered roof. million square feet of multipurpose space containing an exhibition
Below ground level ≈ 40% Below ground level ≈ 30%
hall, a museum, a 2000‐seat proscenium theater, conference
Surface to ground ≈ 50% Surface to ground ≈ 30%
≥ Surprisingly, the lotus pool is actually the roof of the temple, which facilities, governmental and private offices, as well as several
Depth ≈ 7m Depth ≈ 12m
is built partly underground; to reach the sanctuary visitors descend a underground levels of parking and retail space
stairway which cuts the oval shape of the pool in two.

# Barker, M., 1986. Using the Earth to Save Energy: Four Underground
Buildings. Tunneling and Underground Space Technology
# http://www.greenroofs.com/projects/pview.php?id=476
# http://michiganmodern.org/architects‐designers‐firms/architects/gunnar‐
# http://www.archidose.org/Dec00/121100.html
birkerts/

17
Davis Buckley Architects and Planners| Washington, DC, U.S.A. | Concept Beyer Blinder Belle Architects | Shanghai, China | 2011
Leisure Humid subtropical Leisure Humid subtropical
(Cfa) (Cfa)
≥ Two glass garden‐like pavilions invite visitors in to the museum and ≥ The lobby is lit only by sunshine; in the evenings, artist Ding
fill the space below with natural light. Glass pavers set within the Below ground level ≈ 70% Shaoguang’s massive blue‐green rainforest painting will glow with Below ground level ≈ 80%
stone plaza and between the pavilions create a varied pattern of Surface to ground ≈ 70% LED light, echoing the stained‐glass windows of European cathedrals. Surface to ground ≈ 80%
light on the ceiling of the main atrium. Depth ≈ 4m Better still, the building plunges 26 meters underground, providing Depth ≈ 30m
≥ However there is no room for it to fit nicely into the square! At least, natural heating and air conditioning while cutting both its costs and
above ground. Davis Buckley’s proposal for the Museum is for two carbon footprint.
4,000‐square foot, above‐ground glass‐entry pavilions. These are
supposed to symbolize the visibility of law enforcement but also
provide an unobtrusive entrance on the historic square.

# http://www.homedesignfind.com/green/10000‐square‐foot‐underground‐
bunker‐will‐remain‐forever/ # http://www.beyerblinderbelle.com/?ID=196
# http://www.longhiarchitect.com/home.html

18
‐ | Springfield, Missouri, U.S.A. | ‐ Norman Foster | London, United Kingdom | 1999
Storage Humid subtropical Infrastructure, Retail Maritime temperature
(Cfa) (Cfb)
≥ Going underground is an environmentally friendly business decision ≥ The main reason for the station’s enormous dimensions was the
without the added cost of an aboveground green facility. Because great number of passengers predicted; as many as 50.000 daily.
Below ground level ≈ 100% Below ground level ≈ 100%
Springfield Underground is 100 feet below the surface, it is below These predictions have outgrown, with as many as 70.000+ today.
Surface to ground ≈ 100% Surface to ground ≈ 90%
the weather. There is no seasonal temperature variation, meaning Depth ≈ 30m ≥ Above ground there is little sign of the vast interior: two curved Depth ≈ 25m
that you spend a smaller, more uniform amount on utilities. And glass canopies at the east and west ends of the station cover the
there are no worries about weather‐related catastrophes the way entrances and allow daylight into the ticket hall below. A public park
aboveground facilities do. is situated between the two canopies, above the station concourse.

# http://www.greenroofs.com/archives/sg_jan‐apr04.htm
# http://www.springfieldunderground.com/
# http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Wharf_tube_station

19
Reardon Smith Architects | Surrey, London, United Kingdom| Concept Reardon Smith Architects | Surrey, London, UK | ?
Residential Maritime temperature Residential Maritime temperature
(Cfb) (Cfb)
≥ In addition to the green integrated into the building, the proposal ≥ Fridge is cooled by air coming underground through foundations.
includes the addition of extensive on‐site re‐vegetation and re‐
Below ground level ≈ 90% ≥ Skylight in roof lets in natural feeling light. Below ground level ≈ 0%
organization of existing spaces (such as parking) that will actually ≥ Solar panels for lighting, music and computing.
Surface to ground ≈ 70% Surface to ground ≈ 60%
leave the site even more eco‐friendly than it is now.
Depth ≈ 10m Depth ≈ 0m

# http://inhabitat.com/5‐star‐underground‐hotel‐in‐london/ # http://www.simondale.net/house/

20
Bill Lishman | Purple Hill, UK | 1988 J.R.R. Tolkien | New Zealand
Residential Maritime temperature Residential Maritime temperature
(Cfb) (Cfb)
≥ “To pursue building a house such as this the costs are higher than ≥ A fictional place where earth‐sheltered homes are build to house
building conventionally because it involves moving tons of earth and “Hobbits” in the Lord of the Rings trilogy.
Below ground level ≈ 0% Below ground level ≈ 0%
a great deal of work by skilled artisans. The costs will be recouped
Surface to ground ≈ 90% Surface to ground ≈ 90%
during the life of the house and in the long run it will be cheaper and
Depth ≈ 3m Depth ≈ 3m
more rewarding but the initial building takes a great deal of
dedication”.

# http://www.williamlishman.com/underground.htm # http://students.english.ilstu.edu/rwohara/creation/shire.html

21
Henket & Partners architecten| Arnhem, Gelderland | 2004 Marcel Breuer, Piero Nervi and Bernard Zehrfuss | Paris, France | ‐
Educational Maritime temperature Office, Leisure Maritime temperature
(Cfb) (Cfb)
≥ Application of special sun blocking cloths between trusses, to spread ≥ One of the three buildings that completes the headquarters site of
incoming light. The cloths are made of plasticized glass fiber. the UNESCO House in Paris, consisting of two office floors hollowed
Below ground level ≈ 100% Below ground level ≈ 100%
≥ For fire safety use is made of windows that open during a fire to Surface to ground ≈ 80% out below street level, around six small sunken courtyards, Surface to ground ≈ 70%
release smoke and heat out of the building, to create a smokefree Depth ≈ 10m containing many remarkable works of art and are open to the public. Depth ≈ 6m
environment for easier evacuation.
≥ Ventilation grids of 1.2m in height are applied in the glass facades to
release daily heat.
≥ Lowest floor at 10m depth.

# http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/about‐us/who‐we‐
are/history/paris‐headquarters/
# http://www.abt.eu/nl/projecten.asp?projectcatid=4&projectid=68
# http://us.franceguide.com/UNESCO‐IN‐
FRANCE.html?NodeID=1&EditoID=83582

22
I.M. Pei, Macary, Duval | Paris, France | 1993
Leisure
≥ Roughly at midpoint, the avenue is interrupted by a small upside‐
down glass pyramid, a witty reminder of its famous aboveground
Below ground level ≈ 100%
counterpart. On sunny days, it reflects all the colors of the rainbow.
≥ Certain measures create the feeling of being outside: the lighting
generates a kind of accelerated perspective, making the space seem
even higher and lighter, while the ventilation has been designed to
produce an occasional breeze, and even noticeable changes in
temperature.
Foster + Partners | Carmarthenshire, U.K.| 2000
Maritime temperature Educational, Retail, Leisure Maritime temperature
(Cfb) (Cfb)
≥ The buildings concrete substructure is banked to the north to
provide protection from cold northerly winds and is concealed by a
Below ground level ≈ 70%
covering of turf so that the three entrances on the northern side
Surface to ground ≈ 80% Surface to ground ≈ 50%
Depth ≈ 10m
appear to be cut discreetly into the hillside. Within this base are a
Depth ≈ 6m
public concourse, a café, educational spaces and service installation.
≥ To optimize energy usage, conditions inside and outside are
monitored by a computer‐controlled system. This adjusts the supply
of heat and opens glazing panels in the roof to achieve desired levels
of temperature, humidity and air movement.
≥ The principal heat source is a biomass boiler, located in the parks
Energy Centre, which burns timber trimmings. This method is
remarkably clean when compared with fossil fuels.
≥ Rainwater collected from the roof supplies grey water for irrigation
and flushing lavatories while waste from the lavatories is treated in
reed beds before release into a watercourse.

# E. von Meijenfeldt, Below Ground Level, 2003

# E. von Meijenfeldt, Below Ground Level, 2003
# http://www.atkielski.com/PhotoGallery/Paris/Louvre/InvertedPyramidSmall.
html # http://www.fosterandpartners.com/Projects/0861/Default.aspx

23
Make Architects | North West England, UK | 2009 Pattersons | Arrowtown, New Zealand | 2007
Residential Maritime temperature Residential Maritime temperature
(Cfb) (Cfb)
≥ The four‐bedroom, single‐storey family home is deliberately ≥ Each home will be between 367 and 700 square meters, with turf
embedded into the contours of the Pennine hillside to minimize the Below ground level ≈ 80% and pebble roofs. Below ground level ≈ 40%
impact on the surrounding moorland and has a roof of flora and Surface to ground ≈ 70% ≥ Kiwi tycoon Michael Hill wanted to build homes on and around his Surface to ground ≈ 40%
meadow grasses which flows seamlessly over the property and into Depth ≈ 3m golf course, but he didn’t want them to interfere with the views of Depth ≈ 3m
the landscape. the area.
≥ It has been designed to consume less energy than it uses; a ground
source heat pump, photovoltaic panels and a wind turbine will
generate on‐site renewable energy.

# http://www.makearchitects.com/#/projects/9067/
# http://dornob.com/uk‐celebrity‐plans‐on‐building‐huge‐underground‐eco‐ # http://www.pattersons.com/
home/

24
‐ | Holmpton, U.K. | 1954
Military Maritime temperature
(Cfb)
≥ On top of this the bunker was provided with two floors accounting
for an internal height of 22ft. Above this a steel shuttered fabrication Below ground level ≈ 100%
to form the ceiling and then the outer shell of 10ft of concrete. Surface to ground ≈ 100%
Depth ≈ 30m
# http://www.subbrit.org.uk/rsg/sites/h/holmpton/
Future Systems | Druidston, Pembrokeshire, U.K.| 1998
Residential Maritime temperature
(Cfb)
≥ The basic design of Malator is very simple, with essentially one room
inside, divided by prefabricated colored pods, while on the outside Below ground level ≈ 80%
the house melds with the surrounding landscape. Surface to ground ≈ 85%
Depth ≈ 3m
# http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malator
# http://www.s4c.co.uk/tycymreig/e_p8main.shtml
25
2030 Architects |Appleby, Cumbria, U.K. | ~2010
Residential Maritime temperature
(Cfb)
≥ Cumbria's first earth‐sheltered dwelling and the subject of a Channel
Four "Grand Designs" programme, demonstrated how such Below ground level ≈ 0%
construction methods can achieve a light and airy, zero heat dwelling Surface to ground ≈ 30%
for a similar cost to that of more conventional buildings. A simple Depth ≈ 5m
mechanical ventilation and heat recovery system, powered in part by
a small photovoltaic array aided by a 6kw wind turbine, provides a
healthy interior environment.
# http://www.2030architects.co.uk/#!residential/c20x9
# http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lnD7OD2svbI&feature=player_embed
ded
Denton Corker Marshall| Phillip Island, Victoria, Australia| 1989
Residential Maritime temperature
(Cfb)
≥ Buried into the dunes, the house is visible from the beach as a low
black line – the colour of the rocks – with ragged tufts of dune grass Below ground level ≈ 40%
above it. It is completely hidden from the landward side. The Surface to ground ≈ 60%
objective was to maintain a low profile and to have an internal focus Depth ≈ 3m
to the house, avoiding engagement with the surrounding context.
≥ The house is a long thin concrete box, black inside and outside, set
along one edge of a large square courtyard contained by three metre
high black concrete walls with dune berms ramped up to roof level
on three sides. On the open ocean elevation, windows are sized and
positioned within each room to act as picture frames to the views,
and the proportions and locations of the windows are determined by
these internal considerations. The courtyard offers protection from
winds and is a north facing sun trap in winter.
# http://www.architonic.com/aisht/marshall‐house‐denton‐corker‐
marshall/5100501
# http://www.dentoncorkermarshall.com/projects/phillip‐island‐house/
26
Gardner Stewart Architects | London, U.K. | 2001 LOM | Devon, U.K. | 2010 (Concept)
Leisure, Retail Maritime temperature Residential Maritime temperature
(Cfb) (Cfb)
≥ At an architectural level, these Passive Annual Heat Storage buildings ≥ An innovative 3,500 ft² low carbon home in the Devon countryside,
are amongst the most ecologically responsible in the country and Below ground level ≈ 80% designed to offer best practice in environmental sustainability. The Below ground level ≈ 50%
have been designed to minimise the demand on all natural Surface to ground ≈ 50% site is located close to an area of outstanding natural beauty, and the Surface to ground ≈ 65%
resources. They have the following key environmental attributes: Depth ≈ 3m house is built into a hillside to reduce visual impact and provide a Depth ≈ 1‐6m
≥ No heat input requirement means a corresponding dramatic high level of insulation.
reduction in emissions. Boreholes provide entire water ≥ The building uses a green roof, a triple glazed primary facade with
requirements, including lakes, irrigation & buildings solar shading, geothermal and waste air heat reclamation, rainwater
≥ Thermal stability across the year, due to entire building acting as storage and grey water recycling systems.
heat sump
≥ Low‐tech a/c with air naturally cooled & filtered by series of
underground pipes
≥ Virtually maintenance free beyond cleaning requirements
≥ Promotion of immense wealth of biodiversity in both the park and
buildings.

# http://inhabitat.com/spiky‐ecology‐pavilion‐sprouts‐in‐east‐london/\
# http://www.lom‐fdp.com/lom/portfolio/private‐client‐earth‐sheltered‐
# http://www.gardnerstewartarchitects.com/portfoliomenu/portfoliomenu.
house/
htm

27
‐ | Saenautasel / Glaumbaer, Iceland| 10th Century ‐ | Samseong‐dong , Gangnam‐gu area of Seoul, South Korea |‐
Residential Subarctic Retail, Infrastructure, Office, Recreation Hot Summer Continental
(Dsc) (Dwa)
≥ The Icelandic turf house was the product of a difficult climate, ≥ Asia's largest underground shopping mall with an area of about
offering superior insulation compared to buildings solely made of 85,000m2.
Below ground level ≈ 0% Below ground level ≈ 80%
wood or stone, and the relative difficulty in obtaining other
Surface to ground ≈ 60% ≥ In it resides hundreds of shops, the mall houses two food courts, a 16‐ Surface to ground ≈ 40%
construction materials in sufficient quantities. screen multi‐cinema complex, an aquarium attraction, a large
Depth ≈ 0m Depth ≈ 15m
≥ The floor of a turf house could be covered with wood, stone or earth bookstore, and the Kimchi Field Museum
depending on the purpose of the building. They contain grass on
their roofs.

# http://www.lifeinkorea.com/travel2//215
# http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_turf_houses
# http://www.coexmall.com/eng/index.asp

28
Byoungsoo Cho | Yangpyeong‐gun, Gyeonggi‐do, Republic of Korea | 2009 BWBR Architects, Inc. | University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, U.S.A.| 1983
Residential Hot Summer Continental Educational Warm Summer contintental
(Dwa) (Dwb)
≥ The house uses a geothermal cooling system with a radiant floor ≥ Earth‐sheltered building 95% underground
heating system under the rammed clay and concrete floor. Off‐peak
Below ground level ≈ 100% ≥ Winner 1983 ASCE Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement Below ground level ≈ 40%
electricity is used at night to heat the small gravel under the floor. Award.
Surface to ground ≈ 70% Surface to ground ≈ 50%
≥ A combination of passive cooling and geothermal tubes which are Depth ≈ 3m Depth ≈ 21m
buried in the earth around the buildings keep the temperature cool
in summer and warm in winter.

# http://www.archdaily.com/73831/earth‐house‐bcho‐architects/ # Barker, M., 1986. Using the Earth to Save Energy: Four Underground Buildings.
# http://inhabitat.com/soeul‐gains‐an‐underground‐house‐by‐byoung‐soo‐ Tunneling and Underground Space Technology
cho/tub2/ # http://www.mbjeng.com/home/projects/education/umn‐civil‐engineering

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Patkau Architects | Fallingwater, Pennysylvania, U.S.A.| 2010 ‐ Mined space | Kansas City, Missouri, U.S.A. | 1940s
Residential Hot Summer Continental Industrial, Storage, Office Hot Summer Continental
(Dfa) (Dfa)
≥ Patkau Architects won a competition run by the Western ≥ 5.060.000 m3, 4.5km2 manmade mines, claimed to be the world’s
Pennsylvania Conservancy, an institute that looks after the largest underground storage facility.
Below ground level ≈ 90% Below ground level ≈ 100%
preservation and maintenance of Fallingwater. Surface to ground ≈ 90% ≥ Currently 460,000 m³ is occupied and 920,000 m³ are "improved." Surface to ground ≈ 98%
≥ The six new units will serve as accommodation for participants in the Depth ≈ 3m About 13,000 m2 of available space are added each year as active Depth ≈ ?m
institute's further‐education programme. mining continues.
≥ The jury praised the subtle, yet progressive, character of the design, ≥ The mine naturally maintains temperatures between 18 to 20˚C
with its minimal impact on the landscape, which also met the criteria year‐round.
of sustainability and energy efficiency that had been set down. ≥ Fully sprinkler installed
≥ Constant relative humidity levels.

# http://www.architonic.com/ntsht/camouflage‐architecture‐underground‐
buildings/7000497 # http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SubTropolis
# http://www.patkau.ca/ # http://www.huntmidwest.com/subtropolis/movies/overview.html

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‐ |Toronto, Ontario, Canada | from 1900 Ushida‐Findlay Partnership | Tokyo, Japan | 1994
Retail, Infrastructure, Office, Recreation Hot Summer Continental Residential Hot Summer Continental
(Dfa) (Dfa)
≥ PATH is the largest underground shopping complex in the world with ≥ The more intimate rooms are enveloped as though within protective
371,600 m² of retail space. capsules, while the house itself folds around an inner courtyard. The
Below ground level ≈ 80% Below ground level ≈ 0%
≥ More than 50 buildings/office towers are connected through PATH. Surface to ground ≈ 70%
height of surrealism is its blue, egg‐shaped bathroom, which is at the
Surface to ground ≈ 40%
Twenty parking garages, five subway stations, two major department home’s center.
Depth ≈ 30m Depth ≈ 3m
stores, six major hotels, and a railway terminal are also accessible
through PATH.

# http://www.toronto.ca/path/ # E. von Meijenfeldt, Below Ground Level, 2003

# http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PATH_%28Toronto%29 # http://www.ushida‐findlay.com/project/soft‐and‐hairy‐house/

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‐ | Festus, Missouri, U.S.A.| ‐ Helmut Jahn| Chicago, U.S.A. | 2008
Residential Hot Summer Continental Educational Hot Summer Continental
(Dfa) (Dfa)
≥ This enormous mansion was made in an existing cave in the small ≥ The Mansueto Library houses cutting‐edge facilities for the
town of Festus, Missouri. Before it was a private residence, the cave preservation and digitization of physical books, as well as a high‐
Below ground level ≈ 0% Below ground level ≈ 60%
was used as a concert hall and a skating rink, among other things. density underground storage system with the capacity to hold 3.5
Surface to ground ≈ 80% Surface to ground ≈ 65%
Depth ≈ 0m million volume equivalents. Depth ≈ 10m

# http://webecoist.momtastic.com/2010/01/20/going‐green‐underground‐16‐ # http://www.architonic.com/ntsht/underground‐structures/7000652
subterranean‐eco‐buildings/9‐huge‐cave‐home‐missouri/ # http://www.murphyjahn.com/projects

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Hyvamaki‐Karhunen Parkkinen | Itäkeskus, Helsinki, Finland | 1993 Timo and Tuomo Suomalainen | Etu‐Töölö, Helsinki, Finland | 1969
Recreational Hemiboreal Religious Hemiboreal
(Dfb) (Dfb)
≥ The entire complex is built within the rocks, and the interior reflects ≥ The interior is excavated an built into the rock, but is bathed in
the contours of the exterior rocks. natural light entering through the glazed dome.
Below ground level ≈ 100% Below ground level ≈ 70%
≥ It is made for 1.000 visitors and can be used as a bomb shelter for Surface to ground ≈ 98% ≥ The church is frequently used as a concert venue due to its excellent Surface to ground ≈ 30%
3.800 people. Depth ≈ ?m acoustics which are ensured by the rough, virtually unworked rock Depth ≈ 5m
surfaces.

# http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temppeliaukio_Church
# http://www.hkp.fi/
# http://www.muuka.com/finnishpumpkin/churches/helsinki/chteh/church_c
# http://www.getunderground.fi/web/printpreview.aspx?printpreview=1&refi
hteh.html
d=148

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Gunnar Birkert | Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A. | 1982 ‐ | Wieliczka, Poland| 13th century
Educational Hemiboreal Leisure (Tourism) Hemiboreal
(Dfb) (Dfb)
≤ The energy performance of this building has not been superior to an ≥ Several hundreds of years of rock salt exploitation have shaped the
above‐grade building structure of the same size built for the same spatial arrangement of its excavated structure. Lying on nine levels,
Below ground level ≈ 50% Below ground level ≈ 100%
purpose concealed under the town, the mine reaches down to the depth of
Surface to ground ≈ 50% Surface to ground ≈ 100%
Depth ≈ 15m 327 metres. Subterranean Wieliczka consists of nearly 300 Depth ≈ 327m
≥ The legal research building for the University of Michigan is kilometres of corridors and almost 3,000 chambers. The tourist route
designed to protect the existing gothic revival buildings and accessible to visitors includes a 3.5‐kilometres section located from
courtyards. 64 to 135 metres below ground level.
≥ The Wieliczka mine functions also as a sanatorium, for the micro‐
climate in the underground spaces is particularly beneficial in the
treatment of upper respiratory disorders, asthma and allergy. In
1997 the Underground Rehabilitation and Medical Centre was
opened. Owing to the active therapy in the Centre, the patients
breathe in the air rich in sodium, calcium and magnesium chloride,
and thus efficiently get rid of some disorders caused by civilization.

# Barker, M., 1986. Using the Earth to Save Energy: Four Underground
Buildings. Tunneling and Underground Space Technology
# http://michiganmodern.org/architects‐designers‐firms/architects/gunnar‐ # http://www.hotelraider.com/salt‐mine‐wieliczka/
birkerts/

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John E. Barnard Jr. | Marstons Milss, Massachusetts, U.S.A. | 1972 Claus Bonderup | Jutland, Denmark | ~1970
Residential Hemiboreal Residential Hemiboreal
(Dfb) (Dfb)
≥ One‐fifth normal heating cost, 25% lower building cost, privacy from
neighbors and no unsightly damage to surrounding property
Below ground level ≈ 100% Below ground level ≈ 50%
Surface to ground ≈ 80% Surface to ground ≈ 80%
Depth ≈ 4m Depth ≈ 3m

# http://we‐make‐money‐not‐art.com/archives/2009/08/sorry‐out‐of‐gas‐
architectures.php # http://newspirit‐square1.blogspot.com/2010/06/claus‐bonderups‐vacation‐
# Popular Mechanics, June 1974 house.html

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Hans hollein | Salzburg, Austria | 1989 (concept) ‐ | Pionen, Stockholm, Sweden | 2008
Leisure Hemiboreal Storage Hemiboreal
(Dfb) (Dfb)
≥ 1989 Hans Hollein’s project was the winner of an international ≥ Originally a nuclear bunker: The data center is housed in what was
invited competition for a museum in the Mönchsberg—a large rock Below ground level ≈ 95% originally a military bunker and nuclear shelter during the Cold War Below ground level ≈ 100%
formation that is one of the principal features in the city of Salzburg. Surface to ground ≈ 90% era. The facility still has the code name from its military days: Pionen Surface to ground ≈ 100%
The singular feature of his design is the fact that the proposed Depth ≈ 50m White Mountains. Depth ≈ 30m
museum is enclosed entirely within the volume of the Mönchsberg ≥ Located in central Stockholm below 30 meters (almost 100 ft) of
rock on three levels. It has no visible façade. The gallery spaces on bedrock: The facility has 1110 sqm (11950 sq ft) of space and is
the upper two levels are covered by a vast system of skylights that located below 30 meters of solid bedrock (granite) right inside the
offer light to the subterranean museum. Building inside the rock city.
allows free, a–tectonic expansion in all directions. The project was ≥ 1.5 megawatt of cooling for the servers: Cooling is handled by
continued as a feasibility study for a “Salzburg Guggenheim” and, Baltimore Aircoil fans producing a cooling effect of 1.5 megawatt,
after optimizing the program in a transformed, reduced condition, enough for several hundred rack‐mounted units.
was being discussed as a location for cooperation between
Kunsthistorisches Museum, Wien, Guggenheim Museum, New York ≥ Work environment with simulated daylight and greenhouses: For a
and Eremitage, Sankt Petersburg. pleasant working environment the data center has simulated
daylight, greenhouses, waterfalls and a huge 2600‐liter salt water
fish tank.

# http://royal.pingdom.com/2008/11/14/the‐worlds‐most‐super‐designed‐
data‐center‐fit‐for‐a‐james‐bond‐villain/
# http://www.subbrit.org.uk/rsg/sites/h/holmpton/
# http://abdtechnology.com/our‐company/data‐centers/swedish‐facility‐
pionen‐stockholm‐sweden/

36
Montreal, Quebec , Canada| from 1962 Peter Vetsch | Dietikon, Switzerland | 1993
Retail, Infrastructure, Office, Leisure, Education Subartic Residential Tundra
(Dfc) (ET)
≥ With over 32 km of tunnels spread over more than 12 km2, ≥ The organic construction consists of shotcrete, with a 25 cm layer of
connected areas include shopping malls, apartment buildings, polymer bitumen and recycled glass foam on top.
Below ground level ≈ 80% Below ground level ≈ 0%
hotels, condominiums, banks, offices, museums, universities, seven
Surface to ground ≈ 70% ≥ Access to the houses is at the sides, entirely out of sight to the Surface to ground ≈ 40%
metro stations, two commuter train stations, a regional bus terminal benefit of their free forms.
Depth ≈ 30m Depth ≈ 0m
and the Bell Centre amphitheater and arena. ≥ Interior room such as kitchens and bathrooms are illuminated by
domed skylights.

# http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_city,_Montreal # E. von Meijenfeldt, Below Ground Level, 2003

# http://www.montreal.com/top/ # http://www.greenroofs.com/projects/pview.php?id=354

37
SeARCH & Christian Müller Architect | Vals, Switzerland | 2008 Moe‐Levorsen | Gjøvik, Oppland, Norway | 1993
Residential Tundra Leisure Tundra
(ET) (ET)
≥ The introduction of a central patio into the steep incline creates a ≥ World’s largest cavern hall for public use.
large façade with considerable potential for window openings.
Below ground level ≈ 100% ≥ An ice hockey rink located within a mountain hall, with a capacity for Below ground level ≈ 100%
≥ The viewing angle from the building is slightly inclined, giving an Surface to ground ≈ 70% 5,500 spectators, the hall also features a 25‐meter swimming pool Surface to ground ≈ 98%
even more dramatic view of the strikingly beautiful mountains on Depth 5m and telecommunications installations. Depth ≈ ?m
the opposite side of the narrow valley.

# http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u7CWjtM1938
# http://www.treehugger.com/sustainable‐product‐design/underground‐
# http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gj%C3%B8vik_Olympic_Cavern_Hall
houses‐vals‐house‐by‐search‐and‐christian‐ma14ller‐architects.html
# http://www.fjellhallen.no/gammel/engindex.html
# http://www.christian‐muller.com/CMA_Projects‐HVV.html

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